GENERAL PHYSICS

PHYSICS: Is the study of how matter behaves - from very large objects like stars and planets, to very small
atoms and molecules. Physics is also about different kinds of energy such as heat, light and electricity, and
how energy behaves.

LENGTH, MASS AND TIME

There are three basic physical quantities of measure - length, time, and mass. This means that all the
other measures were derived from one or a combination of these basic measures. Length has given rise
to: perimeter, area and volume. Time has given rise to period etc. Mass is the basis for weight. A
combination of these gives: speed, velocity, acceleration, force, density etc

The basic measures are given units which are an internationally agreed unit of measure. The scientifically
agreed system is called SI units (SystemeInternationale).

measurement SI unit Other units and multiples

1cm = 0.01 m

Length metre (m) 1mm = 0.001 m

1km = 1000 m

1 minute (min) = 60 s

time seconds(s) 1 hour (hr) = 3600 s

1day = 86400 s

1g = 0.001 kg

mass kilogram (kg) 1000 g = 1 kg

1 tonne (t) = 1000 kg

Common prefixes used for larger or smaller quantities include the following;

prefix symbol number Standard notation Examples

μ 1 microseconds(μs)

micro
1000000 6 microgram(μg)
10
1
 m 1 milliliters (ml)

milli
1000 3 millimeters (mm)
10
c 1 centimeters (cm)

centi
100 2 centiseconds (cs)
10
k kilometer(km)

kilo 1000 3 kilogram(kg)

10
kilojoules (kJ)

M megawatts (MW)

mega 1000000 6 megahertz(MHz)

10

LENGTH

The international unit of length is metre (m).

Instruments used for measuring length

Metre rule - A meter rule is divided into centimetres (cm), and millimetres (mm). This instrument can be
used for measuring distances with less accuracy. When we need to measure the length with greater
accuracy we use instruments like verniercallipers or micrometer screw gauge.

Ruler: A ruler can measure up to the nearest 1mm; it is accurate to the nearest mm. While using a ruler or
any other measuring instrument make sure that your eye is kept vertically above the mark you are
reading. This is to avoid parallax error.

Verniercallipers: it is used in the laboratory to measure small lengths and can measure length correct to
0.1mm or 0.0lcm, which is also called the accuracy of the instrument (smallest possible reading given by
the instrument)

2
This instrument is used for measuring lengths of smaller objects and also the internal (using inner jaws)
and external diameters (using outer jaws) of cylinders.

The value of one division on the main scale

is 1 mm. The value of one di vision on the
sliding scale is 0.1mm.

This means that the instrument can

measure lengths correct to 0.1 .mm or
0.01cm

How to take reading with a Verniercalliper

The main scale is read up to the zero mark of

the vernier scale to the nearest millimeter. The
main scale reading is 6.30 cm.

The vernier reading is taken by locating a

vernier division that is exactly aligned with a
main scale division. The 7 thvernier scale division
coincides with a main scale division. The vernier
scale reading is 7. Multipl y the vernier scale reading by 0.01 cm the smallest length measured by the
vernier scale and add this product (0.001cm×7=0.07cm) to the main scale reading of 6.30cm. Thus the
total reading is 6.37 cm.

Micro-metre screw gauge: used to measure thickness of an object, it measures lengths correct to 0.01
mm.

Linear scale or pitch scale is marked in 0.5mm

Head scale (circular) has 50 divisions on it.

When the gap is closed the zero mark on the circular scale stands over the linear scale and the ‘0’ mm
mark is just visible.

When the circular scale is given one full rotation the distance moved on the linear scale is 0.5mm.

Least count = 0.5/no of divisions on circular scale. = 0.5mm/50=0.01mm.

To find the thickness of an object it i s griped in the gap. When the gap is closed one can hear the clicking
sound on turning the ratchet.

3
Use only the ratchet to tighten. Do not use the thimble to tighten; this will permanently damage the
Instrument.

How to read the micrometer screw gauge

 Note down the last visible reading of the

linear scale as your linear scale reading
 Note down the division on the circular
scale that coincides with centre line
 Multiply this with 0.01mm to get the
circular scale reading
 Add the two values of linear scale and
circular scale to get the final reading e.g.
The reading on the linear scale is 7.5 mm. The reading of the circular scale is 14; the total reading is 7.5
mm +14 x 0.01mm= 7.64mm

ERRORS ASSOCIATED WITH MEASUREMENT

An error is a value of measured quantity which affects the correct value of the quantity being measured.
The error may over estimate or under estimate the correct value. It is advisable as a good practice to
always repeat measurements several times in experiments and then finding the average value to reduce
possible random errors. Example; when using a pair of vernier calipers to measure the thickness of a wire
repeat the procedure twice or thrice and use the two or three values to find the average thickness.

EXAMPLES OF POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERRORS

1. Error due to the instrument used (instrumental error) that is the instrument may be having an error on
its calibration, therefore the scale used becomes incorrect. An error due to improperly marked instrument
is called systematic error. This error can also be caused by the environment

2. Random error- this error which arises from observer’s estimate because the instrument will not be
having any calibrations from certain section of the scale. Averaging would reduce/minimize this error.

3. Parallax error-it is an error that accumulates as the

observer fails to position his/her point of focus on the
instrument being used correctly. For example, the
measurement of length using the rule note this, when
taking a reading from a rule the eye has to be positioned
at right angle to the place of the rule as shown below.

4
 4. Zero error-this error which exists in an instrument from manufacturer. The instrument
will be giving a reading of a certain value before any object ha s been placed/ button pressed to take a
reading, which is not at a zero mark before the measurement of an object. Negative zero error exists
when the instrument gives a reading before the zero mark. Positive zero error is when the instrument
gives a reading after or beyond the zero mark. The positive zero error is always subtracted from the
reading given by the instrument, while the negative zero error is added to the reading.

Illustraton: Positive Zero error

The scales of the micrometer screw gauge

shown has a positive zero error of +0.83mm.
The size of the object measured = 4.43 mm –
(+o.83 mm)

=4..43 mm – 0.83 mm

=3.60mm

5. Human re action time error-this is the error that arises if the reading is taken earlier or after an event
has taken place. This error is caused by inconsistency in the reaction time of a person, ie a person may
react too soon or later than the actual event being observed/monitored has occurred. Examples of
experiments which involve human reaction error include using the stopwatch while observing another
event. This error is treated by taking several readings and then finding the average value.

MASS

Mass is the amount of matter in an object.

SI unit is kilogram (kg)

Other units

5
milligrams (mg),gram (g),tonne=1000kg

Measuring instrument for mass

o Triple beam balance (correct to 0.1g)

o Electronic balance
o Bathroom scale etc

TIME

Time is measured using events which repeat themselves at fixed Intervals. Such events are said to be
periodic.

e.g.

Earth spinning about its axis

Earth revolving about the sun

Water dripping through a pinhole at the bottom of a vessel.

Units

Sl unit is the second (s)

Other units

1 year-time the earth takes to revolve round the sun

1 day time the earth takes to complete one rotation about its axis. = 24 hours

1 hour = 60 mins

1 min = 60 secs

In the lab time is measured using a stop watch which

has an accuracy of 0.01s. Below is a face a stop watch

Examples1

When a stop watch reads as shown on the

right, the time shown in seconds is;

23sec+ 0.34sec = 23.34sec

6
Example2

Time shown in seconds is;

(5 x 60sec) + 45se + 0.23sec =345.23sec

7
Determination of Period of a simple pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a small bob attached to one end of a string and suspended from a rigid
support. The distance between the point of suspension and the centre of the bob is the length of the
pendulum. When the pendulum bob is at rest the string is vertical. If the bob is pulled through a small
distance and then released, it will move to and fro for a while before coming to rest. One complete to and
fro motion is one oscillation. The diagrams below show one complete oscillation.

The time taken to complete one oscillation is

called the period [T]. The period of a simple
pendulum depends on the length of the string
and the gravitational field strength. Usually
these periods are very small. Therefore to
determine period it is helpful to measure the time taken to complete a few oscillations and this time is
divided by the number of oscillations to calculate the period.

time taken for number of oscillatio ns (t N )

Period (T ) 
Number of oscillatio ns(N).

DETERMINATON OF PERIOD OF PENDULUM

8
Procedure:

a) Set up the experimental apparatus as shown above left.

b) Measure the length of the pendulum using a ruler to 50 cm.

c) Displace the bob through a small angle  and release it to set the bob in motion.
d) Using a stop-watch record twice the time it takes the bob to make 5 or 10 oscillations t5 or t10 in
seconds.
e) Calculate period Tof the pendulum for each attempt and find the average period Tav.
f) Record all of your results in a suitable table. Include table headers with appropriate units.

Attempt Time for 10 oscillations/s Period T/s

Average period (Tav)

9
TITLE: EFFECT OF LENGTH ON PERIOD OF PENDULUM

The effect of length on the period of a simple pendulum can be investigated by setting a simple pendulum
and then vary its length while recording the corresponding period.

AIM: To investigate how a change in length of string affects the period of a simple pendulum.

HYPOTHESES:

 Increase in length increase the period

 Decrease of length decreases the period
Variable control: length of pendulum is changed

mass of bob is kept constant

angle of displacement of bob is also kept constant

Procedure:

g) Set up the experimental apparatus as shown above.

h) Measure the length of the pendulum using a ruler to 30 cm.
i) Displace the bob through a small angle  as shown above and release it to set it in motion.
j) Using a stop-watch record twice the time it takes the bob to make 10 oscillation t10 in seconds.
k) Increase the length of the pendulum at intervals of 10 cm and repeat steps b) to d) above until
reaching length equal to 100 cm.
l) Calculate period T1 and T2 of the pendulum for each length l and find the average T.
m) Record all of your results in a suitable table. Include table headers with appropriate units.
n) Draw a suitable conclusion from your results about the effect of changing length l on period T.

Length /cm Time for

10 oscillations Period (T1 &T2 )/s Average period T /s

100.0

90.0

10
80.0

…….

Discussion:

The results show that period of the pendulum is affected by the length of the string. When the length
of the string is increased it takes a longer time for an oscillation to be completed but a shorter
pendulum takes less time to complete an oscillation. The time for 10 oscillations was recorded twice to
minimize human reaction error by finding the average period for each length. It must be noted that
period does not depend on the mass of the bob.

Conclusions:

An increase in length increases the period whereas a decrease in length decreases the period.

Period also depends on acceleration due to gravity g.

Note: Experiments have shown that Period does not depend on the mass of the bob.

11
Area

Area is a measure of the surface. It tells you how big or small a surface is. SI unit is square meter (m2 ) i.e.
the area of a square of side 1m. You can think of a desk top 1m long and 1 m wide. The area of such a
surface is 1 square meter.

We do use other units also to measure area. For instance we use square kilometer (km 2 ) to express the
area of a country.

1Km2 = 1000000 m2

Do you know what the area of Botswana is?

For measuring smaller areas we use square centimeter (cm2 ) and square millimeter (mm2 )

1cm2 is the area of a square of side 1 cm.

1mm2 is the area of a square of side 1mm

1m2 =100x100 =10 000cm2

1km2 = 1000km x 1000km= 1000000m2 = 10 6 m2

1cm2 = 10mmx10 mm = 100 2 mm

Volume

Volume is space occupied by an object.

SI unit is cubic metre m3 .

Cubic metre is the space occupied by a block of length 1 m height I m and breadth lm.

i.e. 1m3 =1m x 1m x 1m

A cubic metre is quite a large volume. So other units may be used for smaller volumes.

Other units

Cubic centimetre (cm3 ) is the space occupied by a block of length 1cm height 1cm and breadth 1cm. How
many such blocks will fit into a box of length 1 m width 1 m and height 1m?

1m3 = 100cm x 100cm x100cm =10 6 cm3

1cm3 = 10mm x10mm x 10mm = 10 3 cm3

To measure the volume of a liquid we often use litres .

12
Litres (1l) = 1000cm3 or 1L = l000ml

Volume of liquids

In the laboratory the volume of liquids is measured using a

measuring cylinder. They are available in different ranges
and are calibrated in cm3 .

Volume of irregular objects (such as stone)

13
 Use measuring cylinders and/ or displacement can.
Fill a measuring cylinder with water to any specific
mark you like. Read the volume. Then tie the stone
to one end of a string and gently lower it into the
measuring jar until it is completely submerged. Take
the new reading of the water level. The difference
between the two readings is the volume of the stone

In the above diagram the original water level is at the

50 cm3 mark. When the solid is submerged the level
of water rises to the 73 cm3 mark. What is the
volume of the solid?

If the solid object is large and cannot be introduced into the measuring cylinder, use a displacement can
to determine the volume,

Place the can on a flat surface and

fill it completely with water until
you see a few drops of excess
water flows out through the spout.
NB Do not shake the table. Wait
until all the excess water has come
out. Then keep a measuring
cylinder below the spout and
gently lower the object into the
can until it is completely below the
water. Collect all the displaced
water in the measuring cylinder. The volume of the liquid collected is equal to the volume of the object.

MASS

Mass is the amount of matter in an object.

SI unit is kilogram (kg)

Other units

14
Milligrams (mg)

Gram (g)

Tonne=1000Kg

Measuring instrument for mass

o Triple beam balance (correct to 0.1g)

o Electronic balance
o Bathroom scale etc

DENSITY ( )

Density is a measure of mass per unit volume OF A SUBSTANCE. Density is constant since it is a propriety
of a substance.

mass(m)
density (  ) 
volume(V )

m
 mass in kilograms, volume in m3 therefore
V

SI unit is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3 )

Other units

g/cm3

The density of water is 1 g/cm3

Note that 1 g/cm3 is not equal to 1kg/m3

In fact 1g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3

15
 MOTION

DEFINATION OF TERMS

Distance- is the change of position of a body (length traveled by a body between certain points).Distance
is a scalar because it has no direction.

Displacement-is defined as the distance moved in a stated direction. Displa cement is a vector quantity
since it has direction. Determine the following for a person traveling from Kopong to Molepolole passing
through Metsimotlhabe.

Example 1.

a) Total distance traveled.

b) Displacement.

Example2. An athlete competes in 400m flat race and takes 44 seconds.

Each of the section SP, PQ, QR and RS is 100 m in length. S/F represents start
and finish respectively.

Determine the following;

a) Total distance traveled on completing the race is 400m.

b) Displacement of athlete on completing the race is 0m since the athlete has returned to the
original position.

c) The athlete has a greater displacement when at position Q than at P and R.

Speed (v)-is defined as the rate of change of distance moved. Speed is a scalar quantity.

The SI unit for speed is meter per second (m/s)

16
The speed of an object is given by the equation.

distance traveled(s)
Average speed( ) 
time taken (t)

There is a reason why average is used. Imagine a journey in a car from Gaborone to Molepolole, a total
distance of 50km. if a journey took 2hrs then the speed would be

distance(s) 5okm km
speed (v)    25
time(t) 2h h

The speed of the car was 25km/h.

But this does not mean that the speedometer will constantly be reading 25km/, the car may slow down
for goats on the road, it may speed up on an open and clear road or it may stop at Mmanoko. So this
equation gives us the averagespeed for the whole journey, not the speed at any specific point.

Velocity (v or u)-is defined as the rate of change of distance moved in a specified direction (or, the rate of
change of displacement). Velocity is a vectorquantity, it has both size and direction.

The SI unit for velocity is meter per second (m/s)

If a body travels with a constant speed in a straight line then it has constant velocity. But if its direction
changes then its velocity also changes. If a man walking his dog in the park walks around a tree then his
velocity has changed even if his speed remains constant.

The equation for velocity is very similar to that for speed and is shown below

distance moved in stated direction (s)

Velocity( ) 
time taken(t)

When stating velocity you should also give direction.

17
Acceleration( a)-is defined as the rate of change of velocity. Acceleration is a vector.

The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per second per second or metre per second squared ( m/s2 or ms-2 )

But, acceleration can be found by using the equation

change in velocit y
Acceleration 
time taken for the change

final velocity(v) initial velocity(u)

Acceleration(a) 
time taken for change (t )

vu
a
t

Example1

An air Botswana aero plane accelerates from rest to a velocity of 100m/s just before take off. If it is on the
runway for 12s, find its acceleration

Stage 1: write all the given quantities and the related unknown quantities

initial velocity (u) = 0m/s

final velocity ( v ) = 100m/s

time (t ) = 12s

acceleration ( a ) = ?

Stage 2:write appropriate equation

final velocity(v) initial velocity(u)

Acceleration(a) 
time taken for change (t )

vu
a
t

Stage 3: Substitute the quantities and evaluate

18
 100  0 100
a   8.33333......
12 12

=8.33 m/s 2

Stage 4: Write the answer with SI unit(s)

The acceleration of the car is 8.33 m/s2 (correct to 3 sig. fig.)

Example 2

A car is traveling at a constant velocity of 80km/h, when suddenly a cow wanders into the road. The driver
steps on the brakes paddle an d reduces her speed to 20km/h. If it took 5s to reduce her speed, find her
deceleration in m/s 2 .

1.initial velocity (u) = 80km/h

final velocity (v) = 20km/m

[realize that there is need to change the hours into seconds and the kilometers into meters]

Therefore

u = 80x100/3600 = 22.22m/s

v = 20x1000/3600 = 5.57m/s

t = 5s

vu
2. a 
t

5.57  22.22
3. a 
5

4. a= -3.33m/s 2

The minus sign tells us the car is slowing down or it is decelerating.Thus the deceleration is 3.33m/s2

VELOCITY TIME-GRAPH

Velocity time-graphs give us information about the velocity of an object over a specified time. Such graphs
can tell how fast a car was moving, its acceleration, and its deceleration when it stopped and the distance
traveled.

19
The graph shows part of a journey from SelibePhikwe junction to Mmadinare Senior taken by car driven
by Tumisang.

First he uniformly accelerated to his maximum velocity. He then traveled at this maximum velocity until
he had to slow down uniformly to avoid some stray goats in the road. He again accelera ted non-uniformly
to a higher maximum velocity and stayed at this speed until he had to stop at a police road block near
Suping junction.

Summary of motion sections

OA – car is accelerating uniformly to maximum velocity

AB - car is traveling at a constant velocity

BC - car decelerate uniformly to avoid the stray goats

CD - car accelerating uniformly to a higher maximum velocity

DE – car is traveling at constant velocity

EF – car decelerates uniformly to a stop at a police road block.

GRADIENT of Velocity/Speed- time graph = ACCELERATION

Gradient = change in y values / change in X values

= change in velocity/change in time

But change in velocity/time = acceleration

20
Therefore the gradient of the velocity/speed- time graph gives acceleration of an obj ect.

A steep gradient or slope gives a large accelerationand a shallow gradient gives a small acceleration.

Line R represents the motion of an object moving with the greatest acceleration whilst P is for an object
with the le ast acceleration

21
VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS FOR UNIFROM AND NON UNIFROM MOTION

AREA UNDER Velocity/Speed – time Graph = DISTANCE Traveled.

The area under the graph gives you the distance traveled by the moving body. It is very convenient to split
your graph into triangles, squares and rectangles as it is easier to find the area of this shapes

The example below gives the distance traveled in the 5s.

Distance =Area of triangle =

1 base  height 5s  50m / s

  125m
2 2

22
*always make sure that your units are constant. If velocity is in m/s then time should be in seconds. If velocity
is in km/h then time should be in hour.

23
 DISTANCE –TIME GRAPH

Another type of graph that you should be aware of is the distance-time graph. This shows the distance moved
by an object with time.

GRADIENT of distance-time graph = SPEED

Gradient = y/x = distance /time = (y 2 –y1 ) /( x 2 – x1 )

= (50 – 0) m / (5 -0)s

= 50m/5s

=10m/s

The unit of this gradient is the same as unit of speed. Hence

The gradient of a distance-time graph gives the speed of a body

24
 EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

There are five fundamental quantities you can know about the motion of a body.
These are:

s – displacement (m)

u – initial velocity (m/s)

v – final velocity (m/s)

a – acceleration (m/s 2 )

t – time (s). Given values of 3 of the following quantities displacement ( s), initial
velocity (u), final velocity (v), acceleration (a) and time (t) one can calculate the other two using the above
equations.

NB: the equations apply only to uniform accelerating motion and the qua ntities should always be in SI units.

Example1

A motorcycle accelerates form rest to 5m/s in 5s.

(a) What is its final velocity?

Solution

u = 0m/s, v = 5m/s, t = 2s, a =?

vu
a
t
25
 5m / s  0m / s 5m / s
 
2s 2s

 2.5m / s 2

The acceleration of the motorcycle is 2.5 m/s 2 .

Example 2

A body starts from rest and moves with a uniform acceleration of 2m/s 2 in a straight line.

(a) What is the velocity after 5s?

(b) How far has it traveled in this time?

Solution

a) u = 0m/s, v =?, t = 5s, a =2m/s 2

v  u  at
 0m / s  (2m / s 2  5s )
 10m / s

The velocity after 5s is 10m/s.

b) u = 0m/s, v =10m/s, t = 5s, a =2m/s 2

1 2
s  ut  at
2
1
 (0  5)  (  2  5  5)
2
 0  25  25

It travels 25m in 5s.

26
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY g

If an object is dropped from a great height its velocity increases. This increase in velocity is acceleration. So
what is it that makes a falling body accelerate?

Think about what happens when the accelerator pedal of a vehicle is pressed, the velocity increase. This is
because the engine is providing a force which increases the velocity. The same is true for a falling body. There
must be a force which increases the velocity. This force is called the force of gravity.

The force due to gravity is roughly the same at all points on the earth (g = 10N/kg). But it does varying a small
way. This is because the earth is not a true sphere, it is flattened near the poles. The acceleration due to
gravity does vary around the world. At the equator it is slightly less than at the poles.

NB: force of gravity makes things accelerate and whenever an object accelerates there is a change in velocity.

The force of gravity makes things accelerate at the same rate. Just as the engine of a car accelerates (change
in velocity), the force of gravity makes a falling body accelerate downwards. This acceleration is constant near
the Earth’s surface and it is 9.8 ms-2 usually rounded to 10ms -2 for easy calculations. All objects near the Earth
accelerate at this constant rate when the effect of air resistance (friction) is ignored. This is an ideal situation
called FREE FALL.

The equations of motion can be adjusted to solve motion problems under free fall as shown below. A falling
object accelerates thus a = g while a rising object decelerates hence a = -g.

Equation Falling object Rising object

v = u+at v = u+gt v = u -gt

s = 1/2(v+u)t s = 1/2(v+u)t s = 1/2(v+u)t

s = ut + 1/2at2 s = ut + 1/2gt2 s = ut - 1/2gt2

27
v2 = u2 + 2as v2 = u2 + 2gs v2 = u2 – 2gs

Example: A stone is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 40 ms -1 . Ignoring air resistance and taking
g= 10ms-2 , determine;

a) the maximum height reached.

Sol: at maximum height object stops
moving up; v= 0ms-1 , but u= 40ms-1 , g=
10ms-2 , t=?, s =? ;

v2 = u2 – 2gs

s= (v2 - u2 )/ (-2g)

= (0 2 -40 2 )/ (-2*10)

= -1600/-20

= 80m

Ans: the maximum height reached = 80m

b) the time taken to reach maximum

height
sol: v= 0ms-1 , but u= 40ms-1 , g= 10ms-2 , t=?,

v = u –gt

t= (v-u)/-g

= (0-40)/-10

= -40/-10

=4s

Ans: it takes 4s to reach maximum height.

c) velocity after 8 seconds.

Sol: v=?, but u= 40ms-1 , g= 10ms-2 , t=8s;

v = u –gt

= 40 – 10*8

= 40-80

= -40ms-1
28
The minus sign implies that the ball was now moving in the opposite direction.

Ans; velocity after 8 seconds is 40 ms -1 downwards. (remember to state direction of velocity)

Note the symmetry of the motion as shown above.

29
 Terminal Velocity

When a parachutist jumps out of airplane the force of gravity pulls him toward the earth. His initial velocity is
zero, but he soon speeds up. He starts to accelerate due to gravity.

A force is required to make a body accelerate (this an example of Newton’s first law)

The only force acting on the parachutist when he first just from plane is the gravity, or the weight.

This force makes him accelerate up to a terminal velocity of about 60m/s (216km/h). At this point he really
needs the help of his parachute.

As he accelerates the force due to air resistance starts to increase. But if

Weight > air resistance

Then there is a resultant force and he accelerates downwards. But after some time air resistance increases
and

Weight = air resistance

There is no resultant force (again see Newton first law) and he stops accelerating. He moves with a constant
velocity

This is fastest velocity which the parachutist can move at, so we call this terminal velocity.

But remember that this velocity is about 60m/s! He still has to slow down. The way in which he decelerates is
to open his parachute.

Weight < air resistance

There is now a resultant force upwards so parachutist slows down or decelerates

Eventually the two forces are again equal to each other and he reaches a new terminal velocity of about
10m/s. This the speed at which he will land and hopefully averting a fatal accident.

30
Air resistance is a form of friction, it is an upward force which opposes the downward force thus slowing down
the rate at which the parachutist accelerates.

Remember: if there is no resultant force then a body cannot accelerate.

It must ther efore move with a constant velocity, in this case we call it
the terminal velocity orsteady speed.

Illustration: Terminal velocity.

Note: Bodies falling through a liquid also experience resistive force due
to viscosity (viscous forces) of the liquid.

Therefore all bodies falling trough a fluid experience terminal or steady velocity after sometime.

A racing car tested on a straight level track starts from rest and accelerates at a constant rate to reach a
velocity of 50 m/s in 2 seconds.

31
 CIRCULAR MOTION

CENTRIPETAL FORCE

When you whirl a ball around in a horizontal circle at a steady speed, an inward force is needed to make the
ball to follow a circular path. The tension on the string provides this force, without it the ball would travel in a
straight line. The inward force needed to make an object to move in a circular path is called centripetal force

Illustration A ball being whirled around

The magnitude of the centripetal force is dependent on the fol lowing

 mass of the ball

 Speed of the object
 The radius of the circle

Centripetal force is given by the equation

mv 2
F
r
where m is mass of the object in kilogram, v is the velocity in metre per second and r is the radius of curvature
of the circular path in metre.

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

The velocity of the ball in circular motion is always changing

because the direction of motion is always changing, therefore the
ball is accelerating. The direction of the velocity component is
always tangential to the centre of the circle at every point. The ball
accelerates towards the centre of the circle. But the ball never gets
closer to the centre of the circle, this is because the object is
constantly moving inwards from the position it would have had if it
travelled in a straight line.

The arrows show the direction of the vectors acting on the ball.

32
 MASS, WEIGHT, CENTRE OF GRAVITY and STABILITY

MASS

Mass is the amount of matter in an object.

The SI unit of mass is the kilogram . Mass is a scalar quantity since it described by magnitude and unit only
but no direction.

INERTIA is the reluctance of a body to change its state of motion. An object at r est offers some r esistance
to set in motion while a moving object also tends to oppose any change that attends to stop it. Evidently it
is more difficult to set in motion an object with more mass object than a less massive object. The same is
true to stop a massive body than a less massive body both travelling at the same velocity. As a result
inertia is said to be directly proportional to mass i.e. the more mass the more inertia and vice versa.

WEIGHT

Weight is the amount of gravitational pull acting on an object. The SI

unit of weight is the newton (N) because it is a force.

Weight is a result of the force of gravity hence it is a vector. The

instrument for measuring weight is a forcemeter and a common type
is the spring balance.

Weight and mass are different though in daily life conservation

people often erroneously refer to one qua ntity in place of the other.

The weight of the object on the diagram shown left = …………… [2]

Differences between mass and weight

1)mass does not depend on gravity i.e. weight is place dependen t

since it is affected by g since force of gravity varies with place. (this
explains why an object thrown up[with same initial energy] rises to a greater height at th e moon than on
earth )

2) mass is a scalar whereas weight is a vector.

RELATIONSHIP between Mass and Weight (W = mg)

33
The weight of an object depends on gravitational pull and mass through the equation shown below;

weight ( w)  mass(m)  gravitational field strength( g )

w  mg

Where w is weight in newtons (N), m is mass in kilograms (kg) and g is force of gravity acting on unit mass
(g = 10N/kg)

The following quantities may be useful when answering the questions below. (

g  1.6 N ,g  10 N ,g  4N )
moon kg Earth kg Mars kg

a) Find the mass of an object at the moon whose weight is 160N

[2]

b) What would be the mass of the same object measured on earth? [1]

c) Find the weight of the same object o earth. [2]

d) Explain giving details whether an object would weigh less at the Mars or on Earth. [2]
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………

34
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY/MASS

Centre of gravity/mass is a region in an object where the weight/mass seems to be concentrated.

Or

Centre of gravity is a position through which the Earth’s gravitational pull acts.

Centre of gravity for an REGULAR Object of UNIFROM Mass Distribution

The c entre of gravity or mass of a regular object of uniform mass distribution lies exactly at its centre. This
centre of the object(centre of gravity) can be located by two methods t namely;

i) Balancing : The object is pivoted on a sharp edge until it balances. This shows that the moment of
the weight about the pivot is zero ie no turning effect since the weight acts directly at the pivot.

ii) Symmetry: the intersection of two lines of symmetre is the centre of the object and this is the
position of centre of gravity (cog). Perpendicular and or angular bisector can be used to locate the
centre of a regular object.

Centre of gravity for an IRREGULAR lamina- plumbline method

The centre of gravity for an irregular lamina can be deter mined by the PLUMBLINE method as illustrated
below.

Procedure:

1. set up the experiment as shown

on the right.

2. hang the lamina using pin

inserted through one of the pin
hole 1. (the lamina should be able
to swing freely)

3. Attach a string supporting a

small mass from the other end.

4. Let lamina come to rest with

the string resting vertically

35
downwards. (thecentr e of gravity lies along the vertical line represented by the string i.e. along the c.o.g
off the bob)

5. Mark by pencil point P directly under the string on the lower side of the lamina.

6. Join the centre of the pin hole to point P by a straight line.

7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 from another pin hole.

8. The centre of gravity of the lamina is the intersection of the lines drawn from the pin holes to their
corresponding marks.

STABILITY

Stability is the ability of a body to maintain its balanced position. The object should always go back to its
original position when tilted to considerable angle without toppling.

The c entre of gravity of an object in equilibrium always falls within the plane of its support or base. When
the c entre gravity falls outside the base area the object topples or falls over. The r estoring moment about
the edges of object providing the pivot should always be enough to turn back the object to its balanced
position.

Factors Affecting stability

It can be demonstrated that stability of an object is affected by two factors namely;

a)Position of centre of gravity: An object

with a higher centre of gravity is always less
stable than one with a lower c.o.g but having
36
the same base area. An explanation can be made in terms of the restoring moments provided by the
weight of the objects taken by the edges which acts as the pivot. (this is left to the learner to verify).
Racing cars are made much lower than ordinary vehicles to make then more stable.

Bare area: The amount of base

supporting an object is vital in
improving its stability. Large based
objects are more stable than those
with small base but having the same
position of c.o.g.

Summary: the stability of an object can be improved by lowering its position of c.o.g and making its base
support large.

Forms of Equilibrium

There are three equilibrium posi tions for a

objects as shown in the diagram.

a) Stable equilibrium is where an object

can go back to its original stable position
when tilted slightly and then released.

b) Un-st able equilibrium is when an

object topples when tilted slightly.

c) Neutral equilibrium is where the position of centre of gravity always falls within the same position
along the plane of support of the object.

B1. The diagram below shows the same object of uniform mass distribution in different orientations.

(i) In which orientati ons A or B is the object least

stable? Explain!………………………………….…………

…………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………...…... [3]

(ii) Mark the approximate position of the centre of gravity in orientation B. [2]

37
B2. A coin is placed on a card on top of a beaker. If the card is pulled away quickly, the coin does not move
sideways but falls into the beaker.

Which property of the coin makes this possible?

A. density

B. volume

C. inertia

D. thickness.

B3.

(a) A small pin is fixed to the edge of a bench. A triangular piece of

card with a small hole in each corner is hung on the pin from
corner A and allowed to settle, as shown in Fig. below left. A
plumb-line is then hung from the pin and the vertical line AP is
marked on the card.

This procedure is then repeated with the card hanging from C and
the vertical line CQ is marked. After this, the
card is as shown in Fig. below right.

(i) draw the vertical line that would be obtained if the card were hung from B,

(ii) Clearly mark the centre of mass of the card using a dot labelledG. [2]

B4. Fig. below shows two wooden blocks standing on a hinged board with a rough surface.

38
The board is slowly tilted in the direction of the arrow. The blocks do not slip. State which block f alls over
first, and explain why.

……………........................................................................................................................ ................................

…………....................................................................................................................................................... [2]

39
 General Physics

Forces

Introduction
It is not clear what a force exactly is, but a push a pull and a twist are examples. Only Sir Isaac Newton
had a clear notion of exactly what a force is, hence, the SI unit of force is Newton (N), in his honour.

Effects of forces
Although are not clear what a force is, we know what a force can do. When a force is applied to a body it
can cause the change of

a) shape
b) size (length)
c) motion

These changes are called effects of forces and we are going to look at each of them in more detail.

a) Effects of forces on shape: - when a can is hit with a hammer it changes shape. So does a piece of
chewing gum when one bites it.

b) Effects of forces on size (length): - most objects change length when a force is applied to them,
e.g. when a sponge is squashed it decreases length. When a rubber band (or spring) is pulled it
increases in length. In general, the length of elastic objects increases when a force pulls at them.
This increase of length from the original is called extension.

i.e. extension, e = new length, l – original length, lo

e  l  lo 1

Relationship between the force and the extension that it causes

1 We will use this notation throughout this text.

40
 The relationship between the force and the extension it causes was first determined empirically (i.e.
experimentally) by Robert Hooke, hence, the findings are now known as Hooke’s law. Next is the
experiment similar to the one conducted by Robert Hooke which we also did in class.

Experiment: Relationship between the force and the extension it causes

Aim: - to determine

aim i) the relationship between the force and the extension it causes
aim ii) the force constant of the spring
Apparatus

- spring (to be extended)

- metre rule (to measure the length)
- mass hanger (to hang the masses)
- five 100g slot masses (to supply the force)
- retort stand and clamp (for support)

Set up: - the apparatus were set up as shown below.

Procedure

The original length, lo, of the spring was read from the metre rule (with the mass hanger still hung) 2 from
the spring and recorded. A 100g, mass, m, was hung on the spring and the new length, l, of the spring
read from the metre rule and recorded. The extension, e, due to the mass, m, was calculated from
formula, e = l – lo, and recorded. The force, F, (in newtons) due to the mass, m, was calculated from

2 This is a precaution to ensure that the spring is vertically straight when we take the new length.

41
 m  10
formula, F  and recorded. This procedure was repeated for masses, m = 200g, 300g, 400g and
1000
500g.

Results and analysis

Results

All the results were recorded below.

Original length, lo = cm

Table of results 3

mass, New length, Extension Force

m l e = l – lo m  10
F
(g) (cm) (cm)
1000

(N)

100

200

300

400

500

Analysis

i) Students plotted a graph of extension, e, (cm) against force, F (N).

NB: Students are to skip a whole page where they are going to stick their graphs.

3 The rest of the results you will fill with your teacher as you do the experiment.

42
 ii) From the graph the students should determine the slope (Gradient), G, and hence the force
1
constant of the spring, k, from formula k  . The unit of G above is cm/N hence the
G
units of, K is N/cm

Discussions

Students are to complete the table below by stating the possible source(s) of error and the precautions
they took to minimise the effects of such errors.

Possible sources of error Precautions taken

The spring not originally straight The original length was read with the mass hanger
hung to straighten the spring

Parallax error in the reading of length

Conclusion

conclusion i) The extension of a spring was found to be directl y proportional to the force that causes
it. (Hooke’s law)

conclusion ii) The force constant of the spring, k, was found to be: - k = N/cm

Limitations of Hooke’s law

Further work on loads and extension showed that; if the load is increased gradually, there will come a
point where Hooke’s law is disobeyed i.e. the extension-load graph will cease to be a straight line. At this
point the spring will still return to its original length when the load is removed but the extension will be
slightly greater than it should be. Beyond this point the extension is no longer proportional to the load
(force). This point is the limit of proportionality of the spring. Consequently, Hooke’s law must be
modified to read;

43
The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the loa d provided the limit of proportionality is not
exceeded.

NB. Hooke’s law is obeyed only for small loads that do NOT stretch the spring too much. When a spring is
stretched beyond its elastic limit it eventually becomes permanently stretched i.e. it does NOT return to
its original length upon the removal of the load from it. The point beyond which the spring does NOT
return to its original length upon the removal of the load is called the elastic limit of the spring. The
elastic limit comes later than (though close to) the limit of proportionality.

It is important to highlight the difference4 between the elastic limit and the limit of proportionality

 Limit of proportionality: - the point beyond which the extension is no longer proportional to the
load (the spring still returns to its original length)
 Elastic limit: - the point beyond which the spring does NOT return to its original length
(extension is still not proportional to the load).

The sketch below shows an extension load graph for that has been stretched well beyond its elastic limit.

P is limit of proportionality

Q is elastic limit

Using proportionality in calculations

Direct proportion means that; doubling one doubles

the other, trebling one makes the other to treble,
halving one halves the other etc.

Example 1

A 10cm long spring becomes 14cm long when an 8N

load is hung on it. Determine

(i) the extension caused by the 8N force

(ii) the force constant of the spring, k
(iii) the extension that a 6N force will cause on the spring
(iv) the force that will cause an extension of 7cm on the same spring

Solutions

(i) the extension caused by the 8N force

e = l – lo } l = 14cm ; lo = 10cm

4 Some texts use the two terms interchangeably to define the same point.

44
 =14 – 10

= 4cm

(ii) the force constant of the spring, k

F
k } F = 8N ; e = 4cm
e

8

4

= 2N/cm

(iii) the extension that a 6N force will cause on the spring

Here we can use two methods. I. that utilises, k. and II. That does not utilisek

Method

I II

F
e } F=6N ; k = 2N/cm
k

e  8N = 6N  4cm
6

2

6 4

8 =3cm
= 3cm

45
 = 3cm

NB. The answer is the same in both methods as should be the case. 5

(iv) the force that will cause an extension of 7cm on the same spring

Method

I II

F = ke } e = 7cm ; k = 2N/cm

=7 2 F  4cm = 8N  7cm
= 14N

8 7

4

= 14N

NB. The value of k does NOT change, hence the name force constant. Students who want to use method I
can use the analogy where; F is the money, e is the number of loaves one can buy with that money and k
is the price of one loaf. The price is constant for that shop just as k is constant for the spring in question.

Exercise

(1)
a) A spring of original length, lo, becomes 18cm long when a 30g pan is hung on it. When a 20g
mass is added to the pan, the spring’s length becomes 22cm. Determine 6 ;

i. the extension due to the 20g mass

ii. the mass constant, km, of the spring (i.e. the mass needed to cause a unit (1cm)
extension

5 Students are advised to show how the units cancel out in the calculations in these questions.
6 Assume the spring has not reached the limit of proportionality in all questions

46
 iii. the extension due to the 30 pan
iv. the original length of the spring

b) Hence or otherwise, determine

i. the total force, F, that will be needed to caus e an extension of 5cm

ii. the new length, l, of the spring in this case

Using Proportionality in multiple spring systems

The multiple springs can either be connected in (A) series or in (B) parallel

A. series: -
Consider N identical springs (each of force constant, k, and having negligible weight) connected in series.
When a load, F, is hung from the bottom most spring; each spring will feel the load independently. Thus
each will extend by

F
e
k

so the extension of the series system as a whole, es , will be given by

F NF
es = Ne = N = ,
k k

Thus the force constant of the series system, ks , will be given by formula

F
ks 
es

47
 F
ks 
NF
k

F 1
ks  
NF k

F k
ks  
NF 1

k
ks 
N

In general, the force constant, ks , of N identical springs (each of force constant, k, and having negligible
weight) connected in series is given by formula

k
ks  Where; N is the number of springs and k, is the force constant of one spring
N

For two identical springs (each of force constant, k, and having negligible weight) connected in series the
force constant of the series system, ks , is given by formula

k
ks  Where; k, is the force constant of one spring
2

B. parallel: -
Consider N identical springs (each of force constant, k, and having negligible weight) connected in parallel.
When a load, F, is hung from the bottom most spring; the springs will share the load. Thus each will feel
an Nth of the load and thus extend by

FN
e
k

The extension of the parallel system, ep, will be equal to that of each spring and be given by

FN
ep 
k

Thus the force constant of the parallel system, kp, will be given by

F
kp 
ep

48
 F
kp 
FN
k

F 1
kp  ( )
FN k

F 1
k p  (F  )
N k

N k
k p  (F  )
F 1

Nk
kp 
1

k p  Nk

In general, the force constant, ks , of N identical springs (each of force constant, k, and having negligible
weight) connected in parallel is given by formula

k p  Nk Where; N is the number of springs and k, is the force constant of one spring

For two identical springs (each of force constant, k, and having negligible weight) connected in parallel,
the force constant of the parallel system, kp, is given by formula

k p  2k Where; k, is the force constant of one spring

Example

A 10cm long spring becomes 12cm when a 30N load is hung on it.

a. Determine
(i) the extension of the spring e
(ii) The force constant of the spring, k
Solutions

(i) the extension of the spring; e = l – lo = 12cm -10cm = 2cm

F 30
(ii) The force constant of the spring, k  = 15N/cm
e 2

49
 b. The spring is connected in series with two others identical to it. Determine
(i) the force constant of the series spring system, ks ,
(ii) the extension,es , of the series spring system when a 20N load is added to it
(iii) the load F needed to make the spring system to extend by 12cm
Solutions

(i) the force constant of the series spring system;

k 15
ks   = 5N/cm
3 3

(ii) the extension,es , of system when a 20N load is added to it;

F 20
es   = 4cm
ks 5

(iii) the load F needed to make the spring system to extend by 12cm

F  kes = F  5 12 = 60N

Exercise

c. The springs in b. above are now connected in parallel as

shown, Determine
(i) the force constant, kp, of the parallel spring system
(ii) the extensionep of the parallel spring system when a
20N load is added to it
(iii) the load F needed to make the parallel spring system to
extend by 12cm

c) Effects of forces on motion

When a force is applied to a moving body it changes its

 speed
 and direction
But the speed in a stated direction is the velocity. Thus the change of either the speed or the direction or
both is the change of velocity. Therefore a force causes a change of velocity.

The rate of change of velocity is acceleration so by changing velocity the force causes acceleration.

50
The amount of acceleration a force causes on a body is given by Newton’s 2 nd law of motion which states

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force that acts on the
body and is in the same direction as the force. nd
(Newton’s 2 law of motion)

Momentum, P, is the product of mass, m, and velocity, v.

P  mv
P
F 
t

(m  v)
F 
t

Because the force does NOT change a body’s mass the change of momentum is due to the change of
velocity

m  v
F 
t

v v
F  m( ) but ( )  a
t t

so

F  m a

we change from proportion to equation by putting a constant of proportionality, k =1. Thus

51
F  m a

or just

F  ma This is Newton’s 2 nd law of motion in equation form.

where; F is the net force in newtons

m is the mass of the body in kilograms (kg)

a is the acceleration in m/s 2

Example 1

A 5kg trolley pushed by a student accelerates uniformly at 3 m/s 2 . Determine the force applied by the
student.

Solution

F  ma } m = 5kg ; a = 3 m/s 2

= 5 3

=15N

Example 2

A donkey applies a force of 2700N to pull an 800kg cart along a straight road. The friction acting on the
system is 300N.

Determine

i. the net force on the cart

ii. the acceleration of the cart

Solutions

52
 i. the net force, FN, on the cart

FN  FA  Fr } FA = 2700N ; Fr = 300N

= 2700N – 300N

= 2400N

ii. the acceleration of the cart

FN
a } FN = 2400N ; m = 60kg
m

2400
a
60

a  4 m/s 2

Exercise

A 60kg motorcyclist drives a 40kg motorcycle with a uniform acceleration of 2m/s 2 . Given the
friction force acting on the motorcyclist and motorcycle as 500N, determine

i. the net (horizontal) force acting on the motorcyclist and motorcycle

ii. the force applied by the motorcycle’s engine

Mass-weight relationship and Newton’s 2 nd law of motion

In earlier topics we

(i) defined weight of a body as the force of gravity that acts on it

(ii) stated that all bodies near the earth fall with a uniform acceleration called accelerati on due to
gravity, g.

Thus using Newton’s 2 nd law of motion, i.e. force = mass  acceleration, we get

Force of gravity, w = mass, m  acceleration due to gravity, g

Thus

53
 w  mg where; w is weight in newtons (N)

m is mass in kilograms (kg)

g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s 2 (kg) 7

Example

Determine the weight of an 80kg boxer.

w  mg } m = 80kg ; g = 10 m/s 2 = 10N/kg

w  8010

w  800 N

Exercise

Determine

a. the weights of the following masses

(i) 2kg
(ii) 300g
(iii) 5 tonnes

b. the masses of the following weights

(i) 1N
(ii) 9N
(iii) 40N

Motion in a circle

A body moving in a circular (curved) path is accelerating even when its speed remains unchanged. This is
because its velocity changes since the direction changes. As acceleration is the rate of change of velocity,
the body is accelerating. The acceleration is due to a force called centripetal force. The centripetal force
acts towards the centre of the curvature and hence, the acceleration is directed towards the centre of

7 The value of g is constant at 10 m/s 2 for all bodies near the earth. The units N/kg and m/s 2 are equivalent.

54
 the curvature as well. However, the
instantaneous 8 velocity of the body is directed
tangential to the curvature.

Illustration: consider a boy swinging a stone by a string

over his head in a clockwise direction as shown below.

NB. The direction of the instantaneous velocity makes an angle of 90 o with direction of the
centripetal force (and that of the acceleration).

The boy applies the centripetal force that keeps the stone in orbit. This is how the gravitational pull of the
sun keeps the planets including the earth in elliptical orbits around it.

Newton’s third law of motion

As the boy in the example above swings the string he will feel a tension on the string as if the stone is
being pulled radially outwards away from him. This is because there is another force directed radially
outwards from the centre of the curvature. This force is called centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is
equal in magnitude but directed opposite to the centripetal force. The complete diagram of the forces
that act in the situation of the boy swinging the stone above is given on the left.

Although the centripetal and centrifugal forces are equalin magnitude and opposite in direction they do
NOT cancel each other out and give a net force of zero (and hence zero acceleration). This is because they
act on different bodies. The Centripetal force acts on the stone while the Centrifugal force acts on the
boy.

All forces act in pairs in this way. This is Newton’s 3 rd law of motion and it states that:

8 Wetalk of instantaneous velocity because the direction of velocity changes every instance as the body
moves in the curve

55
For every force acting at a point, there is an equal but oppositely directed force acting at that very same
point. (Newton’s 3 rd law of motion)

Summary of Newton’s laws of motion

At this point we will write the three Newton’s laws of motion in sequence

Newton's First law. ’(law of Inertia)

A body will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion unless a force acts on it.

Newton's Second law. ’(law of momentum)

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force that acts on the body and
is in the same direction as the force. (Newton’s 2 nd law of motion)

Newton's Third law. ’(law of action and reaction)

For every force acting at a point, there is an equal but oppositely directed force acting at that very same
point.

Turning effects of forces (Moments)

When a force is applied to a pivoted body it makes it to turn. The turning effect of a force is called its
moment. The moment (turning effect) of a force is large when

 the force applied is large

 the perpendicular distance of the pi vot from the line of action of the force is large
Examples

1. it is easy to unscrew a nut with a long spanner than with a short one
2. a door is more easily closed when one pushes furthest from the hinges.

Levers: A lever is a simple machine where a small effort is applied at a long distance from the pivot to
move a heavy weight attached to at a short distance from the pivot. The moment produced by the small
load will be large enough to overcome the one caused by the load.

56
Every day examples of levers include; spanner, wheel barrow and digging fork.

Exercise: State five examples of levers other than the ones listed above

Moment of a force: by definition

The moment of a force is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of the pivot from the
line of action of force.

MOMENTS

A force can produce an effect on motion of a body besides change in size and shape. However, a force can
produce effects not only on motion, size and shape of a body, but may make a body to turn.

The turning effect of a force depends on the value of the force and how far away is the line of application
from the pivot or turning point/fulcrum. For example;

a) A see-saw turns to the side where the Earth’s pull is greater.

b) A beam balance turns to the side where the weight of the masses is greater. However, if the
mass weights are equal, the beam balance will be in a state of equilibrium or in a state of
balance.
c) A spanner turns due to the force applied at its free end.
d) It is easier to loosen or tighten a nut with a long spanner than a short one.
e) The handle of the door is placed far from the hinges so that a small effort is applied to open or
close it.
All of the above examples show application of moments in levers - simple machine.

The examples, prove that the turning effect of a force is directly proportional to the size of the force and
the distance from the pivot to its line of application. The moment of a force is a measure of its turning
effect about a particular point in a particular direction. It is define as

‘Moment is the product of the force and perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of application
of the force’.

Mathematically expressed as

57
 moment of force about a po int  force  distance from pivot to line of action of the force
Moment  F   d

Since force is measured in newtons (N) and distance in metres (m), the moment is therefore measure in
newton metre (Nm).

The direction of a moment is given in terms of whether the force turns the system in the clock or against
the clock direction. Thus moment are described as clockwise or anticlockwise direction.

Example:

The principle of Moments

The figure below can be used to investigate the principle of moments. It consists of bar of negligible
weight supported at its centre O.

Forces can be applied to the bar on

either side of the pivot by hanging
standard masses from different
points.

The positions of the forces are then

adjusted such that the bar is in state of balance or equilibrium. constant

The distances are accurately measured using a suitable measuring ruler.

The forces applied is equal to the weight of the standard masses and can be calculated using the
expression,

58
Weight ,W  mass, m (in kg)  gravitational field constant,g

W  mg

Using the measurements shown above the moments are then calculated as;

Moment  Force  dis tan ce from pivot

Anti clockwise moment about O  F1  d1

 0.6 N  0.5 m
 0.3 Nm

Clockwise moment about O  F2  d 2

 1.0 N  0.3 m
 0.3 Nm

Conclusion: The example above illustrates that anticlockwise moment about O is equal to the clockwise
moment about O. The anticlockwise turning balances the clockwise turning.

Note: The Upward force has no moment about O because it acts at the pivot (i.e its distance from the
pivot is 0m)

The situation in the figure below is a little complicated, but onc e again the positions of the forces are such
that the bar balances.

total anti clockwise moment about O  20 N  0.3 m

 6.0 Nm

59
total clockwise moment about O  40 N  0.1 m  5 N  0.4 m

 4.0 Nm  2.0 Nm

 6.0 Nm

Note: the distance of 5 N force from the pivot is 0.1 m + 0.3 m = 0.4 m

This shows that it is true that the r esultant anticlockwise moment is equal to the r esultant clockwise
moment. This means when ADDED together, the clockwise moments about O balance the anticlockwise
moments about O.

Both these examples illustrate the principle of moments. This state that;

When an object is in equilibrium, the sum of the anticlockwise moments about any point is equal to the
sum of the clockwise moments about that same point.

If an object/system is in equilibrium not only the moments should balance, the forces acting in one
direction must also balance forces acting in the opposite direction.

From above case: Upward force from the support =  20 N  40 N  5 N  65 N

This means there are two conditions for equilibrium:

1. the principle of moments must apply

2. the sum of forces in one direction must equal the sum of forces in the opposite direction.
Example: The figure below shows a cement bag standing on a plank supported by two tr estles. Calculate
the upward forces X and Y exerted by the tr estles on the plank. Ignore the effect of the weight of the
plank.

The system is in equilibrium, so the

principle of moments apply and can
be used. Moment could be taken
from any point, but taking moment
about A or B gets rid of the unknowns, X or Y.

Solutions:

Taking moments about A:

60
clockwise moment  600 N  2 m
 1200 Nm

anticlockw ise moment  Y  5 m

But; anticlockw ise moment about A  clockwise moment about A

Y  5 m  1200 N m
1200 Nm
Y 
5m
then Y  240 N

From here, there two methods of finding X. You can take moments about B and proceed as before.
Alternatively, you can use the fact that X and Y must add to equal the downward force of 600 N. That is:

Y  X  600 N
X  600 N  Y  X  600 N  240 N  360 N

61
Question1:

The bar I the figure below is in equilibrium. Use it to answer the following questions.

a) What is the moment of the following forces

about O?
i) 6N
ii) F
b) Calculate F and reaction force Q.
c) Using the force values calculated above, calculate the moment of the following forces about P.
i) F,
ii) Q,
iii) 6 N.
d) What is the total clockwise moment about P?
e) What is the total anticlockwise moment about P?

Question 2:

The figure below shows a light plank on two trestles A and B supporting a man and a block of concrete.

Q #3.The figure below shows loads supported by ropes. Ropes X and Y ar e hanging from a rigid ceiling.

62
Find the tension in the ropes X and Y. [5]

Q#4.

63
ENERGY

Energy is the ability to do work.

The SI unit of energy is the joule (J). This is similar to SI unit of work done because work done is the
amount of energy changed to other forms.

Work is therefore related to energy as follows

Work done is equal to the energy changed.

Work done = Energy changed.

Kinetic Energy (Ekor K.e.)

The kinetic energy of an object is the energy due to its movement. Any object that is moving has kinetic
energy.

The kinetic energy of an abject of mass m and moving at a velocity v can be calculated from the
expression

mass  velocity  velocity

Kinetic energy (Ek) =
2

mv 2
K .E.( E k ) 
2
The above expression shows that the kinetic energy of an object is dependent on its mass and velocity as
follows.

1) Two objects of a large mass M and small mass m traveling at the same velocity do not have the same
kinetic energy.

The larger object has the greatest kinetic energy due to its large
mass.

Object B has more kinetic energy than object A.

2) Two objects of the same m traveling at different velocities v 1 and v2 (v1 >v2 ) do not have the same
kinetic energy.

64
The object with a greater velocity has the greatest kinetic energy.

Object C has more kinetic energy than object D.

Example1. A sprinter’s mass is 60kg and runs at a constant rate

of 10m/s. What is her kinetic energy?

k.e. =
mv 2
=

60kg 10 m
s

2

=3000kgm2 /s 2 =3000J = 3kJ

2 2

Example 1

A ball of mass 0.5kg rolling along a smooth straight path has 100J of kinetic energy. What is the velocity of
the ball?

mv 2
K.e. =
2

2  K.e = mv 2

2  K .e
v2  v= (2 * K .e.) / m = (2 *100kgm2 / s 2 ) / 0.5kg = (400m 2 / s 2 )
m
v =20 m/s

The velocity of the ball is 20m/s.

65
Example 2

An object of mass 6kg is traveling at a velocity of 5m/s along a smooth straight path.

a) What is its kinetic energy?

K.e.=
m
mv 2 6kg 5 s
=
 2

=75kgm2 /s 2 =75J
2 2
b) What would be its velocity when the kinetic energy is doubled?

The kinetic energy doubles to become 150J

(2 *150kgm2 / s 2 ) 2 2
v = (2 * K .e.) / m = = 50m / s = 7.1 m/s
6kg

The velocity of the object would be 7.1 metres per s econd.

Gravitational Potential Energy (G.P.E. or Ep)

The gravitational potential energy of an object is energy possessed by an object that above the
ground. This is the energy due to the force of gravity acting on the object.

Illustration: Ep dependence on mass and height above the ground

The force acting on the object is the gravitational pull (its weight). Since work is equal to the
amount of energy changed or converted, it means that;

Work done to move object from top of building to the ground is equal to the gravitational
potential energy changed.

66
Work  Force  Displacement
Work  Weight  height

work  mass  gravitatonal field strength  height

Hence the expression for calculating the gravitational potential energy of a object of mass m and
at a height h is

Gravitational potential energy (G.P.E.)  mass  gravitatonal field strength  height

G.P.E.( E p )  mgh

The above expression implies that the gravitational potential energy of an object is directly
proportional to mass of an object and the height the object is above the ground.

This means

a) A large object of mass M and a small one of mass m held at the same height above the ground
have unequal G.P.E. depending on their masses. The larger object has more gravitational
potential energy than the smaller one.

Illustration: G.P.E is directly proportional to mass (G.P.E. α m)

The 10kg object has more g.p.e. than the 5kg object because
Mgh  mgh(10kg  gh  5kg  gh)

b) Two identical objects of the same m held at the different heights above the ground have
unequal g.p.e. depending on their heights. The higher object has more gravitational potential
energy than the lower one (g.p.e. increases as the height increases)

67
 Illustration: G.P.E is directly proportional to height (G.P.E. α h)

The rugby ball at position A has more gravitational potential energy than that at position B
because it is higher.

Example1. A 5g orange fruit falls from a tree at a height of 12m. How much gravi tational
potential energy does it possess at the highest position?

Gravitational potential energy (G.P.E.)  mass  gravitatonal field strength  height

N
G.P.E  0.005kg  10  12m.  6 Nm  6 J
kg

The gravitational potential energy of the orange is 6J.

Example2.

The gravitational potential energy of a 60kg boy on a tree branch is 12 kJ. How high is the tree bra nch
from the ground?

Gravitational potential energy (G.P.E.)  mass  gravitatonal field strength  height

Gravitational potential energy (G.P.E.) 12000 Nm

height    20m
N
mass  gravitatonal field strength 60kg  10
kg

The tree branch is 20m above the ground.

68
Energy can exist in many forms as indicated in the table below.

Form of energy sources Examples energy conversions

Gravitational potential Object lifted above the Water in a high Sun’s heat raised the
energy ground does work when reservouir water
it falls

Elastic potential energy Material is under strain Catapult , stretched Sun to food to muscles
and does work when bow, wound-up spring of a person
released

Chemical potential Energy stored in Coal, wood, food, Sun to plant to fossil
energy chemical bonds. It is petrol, and other fuels fuels
released in chemical
reactions. eg thermal
power plant.

Energy stored in nuclei Nuclear power station,

of atoms. It is released nuclear bombs-the
in nuclear reactions. binding energy of
During fission (breaking original material is more
of large nuclei e.g. than that of the
U238 to smaller ones) and products, so heat
Fusion (small nuclei e.g. energy is released- can
Nuclear energy deuterium and tritium create convectional Nucleus of an atom
combine to form large currents that can drive
nuclei) turbines to produce
electricity

Moving objects have

energy and can do work
Falling water, wind
in collisions.
turning turbines in
Kinetic energy k.e. possessed by power stations to
moving air from high generate electricity
Sun produces rain, wind
pressure regions to low
pressure regions used by
wind mills)

Electrical energy A flow of electrons can Electric appliances, fan, Sun to fuels to
do work kettle, heater, electric generators
motor

Molecules have more Steam turn turbines in a Sun to plant to fuels

energy when heated and generator

69
Heat or thermal energy can do work.

Electromagnetic waves Light, radiant heat, Sun, radio transmitter,

carry packets of energy radio waves atomic microwave oven
Wave energy and Solar which can do work as nuclei (radioactive)
the waves travel.

The kinetic energy of Moving water waves Ocean, tide generator

tides (moving water) can can drive turbines to
Tidal energy do work. produce electricity

Molten rock (magma)-

its heat can be used to
Geothermal energy Earth’s crust has hot produce steam to turn
molten rock (magma) turbines for generating
Earth’s crust, sun
electricity

70
 EINSTEIN’S Mass-Energy Equation

When a radioactive nucleus decays, a large amount of energy E is released. At the same time, a small
amount of mass, m is lost.

The amount of energy released is given by the Einstein’s mass-Energy equation of form;

Energy  mass  ( speedoflig ht ) 2

m
E  mc 2 where c  speed of light  3 108
s
and m is lost mass, kg

Calculate the amount of energy released when 1g matter is lost during a radioactive of U238 .

2
 8 m
E  mc 2  0.001kg   3 10 s   9.0 10 J
13

Energy Conservation Principle

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can not be created or destroyed.

It can only change from one form to the other. This occurs through energy conversions.

In the following diagram assume that the slope is friction compensated (no friction), and that the heat and
sound energy are negligible and the ball rolls from rest.

Illustration: Conservation of energy

At point A

The total energy of the ball is due to its gravitational potential energy
only before it starts rolling down the slope.

Etot  E p  Ek but Ek  0 and E p  mgh

71
 Etot  mgh =total initial energy (potential)

At point B

E p  mg(h  x)

mv 2
Ek  and v  u  2as , a  g , s  x and u  0  v  0  2 gx  2 gx ,hence
2 2 2

2
m  2 gx
Ek   mgx
2

Etot  E p  Ek  mgh  mgx  mgx

= mgh = total initial energy (potential)

At point C (on the ground)

mv 2
E p  0 ; Ek  and v  u  2as , a  g , s  h and u  0  v  0  2 gh  2 gh
2 2 2

m  2 gh
Ek   mgh ; Etot  E p  Ek = 0  mgh
2

= mgh = total initial potential energy of the ball

At every point during the flight of the ball its total energy is equal to the initial energy it had hence en ergy
is conserved.

72
 Energy Conservation Principle

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can not be created or destroyed.

It can only change from one form to the other. This occurs through energy conversions.

Energy Conversion

Energy can be converted from one form to another. There are many devices which change energy from
one form to another.

Example1.

In green plants light energy from the sun is changed (converted) to chemical potential energy in the bonds
of starch molecules duri ng photosynthesis. The energy is converted to heat or kinetic energy by the
process of respiration in living organisms. Energy changes can be shown in a flow chart or by linking the
different energy forms by an arrow.

The arrow shows the direction of change of energy.

Example 2.

Write all the energy changes in the electric filament when the switch is closed.

Considering the use of the light bulb (produce light) the main energy changes are electrical to heat while
more of the energy is lost as heat.

Example 3. What are the main energy changes when an electric heater is used to warm the room?

Example3. The flow chart below shows energy changes for a petrol operated generator producing
electricity for a stove.

73
Ex4.A builder lifts 8 bricks 2 m high in 5 seconds. The mass of one brick is 1.5 kg. (g =10N/kg)

a) What is the energy gained by the bricks?

b) How much of this energy is gained by the bricks?
c) How much kinetic energy do the bricks loose?

What are the main energy changes in the following?

1. moving car, battery, battery operated radio, electrical bulb, coal fire, hydroelectric power plant
2. thermal power plant, rain drop, sun, electric fire, nuclear power plant, microphone, solar cell
3. solar panel, electric motor, a.c. generator

74
 Energy sources in Botswana

In Botswana the main sources of energy are firewood, coal, petroleum products and solar energy.

1. Firewood

Most people, especially in rural areas use wood from the forests as a fuel.

Socio-economic impact

Wood is often free of charge or relatively cheap to buy. As the population of a village increases the forest
is pushed farther and farther back. The forest is denuded, people have to travel farther to get firewood
and it becomes more expensive.

The Environmental impact

Loss of the forest leads to erosion of the soil and to climate change. The burning produces carbon dioxide
which contributes to the greenhouse effect. At the same time, the trees that should be using up carbon
dioxide are not being replaced. On a world-wide scale millions of hectares of forest are destroyed every
year without being replaced.

2.Coal

In Botswana coal is mined at Morupule. It is burnt to produce electricity at Morupule generating station. It
is also sold in bags for use as a domestic fuel.

Socio-economic impact

Coal is sold at fairly low prices to enable people to have a fuel without cutting down trees.

Environmental impact

Burning of coal releases sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere.This causes pollution in the form of acid
rain. Coal burning also releases carbon dioxide which acts as a 'greenhouse' gas. Many

of the great industrial areas of the world burn coal as their main source of energy. Acid rain is a major
problem in those countries.

3. Petroleum products

Petrol, diesel, paraffin and propane/butane gas are all extracted from crude oil. They are used to drive
trains, buses, cars, generators and factory machines.

Socio-economic impact

Botswana imports all its petroleum products. They are convenient to use but are expensive and use up
much of the country's reserves of foreign exchange. World-wide, a few oil-producing states have
enormous effects on the world economy by being able to control prices and production. As these fossil

75
fuels get used up they become more scarce and more expensive. They are non-renewable sources of
energy.

Environmental impact

Burning petroleum products causes air pollution with carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen. The motor car is the biggest contributor to air pollution.

4. Solar energy

The sun gives out huge amounts of hea t and light in electromagnetic waves. In Botswana, solar energy is
used to heat water and to produce electricity. Solar water panels consist of blackened pipes on a black
background which absorb radiant heat from the sun and transfer it to water in the pip es. Solar electric
panels made of silicon converts light energy from the sun into electrical energy. The electrical energy is
used to charge a battery which is used to produce heat, light, movement, sound, etc.

Socio-economic impact

Installing solar equipment can be expensive. However, over the long term, a lot of money can be saved
because the energy is free. Botswana is more fortunate than many countries because of the high levels of
sunshine we get. Solar electricity is suitable for low-powered devices.

Environmental impact: If used on a large scale, solar energy can reduce destruction of forests, reduce
dependence on fossil fuels, reduce air pollution and reduce emission of greenhouse gases.

76
 Exercises

Ex1.A girl of weight 300N runs along an inclined plane as she climbs some stairs as shown.

How much power does a girl develop if she climbs the stairs in 10 seconds?

Ex2.A builder lifts 8 bricks 2 m high in 5 seconds. The mass of one brick is 1.5 kg. (g =10N/kg)

d) What is the energy gained by the bricks?

e) How much of this energy is gained by the bricks?
f) How much kinetic energy do the bricks loose?
g) At what rate is the man working?

Ex3. A stone is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 8m/s.

(i) What is the maximum height reached?

(ii) Write the main energy changes that occur from the thrower until it reach the hand
again.

Ex4. Because of air resistance and friction, a forward force of 2500N is needed to keep a car traveling at a
steady speed of 20m/s. What power must be provided?

Ex5. Draw a simple pendulum and show where it has only

(i) Gravitational potential energy Ep

(ii) Maximum kinetic energy Ekmaximum

WORK DONE

Work done is when a force (F) moves its point of application through distance (d)in the direction of the
force.

77
Work done gives amount of energy converted/transformed/changed from form to other from(s).

Work done can be calculated from the expression

Work done  Force  distance moved in direction of force

W  F  d orW  F  s ................................................................(1)

Since force is measured in newtons and distance or displacement in metres this means the units for work
done is newton metre (N.m)

Bcause work done gives the amount of energy changed it follows that:

newton metre  joule  1Nm  1J

From equation (1) above it is also true that

m
W  F d  ma  d Nm  kg m
s2
m2 m2
Nm  J  kg  kg is another unit of work done
s2 s2

POWER

Power is the rate at which work is done.

OR

Power is the rate at which one form of energy is converted to another from.

(or Power is rate of energy conversion)

The word rate indicates the time in which the work is done.

78
Power can therefore be calculated using the expressions below;

Work done W
POWER  P
Time taken t

Energy Changed Or P  E
POWER  t
Time taken

The SI unit of power is the watt (W). Since Work done or energy are measured in joules and time in
seconds, a watt is equal to a joule per second.

1 joule ( J )
1watt (W ) 
sec ond ( s)

Example1. A weight lifter lifts 600N weights through a distance of 1.5 m in 3 seconds. What is the power
of the weight lifter?

Work done
POWER 
Time taken

Work done  Force  dis tan ce  600 N  1.5m

600 N 1.5m Nm J
Therefore; POWER  = 300 = 300 = 300watts
3s s s

The weight lifter has a power of 300 watts. This means the weight lifter converts 300joules of energy in a
second.

Example2.A girl of weight 300N runs along an inclined plane as she

climbs some stairs as shown.

How much power does a girl develop if she climbs the sta irs in 10
seconds?

The girl has to apply a force equal to her weight (300N) but in the upward direction. The distance she has
to carry her weight is the vertical height (30m) not the sloping distance.

Work done
POWER 
Time taken

79
Work done  Force  dis tan ce  300 N  30m

300 N  30m J
Therefore ; POWER  = 900 = 900watts
10s s
The girl develops a power of 900 watts.

Example3.A builder lifts 8 bricks 2 m high in 5 seconds. The mass of one brick is 1.5 kg. (g =10N/kg)

a) What is the energy gained by the bricks ?

Ans. gravitational potential energy.

b) How much of this energy is gained by the bricks?

G.P.E.  mgh = work done

N
= 8 1.5kg 10  2m =240Nm=240J
kg

ans. The bricks gain 240joules of gravitational potential energy.

c) How much kinetic energy do the bricks loose?

From energy conservation principle considering only the main energy changes,

Kinetic energy lost = gravitational potential energy gained

Ans. the kinetic energy lost is 240joules.

d) At what rate is the man working?

Work done
POWER 
Time taken

240 J 48 J
= = = 48 watts.
5s s

Ans. His power (rate of working) is 48 watts.

THERMAL PHYIS CS

This branch of physics focuses on the behaviour of matter in relation to changes in internal energy. It explains the
existence of matter under the three states as solid, liquid and gas. According to the kinetic theory of matter:

‘M atter is made of tiny particles which are in constant motion and held together by intermolecular forces’.

DIS TINGUIS HING PROPERTIES OF S TATES OF MATTER

80
Particles are veryclosed packed in regular patterns.

Forces of attraction and repulsion between the particles are very strong.

Particles alternatively attract and repel each other and so vibrate within fixed positions without net disp lacement.

Consequently a slid has a rigid shape and occupies a definite volume.

The intermolecular forces in liquids are less strong than in solids. Particles are close (but
slightly further apart than in solid) to one another but vibrate vigorously that the attractive
forces cannot hold them in fixed positions. Particles move about at large speeds colliding
with each other and walls of the container and exchanging partners. This makes a liquid
to flow and take shape of any container it fills (no fixed shape) but has fixed volume.

The intermolecular forces are so weak that the particles are free from one another.

Particles therefore fill up any available space hence a gas has no fixed volume or shape.

The particles are very far apart and travel randomly at great speeds colliding with each
other.

EXPANS ION OF MATTER

When particles of matter are heated they move more vigorously and their movements become larger. The molecules
push away from each other, taking up more space and the substance expands. T he reverse occurs when they cool down,
that is the molecular motions become smaller and the substance contracts as its molecules are pulled closer by the
forces of attraction.

RELATIVE ORDER OF MAGNITUDE OFEXPANS ION:

In the gas state the particles are

further apart and the forces of
attraction are very weak, while in
solid the particles are closer
together and the attraction forces
very strong, the gas particles take
up more space but the solid
particles are stopped by the
intermolecular forces. Thus a gas expands the most while a solid expands the least.

EXPANS ION OF S OLIDS

Expansion of solids can be easily demonstrated by

a) M etal ball and metal ring experiment

81
Before the ball is heated it just fits and passes through the ring. After the ball is heated it no longer pass through the
ring as it has expanded and now occupies more space. The radius of the ball is now larger than that of the ring.

Discuss the possible observations if the metal ring is cooled in liquid air at -196oC and the ball is tried to pass through
the ring.

b) M etal bar and metal gauge experiment

CONS EQUENCES AND US ES (APPLIATIONS ) OF EXPANS ION

Expansion and contraction can be very useful (applications) as well as bring negative effects (consequences)

Some everyday applications and consequences of expansion or contraction are described below.

BIMETALLIC S TRIP is made of two equal lengths of different metal riveted together. The two metals have varying
linear expansivity.

When the bimetallic strip is heated aluminium expands more than

copper. To accommodate the extra length of aluminium the strip beds
towards copper. When the bimetallic strip is cooled (placing in liquid
nitrogen at -196oC ), the metals contracts with aluminium getting shorter
than copper hence the strip beds towards aluminium.

Therefore, generally, a bimetallic strip always beds towards the less expanding metal when heated and towards the
more expanding one when cooled.

A bimetallic strip is used in a temperature controlling device called a thermostat.

THERMOS TAT

A thermostat is used to keep the temperature of an appliance or room constant, without getting too hot or too cold. It
uses a bimetallic strip as a temperature controlled switch.

Appliances which use a thermostat include electric iron, fire alarm, refrigerator, gas oven, electric kettle

(a) Electric iron

82
 The temperature of an electric iron is kept near-steady by the
bimetallic strip as it opens and closes the contacts with
temperature variations. As the base of the electric iron gets
hotter above the temperature set by the control knob the
bimetallic strip bends downward and breaks the contacts.
When the temperature drops, the strip cools and contracts. It
then goes back to its original position hence switching the
electric current again.

Note: Brass expands more than iron so that the strip bends downwards to break open the circuit when the temperature
rises.

b) Fire alarm

The bimetallic strip must bend and switch on the circuit to sound the
electric bell. Brass should expand more than iron so that the strip bends
down. The bending should occur at a temperature considerably higher
than the average room temperature to avoid false alarms.

C) GAPS ON BRIDGES AND ROADS

Bridges are often made of steel bars that get longer

when it is hot. There must be expansion gaps in the
road at the end of a bridge. Bridges are usually put on
rollers to allow for easy movement during expansion
and contraction.

Roads are often made of concrete slabs hat expand

and contract too. There are expansion gaps between
the slabs filled with a soft substance that can be
squeezed easily in hot weather as the slabs expand.
There are similar expansion gaps in the concrete
floors around M mad Sec.

Illustration: Expansion gap between road and bridge

d)RIVETING METAL PLATES

A white–hot rivet is placed in the rivet hole and its end hammered flat and
on cooling it contracts and pulls the plate tightly together.

e) S HRINK FITTING

83
This is used where the metal pieces joined involve a ball and socket. An axle is cooled in liquid nitrogen at -196oC until
the gear wheel can be slipped on to it. On regaining normal temperature the axle expands to give a very tight joint.

EXPANS ION OF GAS ES

Expansion of gasses can be demonstrated by the following

experimental set-up.

A round bottomed flask is filled with a solution of potassium

permanganate and then heated.

Observations:

The level of potassium per manganate solution in the tube goes down
while the level of the solution in the beaker rises as the solution is
displaced by air. Eventually bubbles are seen as air escapes through
the solution.

Explanation:

When air is heated it expands and occupies more space thereby displacing the solution in the tube. This shows that air
expands as well.

Note: When a cold cloth is placed over the flask, the air contracts and occupies less space forcing the solution up into
the tube.

EXPANS ION OF LIQUIDS

Just like solids and gases a liquid also expands

or contract when heated or cooled. The
diagram on the left can be used to demonstrate
expansion of liquids.

Observations: When heat is applied there is a

momentary drop in the level of the solution as
flask /beaker expands before the liquid can
conduct heat. After a while the solution rises
steadily as it expands and rises through the
capillary until it overflows. When cooled the
liquid contracts and occupy less space hence it
will drop back into the flask.

MEAS URING TEMPERATURE

TEMPERAURE and HEAT

Temperature (T/  ) is the degree/level of hotness or coldness of a substance against a given scale. Temperature is
measured in degrees Celsius (oC), Kelvin (K).

84
The temperature of a gas is mainly related to the average kineticthe molecules. The hotter the object the faster the
molecules move and the greater should be their average kinetic energy. The average kinetic energy of the molecules
decreases when the object colds down.

HEAT (Q):is the total energy of an object due to motion of the molecules (kinetic) and their position (potential energy)
with respect to each other.The potential energy here is due to the inter-molecular forces between the molecules. Work
has to be done against the attractive forces hence energy change for the distance between the molecules to increase.
Object at the same temperature do not necessarily contain the same amount of heat energy. Note that heat is a form of
energyand is measured in joule (J).

THERMOMETRIC PROPERTIES
Any property of a substance that changes when the temperature varies is calledthermometricproperty and they include
volume, pressure, electromotive force and resistance.

A bimetallic thermostat uses the expansion and contraction of a metal to measure temperature, so the expansion and
contraction of a solid are thermometric properties. Also the pressure of a gas at constant volume, the volume of a gas
at constant pressure and the resistance of a pure metal are all examples of thermometric properties.
The expansion of a liquid is also a property used for most of the thermometers to measure temperature. These
thermometers are called liquid — in glass thermometers.

CALLIBRATING A THERMOMETERThis means marking a gradual scale (marking divisions) on the stem of a
thermometer.

FIXED POINTS : These are two reference positions marked on the scale using melting and boiling temperatures of a
known pure substance.

LOWER FIXED POINT: Is the position of the liquid

in bulb when the thermometer is placed in pure water at
0 oC (ice).

UPPER FIXED POINT: Is the position marked on the

stem when the thermometer is placed in pure boiling
water (temperature of 100 oC at sea level)

The distance between the lower and upper fixed points

is then divided into equal divisions to give a particular
scale. Example : M arking 100 divisions would mean
that the thermometer is accurate to one degree Celsius
(1 oC).

LABORATORY THERMOMETER

The s ame principle is a pplied i n a l iquid — i n

gl a ss thermometers, the narrower the capillary
tubes, further the thread moves up. A s mall
expa nsion of the l iquid produces a greater
a s cent up the tube

Sensitivity of an instrument scale represents its

85
ability to detect small changes of the quantity to be measured. So, “the narrower the bore, the more sensitive is the
thermometer”.
The thermometer scale represented below is more sensitive than the one represented before.

The thermometers we use in our laboratory have got a temperature range from 10 °C to 110 °C. However a clinical
thermometer which is another type of liquid—in glass thermometer has a rage from 35 0C to 42 °C that is a few degrees
either sides of the healthy or average body temperature of about 37 °C. This thermometer is more sensitive than a
laboratory thermometer that is why its accuracy is a tenth of a degree Celsius (0.1 oC).

A sensitive thermometer does not have a very large temperature range even when it is very long. A larger t emperature
range scale is achieved using a wider capillary tube.
Also a clinical thermometer has a constriction which stops the mercury when going back to the bulb. It allows
measuring the temperature of a patient after removing the thermometer. The mercury is returned to the bulb by shaking
the thermometer.

CLINICAL THERMOMETER

A large bulb and a thick glass stem have disadvantages, the thermometer has to take more energy from the hot object
than small bulb and a thin glass stem thermometer dose, and so it may cool it down. It also takes longer to reach a
steady reading. Thus the bulbs on a liquid-in glass thermometer are not made very large and the stems are made from a
very thin glass.

Summary: A thermometer is more sensitive if it has

a) A thin/narrow capillary or bore

b) A small bulb

CHANGES OF STATE

LATENT HEAT (l): Is heat energy that changes the state of a substance (without a change in temperature).

The heat energy that is absorbed during melting or evaporation, and given out during freezing or
condensing is called latent (hidden)heat because it does not cause any temperature change.

When a substance melts or solidifies its temperature remains constant even if it absorbs or releases heat
called latent heat of fusion (lf ).

The temperature of liquid does not change during

boiling (until all the liquid has been converted to
vapour/gas) as the liquid is vaporized. Heat absorbed
during this change of state is called latent heat of
vaporization (l v).

86
MELTING/ FUS ION: Is when a solid substance changes into liquid.

SOLIDIFICATION/ FREEZING: This is a change of liquid substance into solid.

Solidification and fusion occur without a change in temperature. When a substance melts, the heat supplied
enables the molecules to break free from their fixed arrangement in solid (weaken intermolecular forces) to
attain relatively free movement in liquid state.

During solidification heat is released as the molecules come together.

A pure substance melts and freezes (solidification) at the same temperature called melting point or
freezing point.

VAPOURISATION: When a substance in liquid state changes into a gas. This may occur during
evaporation and boiling.

CONDENSATION: When a substance in a gas state changes into a liquid.

In vapourisation the liquid molecules abs orb a large amount of energy as they move further apart until they
are separated into independent gas molecules. Some energy is also required to enable the molecules to work
against atmospheric pressure as they expand. When a substance condenses latent hea t of vaporization is
released.

SUBLIMATION: Is a direct change of state from solid to gas or gas to solid without forming liquid first.

EVAPORATION and BOILING

Evaporation is the escape of gaseous particle from the surface of a liquid.

During evaporation the faster more energetic molecules escape fro m the surface of the liquid. For the
mo lecules to evaporate they absorb more heat and move much fu rther apart as they gain more kinetic
energy. The escaping mo lecules absorb latent heat fro m the liquid and result in cooling effect as mo lecules
remain ing behind are of a lower energy level. The latent heat absorbed is needed to overcome the attractive
forces between the remaining molecules.

Evaporation rate is increased by;

a) Increasing temperature of the liquid- at high temperature more molecu les are moving fast enough
to escape.
b) An increase in surface area of liquid-more molecules near surface of liquid escape.
c) A draught or moving air (wind) - which takes the molecules away.

87
Boiling is when a liquid forms bubbles of vapour throughout the liquid.

Boiling takes place when the saturated vapour pressure becomes equal to the external atmospheric pressure.
The vapour formed within boiling liquid burst at the surface of the liquid. Boiling takes place at a particu lar
temperature called the boiling point.

DIFERENCE BETWEEN BOILING and EVAPORATION

Evaporation takes place at the surface of the liquid while boiling occurs throughout the body of the liquid.

Evaporation takes place at all temperatures while boiling occu rs at a fixed temperature called boiling point.

APPLICATIONS OF EVAPORATION

1. Cooling effect used in

a) Refrigeration
b) Animals like dogs and crocodiles cool themselves by driving more energetic molecules from their
bodies.
2. Wet clothes dry quicker when it is windy and hot.

TRANS FER OF THERMAL ENERGY

There are three methods by which thermal energy can be transferred from a hotter region to a coder region ie through a
temperature gradient.

a) Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from a region of hotter to region of lower temperature without
movement of matter

In conduction – molecules are made to move faster

i) by the transfer of fast electrons, or

ii) by mutual interaction.

b) Convectionis the flow of thermal energy through a fluid from a region of higher to region of lower temperature by
the movement of the fluid(liquids and gases).

In convection– hot molecules are made to move from one place to another due to change of density.

c) Radiation is the flow of thermal energy from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves

– molecules are made to move faster when electromagnetic waves fall on them.

Heat transfer in solids – conduction

This mode of heat transfer occurs mainly in solids.

M otion of electrons:

When a solid e.g. metal bar is heated at one end, heat travels and soon reaches the other end. This happens because of
the free electrons surrounding the atoms of the metal which move faster and go towards the cooler parts.

Collisions between these electrons and the stationary atoms at the cooler end of the metal result in the transfer of
kinetic energy from the electrons to the atoms. As the ‘warm’ electrons move from the hotter region to the cooler
region, ‘cooler’ electrons move in the opposite direction to take their place. In this way heat is transferred from one

88
place to another without any apparent movement of the transmitting substance. The diagram below illustrates this
conduction mechanism.

The faster electrons (indicated by the longer arrows) diffuse in the

region occupied by the slower electrons) indicated by shorter
arrows), and vice-versa. The energy is transferred.

Also note that the vibrating atoms are responsible for some thermal
conduction:

If they jostle each other, energy can be passed from one part of the
solid to another.

This second conduction mechanism cannot be very effective, since high rates of conduction of heat are only by
substances with conduction electrons. There are exceptions, however, some non-metals (i.e. substances without
conduction electrons) are as good conductors as some metals.

As the conduction electrons can transfer both electric charge and internal energy, we see why the same substances are
good conductors of both electricity and heat.

Experiment to demonstrate rates of heat conduction

Heat flows along the rods at different rates and the pins drop off
after varying lengths of time. In the experiment the pin on copper
drops off first followed by iron and lastly on glass. This confirms
that metals have very high thermal conductivity. Other solid
materials such as glass, wood and plastics conduct heat very
slowly and are bad conductors or insulators.

An experiment below shows that water is actually a bad conductor of heat

Note the order in which processes happen.

The water at the top of the tube boils, while the ice remains solid (does not
melt) at the bottom. Eventually slow conduction of heat through the water
and the walls of the glass test tube melts the ice.

Liquids (except molten metals such as mercury) are usually bad conductors of heat. It is important to also note that air
is a very poor conductor of heat and is an important insulator.

89
When we feel cold we put on warm clothes. Clothes do not supply heat to our bodies, so how do they make us feel
warm? Warm clothes usually contain a lot of trapped air. Pockets of air are held between the fibres of woolen materials
and in holes like those in string vests. In a similar way birds fluff up their feathers to trap more air around them to keep
them warm.

Fibre glass and expanded polystyrene are used as insulators in houses; both these materials owe their insulating
properties to large amount of trapped air they contain.

Heat transfer through fluids – convection

Heat can flow through liquids and gases (fluids) by means of convection currents.

Convection currents are a flow of liquid or gas caused by a change in density, in which the whole medium moves and
carries heat energy with it.

Note; a) convection can not happen in solids because the molecules have fixed relative positions.

b) convection is more effective in gases than in liquids.

Demonstration of convection

Explanationconvection current: An increase in temperature usually causes an

increase in volumeThe warm particles become less dense and rises up . A given
mass of warm fluid, will therefore experience an up-thrust (from cooler fluid that
surround it) greater than its own weight. The cold denser fluid thus provides a
force that causes the warm fluid to rise.

Example of convection

a) cloud formation – warm moist air rises before condensing into rain.

b) winds – caused by differences in air pressure which arises from uneven heating of masses of air.

c) the art of gliding is to trace and use hot air currents (as done by sea gulls – birds)

d) the domestic hot water supply.

e) Land and sea breezes

RADIATION- heat transfer by Electromagnetic waves

Radiation is the flow of heat in form of electromagnetic waves requiring no tangible medium.

It is the type of wave motion given out by accelerated electric charges, and it results in the transfer of energy form one
place to another. In particular the infra-red waves have frequencies such that they are easily absorbed by particles of
matter, and are therefore effective at warming matter.

90
Warm objects give out or radiate infrared waves (heat waves – radiant heat). But if they become hotter they emit
shorter wavelengths which may include light. This is why a radiant heater or grill starts to ‘glow red’ hot when it heats
up.

91
Emitters and Absorbers

Some surfaces are better at emitting (sending -out) thermal radiation than others. For example, black saucepan cools
down quickly than a similar white one because it emits energy at a faster rate.

White or silver surfaces are poor absorbers because they reflect most of the thermal radiation away. This is why, in hot,
sunny countries, houses are often painted white to keep them cool inside. The inside of a black car warms up more
rapidly than a white one on a sunny day.

Illustration: Good/ bad absorbers of thermal radiation

If two coins of the same value are stuck on outside of each plate
with candle wax, some minutes after the heater has been switched
on, the wax on the black surface melts and the coin falls off. The
white surface is still cooler and the wax does not melt.

The experiment shows that black surfaces are better absorbers of

thermal radiation than white surfaces. Dull black are the best
absorbers of thermal radiation; silvery mirror-like surfaces are
poorest absorbers. Silvery surfaces reflect almost all the thermal radiation striking them.

Illustration: Good/ bad emitters of thermal radiation

Holding the back of your hands on either sides of hot copper plate
which has one side polished and the other blacked, it is found that
the black surface is a better emitter of radiation than the
polished surface. Dull black surfaces are also the best emitters
of thermal radiation, silvery mirror-like surfaces are the
poorest emitters.

Therefore:“The greater the amount of thermal radiation absorbed, the greater will be the emission ”, so good
absorbers are also good emitters and vice-versa.

Good emitters of thermal radiation are also good absorbers, as shown in the chart below.

S ummary on emitters and absorbers

APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL ENERGY TRANS FER

92
Car cooling system-most car engines are cooled by convection currents in the water pipes. A pump is often used to
help water to circulate. This is ‘forced convention’.

Water is very good substance to carry the unwanted heat away

from the engine to the radiator. Here the radiator is a heat
exchanger where the hot water gives up its energy to air. The
radiators are usually painted black to increase their heat exchange
function.

SOLAR HEATING (solar panel)-some house have a solar pane like shown
below. It uses the sun’s thermal radiation to warm up water for t he house. The
black layer absorbs thermal radiation and warms up water flowing through the
pipes. Why are the pipes coiled?

Illustration: solar panel (water heating system)

The vacuum flask (thermos flask)

A vacuum flask can keep drinks hot (or cold) for hours. It has these features fro
reducing the rate of thermal energy floe in or out.

a) An insulated stopper to reduce conduction and convection.

b) A double-walled container with gap between the walls. Air has been
removed from the gap to reduce conduction and convection.
c) Walls with shinny surfaces to reduce thermal radiation.

Illustration: Thermos flask

Greenhouse effects

On a sunny day, a greenhouse becomes a ‘heat trap’. Short -wavelength thermal radiation from the sun passes easily
through the glass and warms up the materials inside. The warmed materials emit thermal radiation, but at longer
wavelengths that do not pass through the glass so easily. Radiation id reflected back into the greenhouse, so the
temperature rises.

The earth’s contains a small amount of carbon dioxide gas.

This has a similar effect to the glass in a greenhouse- it lets the
sun’s thermal energy to warm the earth, but reflects he earth’s
radiation back. Without this natural greenhouse effect the
earth would be 30oC colder than it is. Extra carbon dioxide
from burning fuels is adding to the effect and causing global
warming. Illustration: Green house effect

Other everyday consequences of thermal transfer

1) Land and sea breezes- are set up by earth-sea

93
 temperature differences. During the day the land heats up more quickly than water in the sea. Hot air above
the land rises causing cool and heavier air from the sea to come and replace it (sea breeze). At night the
reverse occurs. The diagram below illustrates this.

2) Day and nights in deserts – days tend to be very hot due to radiant heat from the heated sand. Nights also
tend to be very cold due to lack of cloud cover. There is nothing to act like a greenhouse.
3) Cyclones-are regions where the atmospheric pressure is lower than average and hence winds blow spirally
inwards towards the pressure center.

The existence of cyclones is attributed to convection currents creating differences in air pressure at certain localities.
Cyclones like typhoons can be very destructive where they pass.

94
95
96
 GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES

Wave: This is a backward and forward or up and down movement of particles of an elastic medium when
they vibrate.

Or

Wave: This is a disturbance of particles of mater that results in transfer of energy.

Properties of Wave

Wavelength (λ): This is the distance occupied by one complete wave.

Or

the distance between successive crests/peaks or troughs.

Or

the distance between successive (following each other) and corresponding (similar) positions (parts) of a
wave.

Wavelength is represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ). Since wavelength is distance, it measured in
units of length and the SI unit is the metre (m).

Amplitude (A): this is the maximu m distance a particle moves from its rest position when a wave passes.

Or

the maximu m displacement of a particle from its rest position when a wave passes.

It is also measured in units of length and the SI unit is the metre (m).

Frequency (f):Is the number of complete waves (cycles) produced per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz).
Frequency can be calculated from the expression below;

Number of complete cycle ( waves)

frequency ( f ) 
time (t )

Speed (υ): This is the distance covered by a wave in a second. It is measured in metresper second.

The speed is related to wavelength and frequency through the wave equation as shown below.

Wave equation

  f   whereλ is wavelength ,f is frequency and υ is speed.

97
 TYPES OF WAVES

There are two types of waves namely;

a). Longitudinal wave

b). Transverse wave
Longitudinal wave: A wave in which the direction of travel of wave and the direction in which the
particles are vibrating coincide.

In a longitudinal wave the particles of the elastic medium vibrate backward and forward to produce a series
of compressions (high pressure region) and rarefactions (region of low pressure).

Examples;

1. Waves traveling along a stretched “slinky” spring with one end fixed and the other moving
rapidly backward and forward. The movement of the moving end is transmitted from turn to turn of
the spring.
2. Sound waves
Transverse wave: A wave in which the particlesare vibrating at right angle to the direction of travel of the
wave.

The vibrations could either be up and down or side to side.

Examples;

1. Waves traveling along a stretched “slinky” spring with one end fixed and the other moving
rapidly from side to side. The movement of the moving end is transmitted from turn to turn of the
spring.
2. Waves traveling across the surface of water when a stone has been dropped in a pond. Ripples
move out from the place where the stone was dropped.
3. Waves traveling along a rope with one end fixed and the other moving up and down. The
movement of the moving end is transmitted from part to part of the through the whole rope.
4. All the electromagnetic waves such as: light, radio waves, microwaves, gamma rays and so on.

98
99
 WAVES PROPERTIES EXERCISE

1(a) Find the wavelength of a sound wave which has a frequency of 1.0 kHz, if the speed of sound is air
330 m/s.

b) Find the frequency of radio wave which has a wavelength of 3000m. (speed of radio waves = 3.0 *10 8
m/s)

c) Find the speed of a water wave produced by a 2.0 Hz vibrator in a ripple tank if successive crests are 5.0
cm apart.

2. The diagram below shows a section through a wave travelling in water in the direction shown.

a)i) find the ii) amplitude iii) wavelength

b) if the wave travels 32.0 cm in 2.0 s, find its) speed ii) frequency

c) Use appropriate symbols to show on the diagram above i) amplitude ii) wavelength

REFRACTION

REFRACTION: is the bending of lightwhen travelingform one medium to another with different optical
densities.

Terms used in optics

Incident ray: original ray of light from the source of light

Refracted ray: ray of light that has been bent as it passes between media.

Emergent ray: ray of light leaving a medium after refraction.


Incident angle (angle of incidence ( i )): angle measured between the incident ray and the normal line at
point of incidence.


Angle of refraction ( r ): angle measured between the refracted ray and the normal line at point of
incidence.


Emergent angle ( e ): angle measured between the emergent ray and the normal line at point of emergence.

Normal: imaginary dotted line drawn perpendicularly at points of incident or emergence

FACTS ABOUT REFRACTION

100
 1. A ray of light bends away from the normal when moving from an optically denser
medium to an optically less dense medium.
2. A ray of light bends towards the normal when entering an optically denser medium from
an optically less dense medium.
3. A ray of light entering along the normal is not refracted- goes without any deviation.
4. A ray of light incident inside a denser medium at critical angle is refracted such that it is
perpendicular to that surface of incidence.
5. The incident ray is always parallel to the emergent ray.

DEMONSTRATION OF REFRACTION- DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX (n)

Materials

Illustration: refraction through a glass

block

Glass block, pencil, 4 optical pins,

drawing board, plain paper, ruler and a
protractor

Procedure:

1. Place the plain paper on the

drawing board
2. Place the glass block in the
middle of the plain paper and trace its
boundary(outline) using pencil
3. Insert optical pins 1 and 2 (P1
and P2 ) at an angle on one side of the
glass block such that they are in a straight line to the surface of the glass block.
4. Insert optical pins 3 and 4 (P3 and P4 ) on the other side of the glass block such that they are in a
straight line with images of P1 and P2 as seen through the glass block.
5. Remove the glass block and the optical pins and join positions of P 1 and P2 with a straight line to
represent the incident ray (include an arrow to show direction of the ray)
6. Join positions of P3 and P4 with a straight line to represent the emergent ray (include an arrow to
show direction of the ray)
7. Trace the path of the ray inside the glass block by joining the points of incident and emergence
together using a straight line- this represent the refracted ray.
8. use a protractor to draw a normal line at the point of incidence and measure the angles of incidence
and refraction
9. calculate the refractive index of the glass block using the expression below
sin i
refractive index (n) 
sin r
REFRACTIVE INDEX IN TERMS OF REAL DEPTH AND
APPARENT DEPTH

Refraction causes:

101
 (i) An object (e.g. a coin) placed at the bottom of a container holding water to appear nearer the
surface than it is.
(ii) Objects (e.g. ruler or pencil) to appear bent when placed in a container holding water.
The light rays from the point O of the pencil which is resting on the bottom of the
container are refracted away from the normal N1 and N2 as shown; the pencil appears bent
when viewed from above the surface of water.

To locate the image of the object construction lines are drawn straight backward from the
points of emergence.

(iii) Bottom of a pool to appear near the surface than it actually is.
The above examples give rise to what is known as real and apparent depths of the water as illustrated
below.

Illustration: real and apparent depths

The refractive index of a material (e.g. water or glass)

can be calculated using real and apparent depths by the
expression below;

real depth
refractive index (n) 
apparent depth

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

The angle the ray makes with the normal in air is

always greater than the angle it makes with the normal
in the medium (x > y).

When the angle of incidence inside the medium is increased gradually the angle of refraction also increases
proportionately. Eventually the angle of refraction becomes 90 o .

The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90 is called the critical
angle c. (refer to figure b)

When the angle of incidence inside the denser medium is greater than the critical angle no light can escape
fro the denser medium and the light ray is said to be totally internally reflected. (refer to figure c)

Illustration: critical angle and total internal reflection

102
APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Total internal reflection is used in fibre optics either in

A fibre optic is made of high quality glass of high refractive index coated with a thin layer of lower
refractive index. A ray of light entering the end of the thin fibre optic that strikes a t an angle of incidence
greater than the critical angle is totally internally reflected along the whole length of the fibre.

Illustration: Fibre optic

a). Communication-
passing signals as light impulses
b). Medicine- used to view
internal organs or connected to
surgical instruments to enable
operations of such organs.
c). Periscope- view around
obstacles

LENSES AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Lenses are made with a great of variety of shapes and or different kinds of glass but they all belong to
either the converging group or the di verging group of lenses. The converging type of lens converges
(brings together) rays of light and the diverging
type diverges (spreads out) rays of light.

As can be seen in the figure below, the

converging lenses are all thicker in the centre than
at the edge whereas the diverging lenses are all
thinner in the center than at the edge.

Lens shapes

Lens definitions

103
The principal axis of a lens is the line joining the centres of curvature of its surfaces.

The optical centreof a lens L is the point midway between the lens surfaces on its principal axis. Rays
passing through the optical center are not deviated.

The princi pal focus F of a converging lens is the point to which all rays incident parallel to the principal
axis converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is real.

The princi pal focus F of a di verging lens is the point fro m wh ich all rays incident parallel to the principal
axis appear to converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is virtual.

The focal length f of a lens is the distance between its optical centre and the principal focus.

NB A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side of the lens. When drawing ray diagrams the
principal focus F is marked on both side of the principal axis.

Standard rays

In ray diagrams, any two of the following rays are needed to fix the image position and size:

1. A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through F after leaving the lens.

2. A ray through F’ leaves the lens parallel to the principal axis.

3. A ray through the centre passes straight through the lens.

NB:

 For simplicity, rays are drawn from just one point on the object. In reality rays are from every
different on the object.
 Only two rays are needed to fix where the image is.
 For simplicity, rays are shown bending at the line through the middle of the lens. In reality,
bending takes place at each surface.
Images formed by converging lens

104
Object O, uses Ray diagram Image i

a) o between F and L

i) virtual

i)magnifying glass ii)erect

ii)instrument eye piece iii)magnified

iii)Spectacles correction for iv)on same side of

long-sightedness lens as O and further
away

b) O at F

Produces a parallel beam of

light as in a spot light with
lamp at O. At infinity

c) O between F and 2F i) real

ii) inverted

i) projector iii) magnified

ii) microscope objective lens iv) on opposite side

of lens to O, beyond
2F.

i) real

d) O at 2F ii) inverted

iii) Same size as O.

Camera making equal size iv) on opposite side

copies of the lens to O, at
2F.

e) O beyond 2F i) real

ii) inverted

105
i) camera iii) diminished

ii) the eye iv) on opposite side

of lens, between F
and 2F.

This is diagram c)
reversed.

f) O at infinity i) real

ii) inverted

Objective lens of a telescope. iii) diminished

iv) on opposite side

of lens at F.

This is diagram b)
reversed

COMMON PROPPERTIES of ELECTROMAGNETIC (WAVES) SPECTRUM

There exists a family of

waves resulting from
magnetic and electric
forces of matter called
Electromagnetic waves.

This family of waves is called the Electromagnetic spectrum.

All of these waves have the common properties

a) They are all transverse waves, They travel at velocity of light in vacuum ( c  3 108 m )
s
b) They can be reflected, refracted and diffracted
c) They obey the wave equation v  f  

NAME AND
TYPICAL

106
WAVELENGTH SOURCES DETECTORS SPECIAL PROPERTIES

*very penetrating

Gamma rays Nuclei of Photographic *very dangerous when used without control
() 10 -12 m radioactive film and
atoms and Geiger-Muller *used t kill dangerous growths e.g. cancer cells
cosmic rays (GM )tube
*used t find flaws in metals. Special detectors can
reveal weakness in a metal.

*used to sterilise equipment, they can kill bacteria

and very dangerous micro-organisms

*very penetrating, so overexposure to them can be

very dangerous
Photographic
film and *used to take X-rays pictures in order to detect
X-rays 10 -10 m X-ray tube fluorescent bone fractures, lung diseases, stomach diseases
screen
*used to treat skin disorders

*used to study crystal structures in solids by X-ray

crystallography

*it is absorbed by the glass and a considerable

amount of that coming from the sun is absorbed by
the atmosphere’s upper layers which contain a very
large concentrate of Ozone gas.

*causes many chemical reactions, some materials

fluoresce when they absorb ultraviolet radiation.
Ultraviolet Sun, very hot For example, washing powder contain chemicals
radiation (UV) objects, which fluoresce when they absorb UV, they make
electric arcs Photographic clothes look whiter than white in daylight and glow
10 --8 m and sparks, film, photocell when disco lights strike them.
mercury fluorescent
chemicals *UV from the sun is used by the skin to produce
vapour lamps
vitamin D, but causes sun tan.

*UV lamps are used in medicine for skin treatment,

but excess is harmful, and can cause skin diseases
and damage the retina.

*UV is frequently used to kill bacteria and living

cells

*can be used against fraud in identify false

107
 signatures in bank cheques

*essential for photosynthesis and plant growth

Visible light Sun, hot Photographic *used for communication systems: lasers and
0.6 * 10 -8 m objects, film, eye and optical fibres (very thin glass rods, within which
lamps and photocells light or laser can be totally internally reflected)
lasers
*used in identifying substances in chemistry flame
tests

Special As the temperature rise, an objects give out more

photographic and moreIR, the wavelengths become shorter since
Infra-red Sun, warm films, the molecules vibrate more vigorously. At about
radiation (IR) and hot semiconductor 700 o C the radiation changes into visible light.
objects such devices such as
10 -4 m as fires, *used for photography through haze and fog, it is
LDR (light
people, dependent not scattered as much as visible light.
animals resistor or
*used to provide special information, such as
photoresistor)
infected crops, contrasting vegetation and so on by
photodiode
means of photographs taken by satellites
and skin

Microwave *long and medium waves will diffract around a hill

ovens, TV and so that a signal on a radio wave can be detected
radios, Aerials even when a hill blocks the direct route from the
transmitters connected to transmitting aerial.(Diffraction is when a wave
Radio waves tuned electric
using electric passes the edge of an object)
circuits and circuit in radio
3m
aerials where and TV sets Long and medium waves are also reflected by
electrons are layers of charged particles in the earth’s upper
forced to atmosphere so that long distance reception is also
oscillate possible despite the curvature of the earth’s
surface.

*VHF and UHF (TV) waves have shorter

wavelengths. They are not reflected by upper
atmospheric layers and are diffracted only slightly
by hills. Good receptions are only possible for
straight paths of waves.

*microwaves are used fir cooking, telephone,

satellites communications, radar detection of ships,
aircrafts, missiles…..

*radio waves are used in radioastronomy

108
109
Sound
Sound is the energy produced by vibrating sources e.g. drum skin, guitar string, cone of loud
speaker etc.

The illustration below shows how cone of a loud speaker produces sound.

The changing alternating current from the amplifier makes the cone to vibrate (i.e. pushing
forward and backwards repeatedly). When the cone pushes forward it pushes the air molecules
close together (onto each other) creating a high pressure region called compression. When the
cone pulls back it creates a temporary vacuum in front of it. Air molecules then spread into this
vacuum which leads to a low pressure region called rarefaction. The continued vibrations of the
cone lead to a series of compressions and rarefactions as denoted by the “C”s for Compressions
and “R”s for Rarefactions in the diagram below.

The compressions and rarefactions eventually reach the ear and make its constituent parts to
vibrate the same way. the brain senses these vibrations and interpret them as a particular
sound.

Points of note

110
 1. The direction of vibration of the loudspeaker cone, hence the air molecules through
which sound travels, is parallel to the direction of propagation of the direction of
propagation (travel) of the sound. Thus sound is a longitudinal 9 wave.
2. Sound travels by pushing together (compressing) or pulling apart (decompressing) the
particles of a medium through which it travels. So a material medium is required for the
transmission of sound waves.
3. Because sound travels by compressing and decompressing particles of a material
medium, then it suffices that sound travels fastest in solids. This is because particles of
a solid are closely packed already so compressing and decompressing them takes a
shorter time. Sound travels slowest in gases. The order of magnitude of sound in states
of matter is shown below.

Experiment: Speed of sound in air

Aim: to determine the speed of sound in air

Apparatus

 Starter’s gun (to provide the sound)

 Measuring tape (to measure the distance)
 Stop clock (to measure the time)
 Wall (to act as sound barrier)

Set-up; the apparatus were set-up as shown below,

Procedure

9 A longitudinal wave is the one in which the direction of propagation (travel) of the wave is parallel to the
direction of vibration of the medium through which it propagates. When these directions are perpendicular
the wave is said to be transverse.

111
The starter’s gun was positioned a distance, d = 200.000m from the wall, measured using a
measuring tape and recorded. The starter’s gun was fired and the stop-clock started at the
same time. The stop-clock was stopped upon hearing the echo from the wall. The time, t, taken
by sound to travel to the wall and back was read from the stop-clock and recorded. This
procedure was repeated five times and the average time, <t>, taken by sound to travel to the
wall and back calculated and recorded. The distance, S, travelled by sound to the wall and back
was calculated from formula, S = 2d, and recorded. The speed of sound, v, was calculated from
formula, v, and recorded.

Results and Analysis

Distance of the starter’s gun from the wall, d = m

Distance travelled from the wall and back, S = 2d = m

Table of results

Reading no 1 2 3 4 5 Average

time taken, t (seconds)

Discussions

Students are to complete the table below by stating the possible source(s) of error and the
precautions they took to minimise the effects of such errors.

Possible sources of error Precautions taken

Parallax error in the measurement of A large distance was used so that percentage error
distance from the wall due to parallax will be small

Human reaction time in the Several readings were taken and the average used
measurement of time

112
Conclusion

The speed of sound in air was found to be, v = m/s

Audible range
Not all sounds can be heard. Only sounds having frequencies within a certain range can be
heard. This range is called AudibleRange (audible means hear-able).

Human Audible range (20 Hz to 20 000 Hz)

The audible range for humans is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This means that human beings can’t hear
sounds having frequencies less than 20 Hz or greater than 20 kHz.

Example 1

Determine whether sound can be heard if it has the following frequencies

(v) 4 Hz
(vi) 180 Hz
(vii) 40 kHz

Solutions

Sound can be heard, iff (if and only if) its frequency satisfies the inequality 20Hz <f<20

kHz

(v) f = 4 Hz < 20 Hz so it’s too low to be heard. i.e. it wont be heard

(vi) f = 180 Hz which falls within the range 20Hz <f<20 kHz. Sound will be heard.
(vii) f = 40 kHz> 20 KHz so it’s too high to be heard. i.e. it wont be heard
Exercise

Determine whether sound can be heard if it has the following frequencies

(i) 1 Hz
(ii) 150 Hz

113
 (iii) 2500 Hz
(iv) 70000 Hz
(v) 3 GHz

Experiment:HumanAudibleRange

Aim: to determine the audible range for humans

Apparatus

 Power supply unit (to be a source of electricity)

 Signal generator (to vary the frequencies)
 Loud speaker (to produce the sound)
 Connecting wire (to complete the circuit)

Set-up; the apparatus were set-up as shown below,

Procedure

The apparatus were connected as shown above. The frequency of the signal generator, f, was
set to 10 Hz and recorded. The power supply switched on and the loud speaker listened to so as
to determine if it produces any audible sound, the results were recorded. The procedure was
repeated with the frequency setting, f, of the signal generator increased at 1 Hz intervals until
the loud speaker produced some audible sound. The frequency setting of the signal generator
was then varied by the smallest division within each power of ten until the loud speaker no
longer produced audible sound.

Results and Analysis

Tables of results

Frequency, f ×1 Hz

(Hz) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

114
Sound heard?

yes (√) OR no (×)

Frequency, f ×10 Hz ×100 Hz

(Hz) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Sound heard?

yes (√) OR no (×)

Frequency, f ×1000 Hz ×10000 Hz

(Hz) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Sound heard?

yes (√) OR no (×)

Discussions

Students are to fill in the table below by stating the possible source(s) of error and the
precautions they took to minimise the effects of such errors.

Possible sources of error Precautions taken

Conclusion

The human audible range was found to be Hz to Hz

Audible range for other animals

115
Human beings can only hear sounds having frequencies greater than 20 Hz and less than 20 kHz.
This range, 20 Hz to 20 kHz, narrows further with age. However, some animals can hear sounds
having much higher frequencies than 20 kHz. For example, dogs can hear sounds having
frequencies up to 50 kHz i.e. 50 kHz. Thus a burglar alarm set at 40 kHz would alert a guard dog
of the intruder’s presence. The dog will hear the loud ringing of the alarm at 40 kHz but the
intruder will hear nothing (complete silence). Bats can hear sounds of even higher frequencies,
up to 150 kHz i.e. 150 000 Hz.

116
 MAGNETISM

A magnet is a object that attracts certain other materials which are made from magnetic materials.

a. Magnetic material

Magnets only attract strongly certain materials such as iron, steel, nickel, cobalt which
are called ferro-magnetics.

b. Magnetic poles

These are places in a magnet to which magnetic materials are attracted. They are near
the ends of a bar magnet and occur in pairs of equal strength.

Note: There can never be a one pole existing on its own (monopole), if a magnet is cut
into small pieces each piece will have its own South and North pole.

Illustration: Poles of a bar magnet

c. North and South pole

117
If a magnet is supported so that it can swing in a horizontal plane it comes to rest with
one pole, the north-seeking pole or North (N) pole pointing roughly towards the Earth’s
north pole, a south-seeking pole or South (S) pole pointing towards the Earth’s south
pole. A magnet can therefore be used as a compass.

Illustration: South an d North poles

d. Law of magnetic poles

If the N pole of a magnet is brought near the N pole of a sus pended magnet repulsion
occurs i.e. the suspended magnet moves away. The two south poles also repel. By
contrast, N and S poles always attract. The law of magnetic poles summarises these
facts and states that:

Note: A magnetic material is attracted to both South and North poles of a magnet by
inducing an opposite pole on the near end of the magnetic material. This means
attraction can not be used to determine whether an object is a magnet or not. The only
reliable test for a magnet is REPULSION since similar poles would repel each other.

Like poles repel and unlike poles attract

118
 Magnetic and Non-magnetic materials

A magnetic material is one which can be magnetized and is attracted to magnets. All strongly magnetic
materials contain iron, nickel, or cobalt. For example, steel is mainly iron.

Strongly magnetic metals like these are called ferromagnetics. They are descried as hard or soft
depending on how well they keep their magnetism when magnetized.

Hard magnetic materials such as steel and alloys called Alcomax and Magnadur are difficult to magnetize
but do not readily lose their magnetism. They are used for permanent magnets.

Soft magnetic materials such as iron and Mumetal are relatively easy to magnetize but their magnetism is
temporal. They are used in the cores of electromagnets and transformers because their magnetic effect
can be switched o or off or reversed easily.

Illustration: Hard and soft magnetic material

In the above diagrams it shows that iron is a soft magnetic material while steel is a hard magnetic
material.

Non- magnetic materials can not be magnetized unlike magnetic materials. These include metals such as
copper, brass, zinc, tin and aluminium.

119
 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL

Procedure:

A strip of iron and a strip of steel of the same dimensions, both initially unmagnetised are placed side by
side in contact with a pole of a magnet as shown below.

Observations:

Both strips become magnetized by induction, and on dipping their free ends into iron filings it is noticed
that slightly more cling to the iron than steel. If both strips are held firmly in the fingers while the magnet

120
is removed it is noticed that practically all the iron filings fall from the iron strip while few fall from steel
strip.

Conclusion:

Iron is a soft magnetic material while steel is a hard magnetic material.

INDUCED MAGNETISM

Materials like iron and steel are attracted to a magnet because they themselves become magnetized
when a magnet is nearby. The magnet induces some magnetism in them. The induced pole nearest the
magnet is opposite of the pole of the magnet.

Induced magnetism can be used to from a ‘magnetic chain’ as shown below.

Illustration: Induced magnetism

DOMAIN THEORY OF MAGNETISM

The domain theory of magnetism regards each individual atom or molecule of a magnetic material as a
small magnet with north and south pole, i.e. as a dipole. A close group of atoms (domain) may have the
magnetic axis in the same direction (fig. a). Given that the heads of the arrows represent the north poles,

121
the net effect of the domain is represented by a single arrow. In an un-magnetized specimen the axes in
the domains lie in closed chains, or pointing in random directions thereby canceling out or giving very
small net magnetism (fig. b). When all the domains are aligned in one direction the specimen is
magnetized with the poles near the end (fig. c).

Illustration: Domain theory of magnetism

MAGNETIC SATURATION

Not all the dipoles and or domains of a magnetic material can be aligned in one direction. Thi s means
there is a maximum aligned of domains and or dipoles of a magnetic material. When no further alignment
of dipoles is possible the material is said to be magnetically saturated.

Methods of Magnetization

There are two methods of magnetization whi ch are the electrical and stroking methods.

a)Electrical method

The best method of making a magnet is to use the magnetic effect of an

electric current.

Procedure: A steel bar is put inside a solenoid (a cylindrical conducting

coil wound with 500 or more turns of insulated copper wire is connected in series with a 6 or 12 V
electrical battery and switched on as shown below). A short but very large pulse of electric current
through the solenoid produces a strong magnetic field. This magnetizes the steel bar by aligning the
magnetic dipoles in the iron core.

122
A rule for poles: The RIGHT- HAND RULE

The polarity of the magnet depends on the direction of flow of the electrical current. This is determined
by the right–hand rule. It states that if the fingers of the right-hand grip the solenoid in the direction of
the current (convectional -flows from positive to negative terminal)
the THUMB points to the North pole.

Illustration: The Right-Hand rule

b)Stroking method

Two methods can be used;

i)Single touch: in this method, a (steel) bar is stroked from one end to end several times in the same
direction with one pole of a magnet Between successive strokes the pole is lifted high above the bar,
otherwise magnetism already induced in it will tend to be
weakened.

The disadvantage of the above method is that it

produces magnets in which one pole is nearer the end of
the bar than the other.

ii)Divided touch is better than single touch. In this method the (steel) bar is stroked from the centre
outwards with unlike poles of two magnets simultaneously as below.

123
NB: The polarity produced at that end of the bar (for both methods) where the stroking finishes is
opposite kind to that of the stroking pole.

DEMAGNETIZATION

Anything which tends to disarrange the parallel magnetic dipoles in a magnet will reduce its magnetism.

 Storing a magnet without keepers will weaken its magnetism over a period of time.
 Heating a magnet to a high temperature causes greatly increased vibrations of its atoms which
will totally destroy any magnetization of the material.
 Dropping and knocking magnets can disarrange tiny magnetic dipoles.
 An alternatingcurrent in an electromagnet can be used to demagnetize magnets. The change in
direction of current disorganizes the dipoles and doma ins.

MAGNETIC FIELDS

The space surrounding a magnet where it produces a magnetic force is called a magnetic field, and
contains something we call magnetic flux.

Magnetic flux is a vector quantity and, like all vectors, has magnitude and direction. It may be represented
by magnetic filed lines.

Direction of Magnetic Filed Lines

The direction of the field at any point should be the direction of the force on a N pole and it can be
determined by;

a) Plotting compass
A plotting compass is a small pivoted magnet in a glass case with non-magnetic metal walls.

Procedure;

 Place a bar magnet on a sheet of paper and draw its

outline.

124
  Position the plotting compass near one pole of the magnet and mark dots A and B at
the end of its needle ien and s poles
 Position the plotting copass needle pole originally at A now at B and mark with another
dot (C) the position of the other neddle pole.
 Continue to plot points in the direction indicated by the N pole of the compass needle
until reaching the N pole of the magnet.
 Join up the dots to show the magnetic field
lines.

b) Iron filing method

Procedure;

 Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet.

 Sprinkle iron filings thinly and evenly onto the paper.
 Tap the paper gently.

Observations:

The iron filings should form patterns of the lines of force. Each filing turns in the direction of the field
when the paper is tapped.This method is quick but no use for weak fields.

Typical Field Patterns

a) Single bar magnet

b) Combined magnetic field due to two neighbouring magnets can also be plotted to give patterns
like those shown below.

In figure a, where two like poles are facing each other, the
point X is called neutral point.

At X the field due to one magnet cancels out that due to

other and there are no lines of force.

125
ELECTROMAGNETS

An electromagnet is a coil of wire wound on a soft iron or Mumetal core.

NB. If an electric current is passed through a wire, a weak magnetic field is produced. The field has three
features:

 The magnetic field lines are circular

 The field is strongest close to the wire
 Increasing the current increases the strength of the field

The direction of the

magnetic field
produced by a
current is given by
RIGHT HAND GRIP
RULE, as on the
figure above.

A current produces
a stronger magnetic field in a solenoid than in one straight wire. The magnetic field by a current-carrying
coil has these features:

 The field is similar to that of a bar magnet, and there are magnetic poles at the ends of the
coil.
 Increasing the current increases the strength of magnetic field
 Increasing the number of turns on the coil increases the strength of the field

126
Unlike an ordinary permanent magnet, an electromagnet can be switched on or off. When current flows
through the coil, it produces a magnetic field. This magnetizes the core, creating a magnetic field about a
thousand times stronger the coil by itself. With an iron or Mumetal core, the magnetism is only
temporary, and is lost as soon as the current is switched off. Steel would not be suitable as a core bec ause
it would become permanently magnetized.

USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS

a) The magnetic relay

When the switch S in the input circuit is

closed, a current flows through the
electromagnet. This pulls the iron
armature towards it, which closes the
contacts C. As a result the current flows
through the motor.

b) The circuit breaker

A circuit breaker is an automatic switch which cuts off the current in a

circuit if this rises above a specified value. It has the same effect as a fuse
but, unlike a fuse, can be reset after it has tripped.

In the type shown here, the current flows through two contacts and also
through an electromagnet. If the current gets too high, the pull of the
electromagnet becomes strong enough to release the iron catch, so the
contacts open and stop the current. Pressing the reset button closes the
contacts again.

c) Electric bell

An electric bell contains an electromagnet that repeatedly switches itself off and on rapidly, moving the
bell hammer as it does so. The arrangement is called a ‘make or break’ circuit. When you press the switch,
current flows through the electromagnet, which pulls the hammer across so that it strikes the gong. The
movement separates the contacts and switches off the electromagnet. So the hammer springs back, the
contacts close, the electromagnet pulls the hammer across again….. and so on.

127
USES OF PERMANENT MAGNETS

 Loudspeakers
 Generators
 Ammeter
 Electric drill

MAGNETIC SHIELDING

Magnetic materials affect magnetic

field in which it is placed. The lines of
force are drawn towards the magnetic
material as shown below. For diagrams
a) and b) the bar magnet induces
magnetism in the soft iron materials. In
diagram c) the lines of force moves
along the material of the iron ring and
do not pass through the space in the
middle of the ring. A plotting compass
placed in the middle of the ring does
not experience any magnetic effect of
the bar magnet. This effect is called magnetic shielding.

Exercises:

Q1. The diagram below shows an electromagnet and I is the convectional current flowing in the circuit.

128
 a) What is the method used to locate the poles of the bar magnet called?
b) Describe the method identified above in (a).
c) Use the method to label the poles resulting in the iron bar.
d) What factors affect the strength of an electromagnet?

Q2. The diagrams below show the direction of magnetic force between two ends of bar magnets.

a) What are the polarities at

(i) a is ----------------------pole
(ii) b is ----------------------pole
b) What is position X called?
c) Describe and explain what would happen when a few iron filings are placed at point X.

d) Complete the field pattern between the poles of bar magnets below by indicating the direction
of the magnetic force.

Q3. The diagram below shows two soft iron nails hanging from the end of a magnet.

a) What is the effect that the magnet has on the nails

called?
b) What are the poles at the free ends the nails?
c) What would happen when another nail is brought in
very close to the free ends of the nails? Explain.
d) What is difference between the magnetic properties
of iron and steel?

129
e) What is likely to happen between the free ends of the iron nails in the diagram below?

f) What are the polarities at

(i) a is ----------------pole
(ii) b is ----------------pole

Q4. The diagram below shows a method of magnetizing a

steel bar.

a) On the diagram above

(i) Show the direction of the
current.
(ii) Label the north pole of
magnetized steel bar.
b) Explain how you arrived at your answer to
(a) (ii).
c) State two uses of an electromagnet.
d) What would be the effect of using a soft iron
bar instead of steel bar?

Q5.The diagram below shows a method of magnetization.

a) Name the method.

b) What pole is induced at B?
c) The diagram below shows a bar magnet that is then cut into halves. Label the poles
of the halves and explain how you arrived at the labeling.

130
Illustration: Magnetic screening by soft iron hollow box

Q6. a) What is magnetic shielding and the material used in magnetic shielding?

b) State one application of magnetic shielding.

131
 ELECTRICITY

ELECTROSTATIC (STATIC ELECTRICITY)

All matter contain many electrons. When some of them are transferred from the surface of one object to
the surface of another, they produce what is known as static electricity.

Static electricity is transfer of charge (electrons)

STATIC CHARGE

This refers to charge that is not moving. The charge is absorbed in materials that have very few free
electrons.

If a sweater is taken off a crackling sound may be heard and, if in dark, may see sparks. A person
sometimes feels an electric shock after walking across a nylon carpet.

In these examples you have become charged byfriction (rubbing). There is a transfer of electrons
between you and your sweater or you and the carpet.

 If a material gains electrons it becomes negatively charged.

 If electrons are lost the body becomes positively charged.

TYPES OF ELECTRICAL CHARGE

There are types of electrical charges, namely;

a) Negative charge (-) -which is carried by an electron.

b) Positive charge (+) – which is carried by a proton.
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C). Coulomb is the quantity of electric charge. The symbol of charge
is Q.

Example

If a polythene is rubbed with a duster it becomes negatively charged (gains electrons), but if an acetate or
perplex rod is rubbed with the same duster it becomes positively charged (looses electrons). Why does
this happen?

Explanation

132
In an atom negatively charged electrons orbit a small but massive nucleus that contains positively charged
protons and uncharged neutrons. The size of the charge on an electron is equal in size to the charge on a
proton. There are equal number of electrons and protons, so an atom is uncharged (electrically neutral).

Therefore, when polythene is rubbed with a duster, electrons rub off the duster more easily than they rub
off the polythene. The polythene therefore gains electrons and becomes negatively charged. The duster
looses electrons and becomes positively charged. However the duster is not a good insulator and
electrons from the earth quickly pass through the hand that holds it and neutralise the positive charge.

Exercise: Explain how the acetate rod

acquires the positive charge and how
and why the duster remains uncharged
(neutral). Use diagram b).

N.B.*only electrons can move between

rubbed objects.

*rubbing materials together does not make electrical charge. It just separates charges that are already
there.

*a negatively charged object has atoms which have more electrons than protons.

*a positively charged object has atoms which have fewer electrons than protons.

133
Forces between Charges

Procedure:

 Rub two polythene rods with a cloth

 Balance the two charged polythene rods on pivots.
 Bring another charged polythene rod near one polythene rod and a charged perplex rod
near another charged polythene rod.

Observations:

Conclusion: Like charges repel; unlike

charges attract (This statement is
sometimes called the Law of electric
charges)

INDUCED CHARGE (ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION)

Charges that “appear” on objects because there is a charged object nearby are called induced charges.

Example of Electrostatic InductioN

The example below shows how induced charge may result in attraction.

The diagram on the left shows what happens if a positively charged rod is brought
near a small piece of aluminium foil. Electrons in the foil are pulled towards the
rod which leaves the bottom of the foil with a net positive charge. As a result, the
top of the foil is attracted to the rod, while the bottom is repelled. However, the
attraction is stronger because the attracting charges are closer than the repelling
ones.

134
 Exercise: Draw the arrangement of positive and
negative charges in the spherical ball and explain the
observation thus made.

DETECTION OF CHARGE

Electrostatic charge can be detected using a gold leaf electroscope as

shown below.

If a charged object is placed near the cap, charges are induced in the
electroscope. Those in the gold leaf and metal plate repel, so the leaf rises.

Illustration: Gold Leaf detecting charge

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Conductors: are materials that let electrons pass them. Metals are the best electrical conductors. Some of
their electrons are so loosely held to their atoms that they can pass freely between them (metals

135
generally have a sea of electrons). These free electrons also make metals good thermal conductors. eg
silver, gold, copper , aluminium

Insulators: These are materials that hardly conduct at all. Their electrons are tightly held to atoms and are
not free to move, although they can be transferred through rubbing. Carbon is the only non metal that
conducts electricity in the form graphite.

Charge Distribution on Different-Shaped Conductors

The amount of charge that accumulates at any given point on a surface depends on the curvature at that
point. The greater the curvature i.e. the sma ller the radius, the greater the charge concentration at that
point. There is therefore a
greater concentration of
charge at the pointed end
of a pear-shaped
conductor.

Effects of Discharging of Static Charge

136
 Acommonexample of discharging is the occurrence of lightning.

A tall building is protected by a lightning conductor consisting of a thick copper strip on

the out side of the building connecting metal spikes at the top to a metal plate in the
ground, figure below.

Thunderclouds carry charges and a negatively charged one passing overhead repels
electrons from the spikes to the earth. The points of the spikes are left with a large
positive charge (charge concentrates on sharp points) which removes electrons from
near by air molecules, so charging them positively and causing them to be repelled
from the spike. This effect, called action at points, results in an ‘electric wind’ of
positive air molecules streaming upwards to cancel some of the charge on the clouds. If
a flash does occur it is less violent and the conductor gives it an easy path to ground.

Electric fields and forces

We have seen that a charged object can affect other objects nearby without touching them. This action at
a distance can be explained by what is called the electric field of the charged object.

An electric charge sets up an electric field in the space surrounding it and an electric force is exerted on
any charged body placed on the field. Electric fields may be represented by electricfield lines.

 An electric field line is a line drawn in an electric field such that its direction at any point
gives the direction of the electric field at that point.

137
  The direction of an electric field at any point is the direction of the force on a small positive
charge placed at the point.
 Such a small (point) positive charge would be repelled by positive charge and be attracted to
negative charge.

Electric field of point positive and negative charges

Interaction of Unlike and Like charges

Attraction repulsion

Unlike charges like charges

Below are two parallel electrodes with unlike charges, the arrows show the direction of the electric field .
When he electric fields line are closer it shows a stronger electric field.

138
Exercises

1.

2.

139
 1. Two metal spheres supported by insulating stands are held in
contact to each other and a negatively charged rod placed near sphere B
as shown.
a) Draw the induced charges in both sphere and explain
how this chare distribution results. [5]
b) The spheres are separated by their stands while the
negatively charged rod is in proximity of sphere B. Draw the net charges
in the separate spheres after they are separated.
[4]

4. A positively charged rod is brought near the cap of a gold leaf electroscope as shown below.

On the left side of the diagram above indicate by a diagram the possible observation made and charge
arrangement in the gold leaf. Explain the arrangement in terms of charge movement. [8]

140
 5. The diagram shows a light uncharged aluminium ball suspended with an insulating thread. A
negatively charged plate is held near the ball.

What happens to the ball?

A It moves towards the plate.

B It moves away from the plate.

C It will swing to and fro next to the plate.

D It does not move.

6. The diagram below shows a negatively charged strip held near a metal rod, EF.

Which statement correctly describes the movement of charge?

A. The positive charge in the charged strip moves

towards E.

B. The positive charge in the metal rod moves

towards E.

C. The negative charge in the metal rod toward F.

D. The negative charge in the metal rod moves towards E.

6. An aircraft flies below a negatively cha rged thunder cloud. Movement of free electrons

causes electrostatic charges to be induced in the aircraft.

a) Show the positions and signs of the induced charges on the

aircraft. [2]
b) Explain, in terms of the movement of electrons, the
distribution of the charges you have shown. [1]

_______________________________________________

141
c) What will happen to the induced charges when the aircraft flies away from the cloud?
[1]

142
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Common Circuitry symbols

ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electric current is the rate of flow of charge or electrons.

 The electrons move from negative terminal to the positive terminal.

 The moving electrons are the loosely held or valence electrons.

The charge that produces attraction and repulsion between charged objects also produce electric currents
when it flows in conductors.

Electric charge can flow continuously only round unbroken conducting paths called closed circuits.

The quantity of electric charge Q is measured in Coulombs (symbol C)


1 C = 1/1.6*10 -19 electrons
 6*10 18 electrons = 1C

143
The size or ‘strength’ of an electric current, I, is measured in amperes (symbol A).

Relationship between I and Q

Current = Charge / time

OR

I=Q/t

A current of 1 ampere is a flow of charge at a rate of one coulomb per second.

Example

If a charge of 180C flows through a lamp every 2 minutes, what is the electric current in the lamp?

Q = 180C

t = 2 minutes = 2*60s = 120s

using I = Q/t  I = 180C/120s = 1.5A

A battery circulates charge round a circuit for 30s. If the current in the circuit is 5A, what quantity of
charge passes through the battery?

Q= It =5A*30s =5C/s*30s = 150C

Current direction

Some circuit diagrams have arrowheads marked on them. These show the conventionalcurrent ( I )
direction: the direction from + to – round the circuit. Electrons actually flow the other way.

Illustration: direction of conventional current

144
TYPES OF CIRCUITS

There are two types of circuits, namely;

a) Series circuit: A circuit that contains only one path.

b) Parallel circuit: A circuit with more than one path.
Illustration: Series and Parallel Circuits

Current Measurement

Ammeters, as their name suggest, are ‘amp meters’ and measure current in amperes. The ampere (A) is
the SI unit of current. The current may be measured with an ammeter placed in series with other
electrical appliances. An ammeter has a low resistance, so that it introduces as little resistance as possible
in a circuit.

Rem: the symbol for ammeter is

An ammeter has both negative and positive terminals and should be connected in series with other
electrical components observing polarity. There are ammeters with different ranges as illustrated below.

145
Measurement of Current in Series Circuit

Connect the circuit as shown below. Measure current at different positions (1, 2, 3, etc).

Results : Typical results

Position Current (A)

146
Hence ; A= A1 =A2 =A3

Conclusion: Current is the same at every point in a series circuit.

147
 Measurement of Current in Parallel Circuit

Connect the circuit as shown in the figure and measure current in the respective paths and compare them.

Electromotive force (e.m.f)

In a cell or battery (or other sources of electrical energy) chemical changes take place which produc e energy
needed to drive charge round the circuit.

The electromotive force is defined as the total energy expended (work done) per coulomb of electricity when
charge is driven form negative terminal to positive terminal inside the cell. Work is done again st electric field
which is directed from positive terminal to negative terminal.

e.m.f is measured in volts, e.m.f is normally denoted with E.

E is always greater than V unless no charge flows on the circuit, when E = V.

There is a step of energy from the negative to the positive terminal which is obtained from the chemical reaction
in the cell. This step-up of energy puts the positive terminal at a high potential difference to drive the charge round
the circuit.

The energy per coulomb required to drive the charge from positive to the negative terminal in the external circuit is
the potential difference (p.d).

Potential difference (p.d)

148
In electric potential, work is done against electric field when charge is moved from a lower potential level to a
higher potential level. The difference between the two levels is known as the potential difference (p.d) or voltage,
and is measured in volts (V).

If one joule of work is done in moving one coulomb of charge between two points, then the p.d between the two
points is one volt.

OR

The p.d between two points in a circuit is one volt if one joule of electrical energy is transferred to other forms of
energy when one coulomb passes from one point to other.

i.e.

Volt = Joule/ Coulomb

In symbols

V = W/Q {energy per unit charge}

It follows from the definition that, if 2C of charge is moved between two points, 2J work is done.

V = W/Q but Q = It

Substituting Q, we get;

V = W/t *1/I

Therefore p.d may also be defined as the rate of dissipation of energy per

unit current .

149
OR

W = V*I*t

Voltages round circuits

a) Series

The voltage at terminals of a battery equals the sum of the voltages across the devices in the external circuit from
one battery terminal to the other.

V= V1 + V2 + V3

b) Parallel

The voltages across devices in parallel in a circuit are equal.

150
V = V1 = V2

C) Cells in series

V= V1 + V2 + V3

Greater voltages are obtained by connecting cells in series.

d) cells in parallel

If two 1.5V cells are connected in parallel as above, the voltage at terminals P,Q is still
1.5 V but the arrangement behaves like a large cell and will last longer.

Voltmeters

A voltmeter is used to measure the p.d between two points in a circuit, so obviously it should be placed in parallel
(or across) with whatever is between the two points. Including the voltmeter in a circuit must not alter the p.d it is
supposed to measure.

Voltmeters like ammeters have polarity, i.e. + (red) of the voltmeter is connected to the + of the power source,
similarly – (black) of the voltmeter to the – of the power source.

151
 Rule: a voltmeter should have a very large resistance and be connected in
parallel.

Reading voltmeters

Voltmeters have different ranges and scales depending on the amount of voltage it is intended to be measured.

i.e.

152
Resistance

Electrons move more easily through some conductors than others when p.d is applied. The opposition of a
conductor to current is called resistance. A good conductor has low resistance and a poor conductor has high
resistance.

The resistance is where the electrons give up the p.d they carry from the battery (power source). E.g. the
resistance of a lamp causes the electrical energy to change to other forms, such as heat and light. If a lamp
filament had no resistance, no energy change could occur in it and it would not light up.

Experiment

Title: Investigation of Ohm’s law, by measuring resistance using ammeter and voltmeter.

Apparatus:

 ammeter
 voltmeter
 rheostat
 fixed resister
 connecting wires

153
  battery

Procedure:

 Arrange apparatus as shown below.

 After closing the switch, adjust the rheostat (variable resistor) until a suitable current, I, is recorded on the
ammeter.
 Record both this reading and the readings of I and V. suitable values of I are 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 A.
 Tabulate the results in a table and calculate the value V/I.
 Plot a graph of V against I
 Draw a conclusion

Results and analysis

Voltage (V) /V Current I /A V/I = R (Ω)

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Graph of V us I

Gradient = V / I which is the resistance.

Note: Ohm’s law is R = V/ I.

154
The three quantities are related as shown in the triangle below.

The ohm is the resistance of a conductor through which the current is 1 A flow when the p.d. between the ends is
1 volt.

Examples

1. If a current of 4A flows through a car headlamp when it is connected to 12V car battery, providing a
voltage of 12V across the lamp, what is its resistance?
Solution:

  4 A, V  12V
12V
R V   3
I 4A

2. What voltage would be needed to drive a current of 0.2A through a torch lamp of resistance 22.5  ?
Solution:

R  22.5, I  0.2 A
V  I  R  0.2 A  22.5  4.5V

3. What is the resistance of the resistor?

1.5V
R V   0.3
I 5A

Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Conductor (Wire)

155
 The resistance of a conductor depends on three two factors or properties:

a) its dimensions (length and cross section area)

b) the type of material or nature of substance
c) temperature
Experiments have shown that the resistance of a wire of a given materi al is

(i) directly proportional to the length  ie. R   .

It therefore follows that a long wire should have more resistance than a short wire of the same material.

(ii) Inversely proportional to its cross -section area A, ie R  1A.

This means that a thick wire has low resistance while a thin wire has high resistance of the same material.

Combining (i) and (ii) gives

where: R is the resistance (in )

 (in  m ) is a constant , called the resistivity of a material.

A is cross sectional area (in m 2 )

 isht length of material (in m)

Resistors in series

Resistors shwon are in series, the samecurrent I

flows through each and the total voltage V
across all three equals the separate voltages
across them, i.e.

V = V1 + V2 + V3 ………..1

But VI = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3 ………….2

156
 Substituting equation 2 in 1, we get:

V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 , since R is the combined resistance we can write,

IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Dividing by I through out we get:

R = R1 + R2 + R3

Resistors in parallel

In general the effective resistance of resistors in parallel is given by;

1 1 1 1
   .......
R R1 R2 RN

where N represent the number of resistors or the Nth resistor.

Internal Resistance

Rem: Work is done against electric field which inside the cell to drive charge from negative to positive terminal.
There is therefore some internal resistancer of the electrolyte within the cell.

157
Illustration: Internal resistance, r

Exercise

The diagram below shows the structure of a mains light bulb.

a) What effect of electricity is used during by the light bulb in

operation?
b) Write the main energy changes in the bulb?
c) What is the purpose of using a coiled wire filament?

COLOUR CODED RESISTORS

Practical resistors have colour codes representing their values. The first three colours give the 1 st digit, 2nddigit and
the3 rd number of zeros, the fourth one if available give tolerance and normally: silver = 10%, gold = 5%, red =
2% and brown = 1%.

Summary on colour codes fro resistors

Colour 1 st band =1 st digit 2 nd band = 2 nd digit 3 rd band = zeros

Black 0 0 none

brown 1 1 one

Red 2 2 two

orange 3 3 three

158
Yellow 4 4 four

Green 5 5 five

Blue 6 6 six

violet 7 7 seven

Grey 8 8 eight

white 9 9 nine

Example: What is the value of a resistor colour coded violet green orange gold?

violet green orange gold

7 5 000  5%

The value of the resistor is 750005%

Exercise:

a) What is the value of resistor colour coded grey white white silver ?

b) Give the colour code of a 24 M10% resistor.

I / V Graphs: Ohm’s law

a) Metallic conductors (Ohmic conductors)

Metals and some alloys give I-V graphs which are a straight line through the origin, so long as temperature is
constant. I is directly proportional to V i.e. I α V. Doubling V doubles I, etc. Such conductors obey Ohm’s law, stated
as follows;

The current through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the voltage

across its ends if the temperature and other conditions are constant.

159
They are called Ohmic or Linear conductor and since I  V , it follows that V  a constant. The resistance of
I
an Ohmic conductor therefore does not change when voltage does.

b) Non-Ohmic conductors

Non-Ohmic materials have a non-linear I  V relationship’. One common semi conducting device that has non-
linear I  V characteristics is the junction diode (semiconductors)

The resistance for this device is low for currents in one direction and high for currents in the reverse direction. In
fact, most modern electronic devices, such as transistors, have non-linear current – potential difference
relationships; their proper operation depends on the particular way I which they violate ohm’s law.

Limitations of Ohms law

Ohmic resistors will become non-ohmic if they become very hot..

Under normal working conditions a resistor is ohmic, its
résistance does not depend on the current or the p.d. applied to
it. If too much current flows through the resistor, it will become
too hot and its resistance will start to increase as shown below.

For ‘normal’ currents (0 to X) the resistor is ohmic (i.ep.d. is directly proportional to I). If the current exceeds X, the
resistor starts to heat up and become non-Ohmic (i.ep.d. is no longer proportional to I).

160
 EXERCISES

1) Study the circuit below and answer the following questions.

a) Find I 1 and I 3 .
b) Find the p.d. across
(i) R1 , R2
c) Find R1 and R2 .
2) The figures a) and b) below show some electrical components connected together.
Draw the same circuits using electrical symbols.

PRACTICAL ELECTRIC CIRCUITRY

ELECTRIC POWER

Power is the rate at which energy is transformed (changed from one form to another). The SI unit of p ower is the
watt (W).

161
 W
and in symbols P but W  IVt
t

IVt
P  or or
t

Note that W  E  IVt

E must be in joules, I in amperes and V in volts.

Examples

1. Calculate the power of the lamp in the circuit below.

Solution:

To calculate power of an electrical appliance , multiply the current I through it by the p.d. across it.

162
 I  0.25 A
V  240V

P  IV
 0.25 A  240V

 60W
The lamp is transferring 60J of electrical energy into heat and light each second.

2.How much electrical energy in joules does a 100 watt lamp transfer in
a) 1 second
b) 5 seconds
c) 1 minute
solutions:

3. What is the power of an appliance rated 12V 3A?

Solution:

I  3 A,V  12V

P  I  V  3 A 12V  36W

4. How many joules of electrical energy are transferred per second by a 6V 0.5A lamp?

Solution:

I  0.5 A,V  6V

163
 P  I V  0.5 A  6V  3.0W

3 joules are transferred per second.

PAYING FOR ELECTRICITY

Electrical supply companies use the kilowatt-hour (kWh), rather than the joule-second as their unit of energy
measurement.

One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy supplied when an appliance whose power rating 1kW is used for 1 hour.

Energy in kilowatt hours is calculated as follows:

Note: 1kJ=1kWh

Example:

What is the energy supplied to a 2kW heater used for 3 hours?

 2kW  3hr  6kWh

The cost of electricity

The cost of running individual electrical appliances can be calculated as follows.

Note: a unit of electricity= 1kWh.

Example: The energy cost per unit is 10 thebe. Calculate the cost of using

a) an electrical fire rated 3kW for 5 hours.

Solution:

Cost  Energy Supplied  Cost per Unit

164
  3kW  5h  
10thebe
 150thebe
kWh

b) 5 50w bulbs for 12 hours.

Cost  Energy Supplied  Cost per Unit

Energy Supplied  Power  time

 5  60W  12h  0.3kW  12h  3.6kWh  3.6units

 Cost  Energy Supplied  Cost per Unit

10thebe
 3.6units   36thebe
unit

c) a 1200w hairdryer for 15 minutes.

1
Power  1200W  1.2kW , time  15minutes  h
4

Energy Supplied  Power  time

1
 1.2kW  h  0.3kWh  0.3units
4

 Cost  Energy Supplied  Cost per Unit

10thebe
 0.3units   3thebe
unit

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS AND SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY

USES OF ELECTRICITY

These are some of the many uses of electricity:

(a) Lighting
(b) Operation of machines
(c) Security
(d) Communication (e.g telephones)
(e)
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

165
These are conditions and situations that make the use of electricity unsafe or dangerous.

The main electrical hazards are: (i) damaged insulation

(ii) overheating of cables

(iii) damp conditions

(iv) overloading of sockets

1. If cables are worn (insulation stripped off) and only a few strands are carrying current, then the resistance
becomes much higher. The wire becomes hot when current passes through and could cause fire.
2. Overloading of cables is often due to putting too ma ny appliances in one mains socket. If all appliances
are used at once, then a large current will flow, which will overheat the cable, leading to fire outbreak.
3. Damp conditions: If your hand or body is wet, the body resistance decreases. If you then touch a bare
wire the current is likely to flow through you causing either severe burning or heart attack. For this
reason, toilet or bathroom switches are either pull cords or outside the room.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY

FUSE

Symbol:

Function: To protect appliances from excessive (overload of) current.

How it works: A fuse is a wire made of a material with low melting point. If a fuse is part of the circuit, the metal
will eventually melt as it overheats due to increase in current, and break the circuit. Current wil l then stop flowing
because of the gap which results thereafter. Fuses must be connected to the Live wire. This ensures that when
the fuse melts, the appliance is isolated from the live terminal.

FUSE RATINGS

Plugs are normally fitted with 3A or 13A fuses. The value printed on the fuse tells the value of current needed to
“blow” (melt) the fuse. A fuse rated 3A will melt when a current of 3A flows through it. A fuse rated 13A will melt
when a current of 13A flows through it, and so on.

166
Note: The value of the fuse should always be more than the actual current drawn by the appliance, but as close
as possible.

THE EARTH WIRE

Function: safety and prevention of electrical shocks.

How it works: Most appliances are connected to the wire called the EARTH WIRE. One end of the earth wire is
connected to the metal case of the appliances. The other end is connected via the wall sockets to the metal pipe
outside the house, then to the ground.

The earth wire provides a path of zero electrical resistance from the c ase of the appliance to the ground. If the
earth wire accidentally touches the metal case of the appliance, a large current will flow through the earth wire
and the fuse will melt, isolating the appliance. Without the earth wire the case would become live and anyone
touching it would have a dangerous electric shock.

DOUBLE INSULATION

Most modern appliances have plastic cases. There is no risk of getting shock from a plastic case since it is an
insulator. Such materials are said to have a double insulation because:

(i) The live and neutral wires are covered in an insulating sheet(plastic)
(ii) The appliance itself is covered by an insulating case.

THE THREE PIN MAINS PLUG

The three pin mains plug has three pins connected to Live, Neutral and Earth wires.

The diagram below shows a correctly wired three pin mains plug.

167
LIVE wire (It is brow in colour): This is the most dangerous wire which carries and brings alternating current (a.c.)
at a high voltage.

NEUTRAL wire (It is Blue in colour): After the appliance

the current flows through the neutral wire. The voltage is
zero in the neutral wire. It completes the circuit.

EARTH wire (It is Green or Green with Yellow stripes in

colour): It conducts current leaks into the ground and
stops electric shocks.

The diagram above shows how the wires of the three pin plug fit into an electrical appliance.

A HOUSE ELECTRICITY SUPPLY

168
The house has two or three ring main circuits, which supply all the wall sockets. On each ring main there usually
about ten sockets. Notice that all the sockets are in parallel, so the full mains voltage is supplied to everything that
is plugged into the socket. The advantage of using a ring main circuit is that current can flow two ways into a
particular socket. So the connecting wires can be thinner, because they carry a smaller current than they would do
otherwise.

In addition the live and neutral wires, the ring main circuit carries an earthwire ( for safety reasons).

The lights of a house have their own circuit. Again each light fitting is i n parallel, so that each light bulb receives the
mains voltage of 240 V. Light bulbs draw a small current (about 0.4 A for a 100W bulb) so about ten lights can be
safely run through a 5 A fuse.

Note: all fuses are connected to the live wire.

Fault finding

169
When an appliance stops working it may be due to a fault that is easy to rectify. Before running helter skelter
looking for a technician, it is wise to try to diagnose a fault.

Diagnostic steps;

 Check that the appliance is switched on.

 Check that the power is on,. Do other appliances work
 Check the fuse. If it is blown replace it. If the new fuse blows check for a short circuit.
 Check that the plug is correctly connected, with no loose wires or untidy strands of wire sticking out.
 Check that the cable connection to the appliance is firm
 Check that the insulation is in good condition. If it looks worn or torn replace it with a similar cable.

If after checking all the above, the appliance is still not working, take it to a trained technician.

ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

Electromagntic Induction

1) Induced e.m.f. and current in a moving a) wire and b)coil

When a wire is moved across a magnetic field, as shown below, a small e.m.f (voltage) is generated in the wire. The
effect is called ELECTREOMAGNETIC INDUCTION. Strictly speaking we say ‘an e.m.f is induced in the wire’. If the
wire forms part of a complete circuit, the e.m.f makes current to flow and can be detected by a galvanometer
which is sensitive to small currents. The pointer moves to the right or left of the zero depending on the direction of
the current.

Note

The induced e.m.f or current can be increased by:

170
  moving the wire faster
 using a stronger magnet
 increasing the length of the wire in the magnetic field – for example, by looping the wire through the field
several times, as shown above.
2) Induced e.m.f. and current in a coil due to a moving magnet

If a bar magnet is pushed into a coil, as shown below, an e.m.f is induced in the coil. In this case, it is the magnetic
field that is moving rather than the wire, but the results are the same; magnetic filed lines are being cut.

The induced e.m.f or current can be increased by:

 moving the magnet faster

 using a stronger magnet
 increasing the number of turns of the coil(as this increases the length of the wire cutting through the
magnetic field)

Direction of induced current

The direction of the induced current depends on the following factors.

 the direction of motion of the wire

 magnetic field direction
The direction of current can be predicted using FLEMING’S RUGHT HAND RULE as shown in the diagram below.

171
Note

Experiments with the magnet and the coil have also given the following results

 If the magnet is pulled out of the coil, the direction of the induced e.m.f (and current) is reversed.
 If the S pole is used rather than the N pole is pushed into the coil, this also reverses the current direction.
 If the magnet is held still, no magnetic filed lines are cut, so there is no induced e.m.f or current.

GENERATORS

Most of the electricity comes from huge generators in power stations. There are small generators in cars and some
in bicycles. These generators, or dynamos, all use the electromagnetic induction. When turned, they induce an
e.m.f (voltage) which can make current to flow. Most generators give out alternating current (a.c.)

A SIMPLE A.C GENERATOR(alternator)

Illustration: A.C generator

172
A simple a.c generator consists of a rectangular coil between the poles of a magnet. The ends of the coil are joined
to a two slip rings on the axle. Carbon brushes press against the slip rings.

How it works

The figure above shows the design of a very simple alternating current ( a.c.) generator. By turning the axle you
can make a coil of wire move through (cut ) a magnetic field. This causes a voltage ( EMF ) to be induced between
the ends of the coil ( this makes a current to flow). The slip rings are fixed to the coil and rotate with it. The
brushes are two contacts which rub against the slip rings and keep the coil connected to the outside part of the
circuit.

You can see how the voltage waveform, produced by this generator, looks on an oscilloscope screen.

 In position ( i ) the coil is vertical with AB and CD. In this position the sides CD and AB are moving parallel
the magnetic field. No voltage is generated since the wires are not cutting across the magnetic field lines.
 When the coil has been rotated through a ¼ turn to position ( ii ), the coil produces its greatest voltage.
Now the sides CD and AB are cutting through the magnetic field at the greatest rate.
 In position ( iii ), the coil is again vertical and no voltage is produced.
 In position ( iv ) a maximum voltage is produced, but in the opposite direction. Side AB is moving upwards
and side CD downwards.

The following all increase the maxi mum EMF ( and current ):

 Increasing the number of turns in the coil

 Increasing the area of the coil
 Using a stronger magnet

173
  Rotating the coil faster

Faster rotation also increases the frequency of the a.c.

THE TRANSFORMER

Symbol:

Function: To increase (step up) or decrease (step down) voltage supplied

to appliances.

Structure: A transformer is made up of two cols of insulated copper wire

wrapped around a laminated soft iron core. An alternating current is
supplied to the primary coil and an alternating e.m.f and current is
induced in the secondary coil.

Illustration: Transformer

How it works: The transformer has two coils wound around the same iron core.

The primary coil is an electromagnet: if an alternating current flows through the coil a magnetic field is produced
around it and the iron core becomes magnetized. Since the current is constantly changing in size and direction, the
field is also constantly changing.

The secondary coil is wound around the same iron core. The changing magnetic field from the electromagnet
induces an e.m.f in the secondary coil. The induced current will also alternate because the field is always changing.

Note: the transformer only works when an alternating current is supplied. The output e.m.f and current will also
be alternating, and with the same frequency as the supply current.

Step-up and step-down transformers:

174
When the primary and secondary coils have exactly the same number of turns the output voltage will be exactly
the same as the input voltage.

If the secondary (output) coil has more turns than the primary (input) coil the output voltage will be higher than
the input voltage. The transformer has increased the voltage. This type of a transformer is called a step up
transformer.

If the secondary (output) coil has fewer turns than the primary (input) coil the output voltage will be reduced. This
type of transformer is called a step down transformer.

Illustration: Step up/down transformers

The transformer Equation

The relationship between the voltages and number of turns in the coils is given by;

Example: A transformer has 1000 turns on the primary coil and 2500 turns on the secondary coil.

(a) Is this a step up or step down transformer? Step up

(b) If the transformer is used on a 220 V mains supply, what will be the output voltage?

Solution;

175
V p  220V
Vs  ?

Np

Vp

1000 220V
 Vs 
220V  2500  550V

N p  1000 Ns Vs 2500 Vs 1000
N s  2500

The output voltage will be 550V.

Current Changes in Transformers

If a transformer is 100% efficient, the electrical power input in the primary coil will be equal to electrical power
output that comes out of the secondary coil.

In a Step Up transformer the voltage is increased. This means that the current must be reduced in order for the
equation to remain balanced.

In a Step Down transformer the voltage is reduced, so the current must be increased in order for the equation to
remain balanced.

The formula can be rearranged to give;

Example:

A 100% efficient transformer increases 25 000 V to 400 000V. The current in the primary coil is 200 000 A.

a) What turns ration is needed?

Ratio of turns in secondary coil to turns in primary coil is

N s VS 400000V
 
N p Vp 25000V
 16

The ratio of Ns to Np is 16 to 1

Ns : N p
ie
16 : 1

176
 b) What is the i) power input and ii) power output?
i)

Power input  Input Voltage  Input Current

Pin  Vin  I in
 25000V  200000 A  500000000W  500MW

note: M = Mega = 10 6

ii) the transformer is 100% efficient hence;

Power output  Power input  500MW

The power output is 500MW

c) How much current flows out of the secondary coil?

Ip Vp I pV p 200000 A  25000V
  Is   Is   1250 A
Is Vs Vs 400000V

1250 A flows out of the secondary coil.

d) What is the advantage of stepping up the voltage in power transmissions?

This reduces current and makes it cheaper to transfer power using thinner and lighter cables as opposed
to heavier, thick and expensive cables needed for transmission of power at high current.

Note:

 If voltage is increased, current must decrease and visa versa.

 If voltage is doubled, current is halved. If voltage becomes 10 times smaller, current becomes 10 times
greater etc.

177
 RADAITION PHYSICS
RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation in the form of particles or waves (electromagnetic
radiation), or both, by some unstable nuclei.

Why do unstable nuclei disintegrate?

Radioactive decay is the loss of particles from unstable nucleus in order to achieve greater stability.

If a nucleus is unstable it may decay by;

 Losing an alpha (α) particle

 Losing a beta (β) particle
 Some nuclear changes which produce gamma (γ) rays

ALPHA (  ) DECAY

A nucleus emitting an alpha (  ) particle loses two protons and two neutrons. The  particle is positively
charged since it similar to the helium nucleus. Therefore;

 the atomic number Z decreases by 2

 the mass number A decreases by 4
 the neutron number N decreases by 2
Alpha particle is not that penetrative and can easily be stopped by clothing.

Alpha radiation can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields because it is charged.

The decay can be generally written as;

178
Example: Show the decay process of Radium 226 to Radon by emitting an alpha particle.

BETA (  ) DECAY

The other particle emission is beta decay. When a nucleus goes through beta decay, a neutron changes into a
proton and an electron.

The electron leaves the nucleus at very high speed while the proton stays in the nucleus. As a result beta particles
are more penetrative than alpha particles. The beta particles can however be stopped by 3 mm of aluminium o r
any metal. Since beta-particles are negatively charged they can also be deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

Note:  -particles are fast moving electrons.

The change of neutron to proton and electron can be shown as follows;

Note:  -decay increases the atomic number by 1.

The atomic mass of the parent nucleus does not change

The general equation for beta decay can be represented as;

179
Example: Show the decay process of Iodine-131 decaying to Xenon by beta decay.

GAMMA (   RAYS ) RADIATION

Gamma rays are very penetrative, short

wavelengthelectromagnetic radiation. Although it is
reduced, gamma radiation is not stopped by even thick
pieces of lead. Gamma radiation cannot be affected by
electric and magnetic fields because they are not charged.

The atomic number and atomic mass of a nucleus

undergoing gamma emission does not change only energy
is lost.

The diagram below shows the penetrative power of  ,  and  radiations.

Illustration: Penetrative power of  ,  and  radiations

DEFLECTION by ELECTRIC and MAGNETIC fields

The behaviour of the three kinds of radiation in magnetic field is summarized below. The deflections are found by
Fleming’s left hand rule (taking negative charge moving from the right as equivalent to positive (conventional)
current to the left)

Illustration:
Deflection by
Magnetic field

Note: Beta-
particles are
deflected more

180
than the alpha-particles because beta-particles are lighter than the alpha-particles.

Illustration: Deflection by Electric field

Alpha (  )-particles and beta (  )-particles are deflected

by electric field as shown above. The  -particle is repelled
by the positively charged plate and attracted to the
negatively charged one because it (  ) is positively
charged. The  -particle is similarly repelled by the
negatively charged plate and attracted the positively
charged one sine it is negatively charged.

BACKGROUND RADIATION

There is a small amount of radiation around us all the time because of radioactive

materials in the environment. This is called background radiation. It mainly comes

from natural sources such as the rocks, soil, air, building materials, foods and drinks

and even cosmic rays from space.

DETECTION

All the three types of radiation can be detected by a Geiger-Muller tube using their ionising effect.

Ionising effect: If electrons become detached from molecule in a gas, ions (charged particles) are produced and
the gas isionised. The molecules with missing electrons are the positive ions; detached electrons join on to other
molecules to form negative ions. As ions in a gas are free to move, an ionized gas can conduct electricity.

When the radiation from the radioactive source is measured, the reading also includes any background radiation
present. So an average reading for the background radiation alone must be also be found and subtracted.

Illustration: Geiger-Muller (GM) tube

181
The mica or “window” is thin enough to all even the alpha particle to pass through. When any of the radiation
enters the tube it ionizes the gas inside. This sets off a high-voltage spark across the gas and a pulse of current in
the circuit.

A ratemeter can be connected to give counts per second of radiation. A scaler on the other hand gives the total
number of particles or burst of gamma radiation detected by the tube.

Summary (page 267 complete physics)

Properties Alpha-particle(  ) Beta-particle(  ) Gamma-ray(  )

Nature: Positive particle Negative electron Electromagnetic wave

of very short
wavelength

(helium nucleus)

Affected by magnetic yes since it is charged yes since it is charged no because of no

and electric fields? charge

not that penetrative- penetrative but can be very penetrative can be

easily stopped by paper stopped by few mm of reduced but not even
Penetrative effect or skin aluminium or other stopped by thick lead
metal

Strength of ionization very strong weak very weak

Dangerous? yes yes yes (used to kill living

cells e.g.
microorganisms)

Speed: 10% speed of light 50% speed light Speed of light

Detectors: Photographic film Photographic film Photographic film

182
 Cloud chamber Cloud chamber Cloud chamber

Spark counter GM tube GM tube

Gold-leaf electroscope

Thin-window GM tube

USES

 Radioactive tracer in

Medicine: A small amount of Iodine-123 is injected into the patient and this would be extracted by both
kidneys and later pass with urine. The kidney which shows a constant count rate of  -particles is blocked.

Agriculture: radioactive fertilizers can be injected in plants and their effect (absorption) assessed (monitored)
and used to produce better fertilizers.

 -particles emitted
Detecting leaks: (e.g. water/oil pipe); A beta emitter is injected into the pipe line. Any
would be absorbed by the soil whereas  -rays would pass through the pipe material. The  –particles are
penetrative enough to go through the pipe and soil and be detected by a GM-tube detector.

 Industrial Uses
Sterilising:

Gamma rays can be used to kill bacteria, mould and insects in food, even after the food has been packaged.

Gamma rays are also used to sterilize hospital equipment, especially plastic s yringes that would be damaged
by heating them.

Cancer cells in the patient’s body can be killed by careful use of  -rays. Cobalt-60 is used as a source of  -
rays.

Thickness control: Beta-particles can be used to control the thickness of paper in paper mills by measuring
the amount of beta radiation that pass though the paper to the GM counter. The counter controls the
pressure of the rollers to give the correct thickness. In paper, plastic or aluminium factory,  -particles are
used. In a sheet-steel factory  -rays are used, why?

183
 Smoke detection: smoke alarms contain a weak source of Americium-241.this emits  -particles which ionize
the air, so that it conducts electricity and small current flows. If smoke enters the alarm, it absorbs  -
particles, the current flows to sound the alarm.

Flaw detection: if a  -rays source is placed on one side of a welding or casting and a photographic film on
the other side, weak points or bubbles will show on the film like an X-ray.

Radioactive dating: uranium-238 in rocks decay to lead and the amount of lead present can be used
determine the age of the rock. Carbon-14 for once-living and its decaying (half life 5700 yrs) can be used to
date bones, wood, paper and cloth.

Production of Ele ctricity: The nucleus of Uranium- 235 splits and 2 neutrons are emitted. If each neutron hits
a Uranium-235 nucleus they in turn split in a chain reaction giving more neutrons. This splitting is called
nuclear fission and releases huge amount of energy.

In a nuclear power station this energy is used to boil water to steam that can turn turbi nes in generators to
produce electricity.

DANGERS OF EXPOSURE TO RADIATION

The danger of exposure to Alpha particles is slight since they are the least penetrative, but once in the body
can cause serious damage to cells due to their greater ionizing effect.

Large doses of beta and gamma radiation can cause radiation burns. Gamma radiation can penetrate deep in
the body and destroy cells deep inside the body or cause cells to multiply uncontrollably forming cancer or
damage chromosomes causing genetic defects.

HANDLING and STORAGE of RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS in LABOATORY

Radioactive materials should always be handled carefully and stored safely though laboratory samples emit
low levels of radiation.

Handling:

 Handle radioactive materials with forceps or special gloves.

184
  Keep away from eyes.
 Do not point source towards any person.
Storage:

 Keep the samples in special boxes lined with lead

 Store boxes in a locked cupboard
 One specific individual should control the cupboard keys

DANGERS OF NUCLEAR WASTES AND DISPOSAL

The use of radioactive materials always involves the production of radioactive wastes. The wastes from nuclear
fission can take hundreds of years to become safe. If not disposed of safely the radioactive wastes may pose the
following dangers:

Dangers:

 Come into contact with humans causing cancer and genetic defects
 Find its way into plant life and end in food chains
 Get in marine plants and get into marine food chains
 Spill during transportation casing disaster
Disposal:

 Low-level waste is buried underground or released into the sea.

High grade waste from nuclear power stations is

 buried disused salt mines or in granite caves

 bedded in concrete and dumped in deep oceans
 stored at special factories for re-processing

185