THE INDERAPURA SULTANATE: THE FOUNDATIONS OF ITS RISE AND

DECLINE, FROM THE SIXTEENTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES*

J . K a th irith a m b y -W e lls

O rig in s : Economic and P o l i t i c a l E v o lu tio n

R e fe rre d to in M inangkabau u sag e as Ujung P ag ar Ruyung, In d e ra p u ra
o r i g i n a l l y c o n s t i tu t e d th e so u th e rn m o st e x tre m ity o f th e M inangkabau
k in g d o m 's w e ste rn rantau o r pasisir (d e p e n d e n c ie s ). In d e ra p u ra t o ­
g e th e r w ith B en k u len , P a in a n , Padang and P ariam an on th e same c o a s t,
and S ia k , I n d e r a g ir i and Jam bi on th e e a s te r n f la n k , made up th e e ig h t
bab o r gatew ay s to th e k in g d o m .*1 As M inangkabau p o l i t i c a l a u th o r ity
d e c lin e d d u rin g th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y , In d e ra p u ra , l ik e o th e r p e r ip h ­
e r a l z o n e s, such as I n d e r a g ir i and Ja m b i, was l e f t to i t s own d e v ic e s .
But th e negeri (re g io n ) o n ly b egan i t s e v o lu tio n as a s e p a r a te p o l i t i ­
c a l e n t i t y a f t e r M alacca f e l l to th e P o rtu g u e se in 1511. A good d e a l
o f West A sian tr a d e was th e n d iv e r te d a lo n g th e w est c o a s t o f Sum atra
and th ro u g h th e Sunda S t r a i t s . As in th e c a s e s o f Aceh and B an ten ,
p ep p er p ro v id e d th e b a s is f o r I n d e r a p u r a 's in d e p e n d e n t grow th and e x ­
p a n s io n , tho u gh th e m ain s e t t l e m e n t 's n o to rio u s r e p u ta tio n f o r u n h e a l­
th in e s s and i t s in a d e q u a te h a rb o r f a c i l i t i e s k e p t i t o u t o f th e com pe­
t i t i o n f o r th e s e r v ic in g o f t r a f f i c . 2 The a re a th u s came to depend
h e a v ily on th e n o r th e rn o u t l e t s o f T iku and P ariam an , as w e ll as S ile -
b a r , to th e s o u th , as in d ic a te d by a D utch r e p o r t o f 1616 n o tin g t h a t
a l l th e p ep p er w hich l e f t th e s e p o r ts o r ig in a te d from I n d e r a p u r a .3
The o r ig in s o f s u p r a - v illa g e a u th o r ity in th e w est c o a s t t e r r i ­
t o r i e s , in c lu d in g In d e ra p u ra , a re tr a c e d l o c a ll y to M inangkabau and
u ltim a te ly to Rum (T u rk e y ), th e fo u n ta in h e a d o f s o v e re ig n ty a c c o rd in g
to Is la m ic f a b le s in th e M alay w o rld . From th e M inangkabau davat

* My thanks are due to Professor W. Ph. Coolhaas for allowing me to use the
Generale Missiven V, in proof form, at the Algemeen R ijk sarchief, The Hague,
and to Drs. Mohammad Dahlan Mansoer of the Department of H istory, U niversity of
Malaya, for h is unstinting generosity in discussing with me the in tric a c ie s of
the Minangkabau p o lity .
1. E. M. Loeb, Sumatra: Its H istory and Its People (Vienna: Verlag des In stitu te s
fur Volkerkunde der U niversitat Wien, 1935), p. 98. Throughout th is paper the
term "kingdom" is used in accord with S chrieke's d efin itio n ; see B. Schrieke,
Indonesian Sociological Studies (2 v o ls.; The Hague/Bandung: van Hoeve, 1935),
I, pp. 170-72.
2. F. V alentijn, "Beschrijvinge van het Eiland Sumatra," in Pud en Nieuw Post Indien
(5 v o ls.; Dordrecht/Amsterdam: J. van Braam, 1724-26), VII, pp. 11-12. The
Inderapura coast appears to have offered good anchorage but no sh e lte r. See
H. T. Colenbrander (ed.), Jan P ietersz. Coen, Bescheiden omtrent zijn b e d rijf in
Indie (6 v o ls.; The Hague: N ijhoff, 1919), I, p. 241.
3. P. A. Tiele and J. E. Heeres (eds.), Bouwstoffen voor de geschiedenis der Neder-
landers in den Maleischen Archipel (3 v o ls.; The Hague: N ijhoff, 1886-95), I,
pp. 167-68; Colenbrander (ed .), Jan P ietersz. Coen, I, f. 241.

65
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(in la n d r e g io n ) , th e k e rn e l o f th e kingdom , th e in f lu e n c e o f th e s o v e r ­
e ig n , to g e th e r w ith th e law s and u sa g e s o f M inangkabau, a re b e lie v e d
to have p a sse d down th e p a s i s i r and th e ra n ta u w here raja w ere e s t a b ­
lis h e d as ro y a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . ** A lth o u g h th e a u th o r ity o f th e R aja
nan T igo S ilo (nam ely th e R aja Alam , R aja A d a t, and R aja Id a b a t) a t
P ag ar Ruyung was e s s e n t i a l l y t i t u l a r , t h e i r s a c re d c la im s w ere such
t h a t no r a j a co u ld w in ap p o in tm en t w ith o u t t h e i r fo rm al s a n c tio n .
A cco rd in g to t r a d i t i o n , i t was Tuanku D arah P u tih , th e e ld e s t o f th e
th r e e sons o f C indua M ato, th e le g e n d a ry fo u n d e r o f M inangkabau e n ­
dowed w ith s u p e r n a tu r a l p o w ers, who e s ta b lis h e d th e ro y a l house a t
I n d e r a p u r a ,45 o th e rw is e known as N eg eri Dua Puluh K ota. Legend a ls o
i d e n t i f i e s th e son o f R aja Alam o r th e Yang d i P e rtu a n o f P ag ar Ruyung
w ith Muhammad S yah, th e f i r s t r u l e r o f I n d e r a p u r a .6
T h e o r e tic a lly , r a j a in th e w est c o a s t ra n ta u h e ld j u r i s d i c t i o n on
a t e r r i t o r i a l b a s i s , o v er one o r more n e g e r i. In t h i s way a d m in is tr a ­
t io n in th e ra n ta u was s u p e r f i c i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t in th e d a r a t ,
w here i t was b ased on g e n e a lo g ic a l p r i n c i p l e s . 7 In p r a c t i c e , h ow ever,
even in th e ra n ta u th e n e g e r i, o r '’in d e p e n d e n t v il l a g e s t a t e , " fu n c ­
tio n e d as a g e n e a lo g ic a l u n it w ith th e r a j a o p e ra tin g as primus inter
pares among th e penghulu (g e n e a lo g ic a l h e a d s ). Each n e g e ri was a
f e d e r a tio n o f kotay o r " v i ll a g e g ro u p in g s ," d is tin g u is h e d by a n u m e ri­
c a l c o e f f i c i e n t a c c o rd in g to th e o r i g i n a l num ber o f k o ta i t c o m p rise d ,
such as N eg eri Dua B elas K o ta, N eg eri Lima K o ta, and so o n .8 E f f e c ­
t iv e a u th o r ity in th e n e g e ri r e s t e d p r im a r ily w ith th e penghulu ka
ampe suku (cu sto m ary heads o f th e fo u r c la n s ) who form ed th e rapat
penghulu (c o u n c il o f p en g h u lu ) a t th e n e g e ri c o u n c il- h a ll an d , a t a
low er l e v e l , w ith th e penghulu kampung. 9
The e x a c t tim e a t w hich th e r a j a a t In d e ra p u ra a c h ie v e d in d e p e n ­
d e n t s o v e re ig n s t a tu s re m a in s u n c e r ta in , b u t i t p ro b a b ly c o in c id e d
w ith th e r e g io n 's r i s e to com m ercial im p o rta n ce th ro u g h th e e x p o rt o f
p e p p e r. At th e end o f th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y , p ep p er d id n o t f ig u r e
among th e p ro d u c ts t h a t G u ja r a ti t r a d e r s c o lle c te d a t S in g k il on t h e i r
way to J a v a . 10 But h a l f a c e n tu ry l a t e r th e s i t u a t i o n had e v id e n tly

4. "Translation of the Undang Undang of Moco Moco," by Richard Farmer, Governor of

Benkulen (1717-18), in Malayan M iscellanies, 11/13 (1822), pp. 8-9.
5. Ib id . , p. 13. According to the Kaba Cindua Mato, the hero found refuge in In­
derapura to escape his enemy Imbang Jayo, king of Sungai Ngiang, a negeri in the
eastern rantau. Taufik Abdullah, "Some Notes on the Kaba Tjindua Mato: An Exam­
ple of Minangkabau T raditional L ite ra tu re ," Indonesia, 9 (April 1970), p. 7.
6. E. Netscher, "Verzameling van overleveringen van het rijk van Manangkabau u it
het oorspronkelijk Maleisch v ertaald ," Indisch A rchief, II/2 (1850), p. 37.
7. For an account of Minangkabau adm inistrative organization, see P. E. de Josselin
de Jong, Minangkabau and Negri Sembilan: S ocio-p o litical Structure in Indonesia
(Leiden: N ijhoff, 1951); Loeb, Sumatra, pp. 97-127; M. Jo ustra, Minangkabau:
overzicht van land, geschiedenis en volk (The Hague: N ijhoff, 1923); L. C. Wes-
tenenk, De Minangkabausche Nagari (Weltevreden: Vissor § Co., 1918); W. J. Leyds,
"Larassen in Minangkabau," Koloniale Studien, X/l (1926), pp. 387-416.
8. For a l i s t of the negeri groupings on the western rantau, see J. Francis, "Korte
beschrijving van het Nederlandsch Grondgebied te r Westkust van Sumatra," T ijd-
sc h rift voor Neerland's (Nederlandsch) Indie (B atavia), II (1839), pp. 90-97.
9. Loeb, Sumatra, p. 105.
10. M. A. P. M eilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence (The Hague: N ij­
hoff, 1962), pp. 92, 144. Two European vessels which called at Inderapura in
 67

ch an g ed , f o r by t h i s tim e In d e r a p u ra ’ s s o u th e rn b o u n d a rie s re a c h e d as
f a r as S ile b a r u n d er th e im p etu s o f exp and ing p ep p er c u l t i v a t i o n . I t
w as, p re su m a b ly , on th e b a s is o f t h i s e x te n s iv e c la im t h a t , a c c o rd in g
to th e Sadjarah Banten, th e t e r r i t o r y to th e so u th o f A ir U rei was
g iv e n as b r id e - p r ic e on th e m a rria g e o f th e r u l e r ’ s d a u g h te r to S u lta n
H asanuddin o f B anten (1 5 5 2 -7 0 ) .11
By th e m id -s ix te e n th c e n tu r y , when Aceh began i t s so uth w ard t h r u s t
alo n g th e M inangkabau c o a s t, In d e ra p u ra was a b le to h o ld i t s own as a
c o h e re n t and in d e p e n d e n t n e g e r i. I t a ls o won th e f r ie n d s h ip o f b o th
B anten and A ceh, th e fo re m o st r e g io n a l pow ers o f t h a t tim e . A c e h 's
i n i t i a l e x p a n sio n down th e w est c o a s t u n d e r S u lta n A la u 'd d in ( R i'a y a t
Syah) a l-K a h a r (1537-68) re a c h e d o n ly to th e P ariam an a r e a , w here a
ro y a l r e p r e s e n ta tiv e was s ta tio n e d u n d er th e t i t l e o f S u lta n M u g h a l.12
Towards In d e ra p u ra , h ow ever, a f r ie n d l y p o lic y was a d o p ted and cem ented
by m a rria g e a l l i a n c e s . Thus S ri Alam Firm an S yah, one o f th e incum ­
b e n ts o f th e t i t l e o f S u lta n M ughal a t P ariam an and a b r o th e r o f th e
s u lta n o f A ceh, A li R i'a y a t Syah (1 5 6 8 -7 5 ), m a rrie d R aja D ew i, a d au g h ­
t e r o f S u lta n Munawar Syah (R aja M am ulia) o f I n d e r a p u r a .13 In f a c t ,
in view o f h e r f lo u r is h in g com m ercial i n t e r e s t s on th e M inangkabau
c o a s t, i t was in A c e h 's i n t e r e s t to c u l t i v a t e th e a ll i a n c e w ith I n d e r a ­
p u ra to e n s u re t h a t th e v i t a l s o u rc e s o f su p p ly from th e so u th rem ained
open to th e M inangkabau p e p p e r p o r t s .
Through h e r econom ic im p o rta n ce to A ceh, In d e ra p u ra soon came to
w ie ld so much in f lu e n c e w ith th e c o u rt a t K ota R aja t h a t i t cau sed
s e r io u s w orry to th e ulama (Moslem s c h o la r s ) and orangkaya ( c h ie f s ,
n o b lem en ). A hulubalang ( d i s t r i c t c h ie f ) o f In d e ra p u re s e o r ig in was
a lle g e d ly in s tru m e n ta l in th e m urder o f th e in f a n t son o f A li R i'a y a t
Syah, th u s c le a r in g th e way f o r S ri Alam Firm an Syah to ascen d th e
th ro n e in 1576 as S u lta n S ri Alam. In a d d itio n to th e sc a n d a l w hich
su rro u n d e d h is s u c c e s s io n , h ow ever, th e new r u l e r p ro v ed an i n d i f f e r e n t
a d m in is tr a to r , was a d d ic te d to c o c k - f ig h tin g , w hich was frow ned upon
by th e p o w e rfu l u la m a ,14 and was i n d i s c r e e t ab o u t h is le a n in g s to w ard s
th e w est c o a s t h u lu b a la n g . The re p u te d low i n t e l l i g e n c e o f h is w ife ,
R aja Dewi, was an a d d itio n a l p o in t a g a in s t h im 15 an d , a f t e r th r e e

1529 reported that the inhabitants had gold to se ll but hardly any pepper.
P. A. T iele, "De Europeers in den Maleischen A rchipel, 1529-1540," Bijdragen
to t de T aal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (BKI), XXVII (1879), pp. 31-32.
11. Hoesein D jajadiningrat, C ritische beschouwing van de Sadjarah-Banten (Haarlem:
Ensched6, 1913), p. 34; J . Marsden, A H istory of Sumatra, rep rin t of the th ird
editio n , with an introduction by John Bastin (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University"
Press, 1966), p. 353.
12. J. Kathirithamby-W ells, "Achehnese Control over West Sumatra up to the Treaty
of Painan, 1663," Journal of Southeast Asian H istory (JSEAH), X/3 (1969), p.
457. For the chronology and genealogy of the Acehnese ru lers I have re lie d on
Hoesein D jajadiningrat, "C ritisch Overzicht van de in Maleische Werken vervatte
Gegevens over de Geschiedenis van het Soeltanaat van A tjeh," BKI, LXV (1911),
pp. 135-265.
13. Hoesein D jajadiningrat, "C ritisch overzicht," pp. 158-59; T. Iskandar (ed .),
Bustanu1s-S alatin (Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1966), p. 34 (Bab II,
Fasal 13).
14. Ib id . , pp. 32-33. H. M. Zainuddin, Tarich Atjeh Nusantara (Medan: Pustaka
Iskandar Muda, 1961), p. 399.
15. T. Iskandar, "De Hikayat A tjeh," Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk In stitu u t
voor T aal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (VKI), XXVI (1958), p. 96.
68

y e a r s , h is rem oval was f i n a l l y e f f e c te d by th e p ro -A ceh n ese f a c t i o n . 16

I n d e r a p u r a 's in f lu e n c e in A cehnese p o l i t i c s w as, how ever, n o t so e a s il y
rem oved. F or a b r i e f p e rio d betw een 1586 and 1588 R aja B u jan g , th e
b r o th e r o f R aja Dewi, assum ed c o n tr o l o f Aceh u n d er th e t i t l e o f S u lta n
A li R i'a y a t Syah. The p o l i t i c a l in f lu e n c e o f In d e ra p u ra was r e e s t a b ­
lis h e d a t c o u rt u n t i l th e i n t r i g u e s o f th e je a lo u s ulam a once a g a in
b ro u g h t r e g i c i d e . 17 So ended th e f i r s t p e rio d o f th e n e g e r i 's c o n n e c ­
t io n s w ith A ceh.

P e rio d o f E c lip s e u n d e r A cehnese Dominance

A la 'a d - d in R i'a y a t Shah S ayyid al-M ukam m il (1 5 8 8 -1 6 0 4 ), fo u n d e r
o f th e i l l u s t r i o u s d y n a sty o f Dar a l-K a m a l, ad o p ted h a rsh m ethods to
end th e m a n ip u la tio n s o f th e o ran g k ay a a t c o u rt and s tre n g th e n ro y a l
a u t h o r it y . U nder h is s u c c e s s o r, Is k a n d a r Muda (1 6 0 7 -3 6 ), th e p o lic y
o f ro y a l a b s o lu tis m and c e n t r a l i z a t i o n was p u rsu e d f u r t h e r to e n su re
m onopoly c o n tr o l o v e r p e p p e r .18 W hile d ir e c t in g cam paigns o f d e s tr u c ­
t io n a g a in s t th e p e p p e r-p ro d u c in g s t a t e s o f th e M alay P e n in s u la , Is k a n ­
d a r Muda t r i e d to se c u re in c re a s e d p ro d u c tio n o f , and an e f f e c t iv e
m onopoly o v e r, W est Sum atran p e p p e r. A cehnese c o n tr o l was soon e x ­
te n d e d to th e M inangkabau p o r ts as f a r so u th as P ariam an and even
bey o nd , so t h a t I n d e r a p u r a 's in d ep en d en ce came to be s e r io u s ly t h r e a t ­
en ed . I t s c o n c e rte d e f f o r t s , a t f i r s t to r e s i s t and l a t e r to evade
A cehnese c o n t r o l, c o n s titu te d an im p re s s iv e d is p la y o f i n t e r n a l c o h e ­
s io n and s t a b i l i t y , though u ltim a te ly Is k a n d a r M uda's p o lic y showed
in c r e a s in g s ig n s o f s u c c e s s .
By 1615, Is k a n d a r Muda had s ta tio n e d h is r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s a t T iku
and P a ria m a n .19 In 1620, A cehnese in f lu e n c e ex ten d ed w e ll beyond
T abing o r K ota T e n g a h ,20 b u t n o t as f a r as In d e ra p u ra . A D utch r e p o r t
o f 1616 d e s c r ib e s In d e ra p u ra as p ro sp e ro u s u n d er th e r u le r s h ip o f R aja
Ita m , w ith a la b o r fo rc e t h i r t y th o u san d s tro n g engaged in th e c u l t i ­
v a tio n o f r i c e and p e p p e r .21 But th e A cehnese panglima ( v i c e r o y ) 's
r i g i d c o n tr o l o v er tr a d e a t T iku and P ariam an th r e a te n e d I n d e r a p u r a 's
tr a d e v ia th e n o r th e rn p o r t s , and i t r e a c te d by d e v e lo p in g i t s s o u th e rn
o u t l e t s . Some o f i t s p ep p er had alw ays been c h a n n e le d to B anten
th ro u g h th e r e l a t i v e l y h e a l t h i e r and b e t t e r h a rb o r a t S ile b a r . Now
th e in f lu x o f B r i t is h and Company tr a d e r s b o th a t B anten and S ile b a r
gave f u r t h e r im petus to In d e ra p u ra to s h i f t i t s e x p o rts s o u th w a rd s .22

16. Ib id . , pp. 39-40, 95-96. 17. Zainuddin, Tarich Atjeh Nusantara, p. 401.
18. A. Reid, "Trade and the Problem of Royal Power in Aceh, Three Stages: c. 1550-
1700," in A. Reid and L. C astles (ed s.), Pre-Colonial State Systems in Southeast
Asia (Kuala Lumpur: Monographs of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal A siatic
Society, No. 6, 1975), pp. 48-51; Augustin de Beaulieu, "Voyage to the East
Indies," in John H arris (ed .), Navigantium atque Itinerantium bibliotheca (2
v o ls.; London: Osborne, 1764), I, pp. 253-54.
19. F. C. Danvers, and S ir William Foster (ed .), L etters Received by the East India
Company from Its Servants in the East, 1602-17 (6 v o ls.; London: Sampson, Low,
Manston, 1896-1902), II I , pp. 210-26.
20. T iele, "De Europeers in den Maleischen A rchipel, 1618-1623," BKI, XXXVI (1887),
p. 245.
21. Tiele and Heeres (ed s.), Bouwstoffen, I, p. 167. Colenbrander (ed .), Jan
P ietersz. Coen, I (1919), pp. 240-41.
22. T iele, "De Europeers in den Maleischen A rchipel, 1611-1618," BKI, XXXV (1886),
p. 320; "De Europeers, 1618-1623," p. 245.
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T here w ere, in f a c t , D utch e f f o r t s to c o l l e c t In d e ra p u ra p ep p er a t

S ile b a r e a r ly on, a lth o u g h th e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f tim in g th e a r r i v a l o f
th e p ep p er th e r e and c o m p e titio n w ith r i v a l t r a d e r s 23 e v e n tu a lly p e r ­
suaded them to t r y d ir e c t c o l l e c t i o n a t In d e ra p u ra , even a t th e r i s k
o f d an g ero u s d is e a s e .
Sometime b e fo re 1624, C a p ta in Van d e r Goes s u c c e s s f u lly n e g o tia te d
w ith th e lo c a l r u l e r , R aja B e sa r, f o r th e d i r e c t c o l l e c t i o n o f p ro d u c e .
To re d u c e th e r i s k o f th e D utch c o n tr a c tin g d is e a s e , t h i s r u l e r v o lu n ­
te e r e d to have th e v e s s e ls lo ad ed w ith o u t th e crew com ing a s h o re .
A ided by h is p r i n c i p a l a s s i s t a n t M u z z a ffa r S y ah , he o ffe re d f u r t h e r
in d u ce m e n ts, such as exem ption from paym ent o f ruba-ruba , th e t r a d i ­
t io n a l an ch o rag e f e e s . 2*4 The Company was to r e c e iv e p ep p er a t a new
s ta n d a rd r a te o f two h undred gantang (a p p ro x im a te ly 6h-7h l b s . a v o id u -
p o is ) p e r bahar . The r u l e r h im s e lf was to c o n tin u e r e c e iv in g p ep p er
from th e c u l t i v a t o r s a c c o rd in g to th e t r a d i t i o n a l b ah a r m e a su re , w hich
was fix e d a r b i t r a r i l y to h is a d v a n ta g e , b u t commanders o f D utch v e s s e ls
w ere p ro m ised a sh a re in th e p r o f i t s w hich w ould a c c ru e to him th ro u g h
th e c o n v e r s io n .25 N ee d le ss to s a y , th e a rran g em en t was n o t t o t a l l y
s a t i s f a c t o r y so long as th e D u tch , a p p re h e n siv e o f d is e a s e and d an g er
to v e s s e ls , d id n o t e s t a b l i s h a p erm anen t lo d g e on th e s p o t.
In d e ra p u ra * s e f f o r t s to r e s i s t h is com m ercial c o n tr o l alarm ed
Isk a n d a r Muda. In 1626, rum ors c ir c u l a te d ab o u t th e A cehnese s o v e r ­
e ig n 's p la n s f o r e x te n d in g h is a u th o r ity f u r t h e r so u th to w ard s S ile b a r .
b u t e v id e n tly th e y d id n o t check I n d e r a p u ra 1s in d e p e n d e n t a c t i v i t i e s . 2®
When, on R aja B e s a r’ s d e a th , h is b r o th e r R aja P u ti (R aja P u tih ? ) became
th e new r u l e r , he a ls o a c te d in d e fia n c e o f Aceh and c o n tin u e d th e
d u ty - f r e e tr a d e w ith th e D utch. The l a t t e r re fu s e d Aceh any sh a re o f
th e t o l l s on th e p ro d u ce re c e iv e d a t In d e ra p u ra and t h e i r sta n d was
su p p o rte d by R aja P u t i, who arg u ed t h a t s in c e th e D u tch , in any c a s e ,
co n d u cted t h e i r tr a d e a t s e a , w ith o u t com ing a s h o r e , th e y w ere exem pt
from th e cu sto m ary d u t i e s . 27
In d e ra p u ra * s c o n tin u e d d e fia n c e f i n a l l y e a rn e d th e w ra th o f Is k a n ­
d a r Muda, who in 1633 d is p a tc h e d a f l e e t to ta k e r e p r i s a l s . R aja P u ti
and s e v e r a l o f th e le a d in g d i g n i t a r i e s w ere p u t to th e sword and a l l
a v a ila b le p ep p er c a rg o e s s e iz e d f o r conveyance to A ceh. In a m anner
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Is k a n d a r Muda*s cam p aig n s, th e r e tu r n in g e x p e d itio n
c a r r ie d o f f la r g e num bers o f lo c a l in h a b ita n ts o f a l l ra n k s . R aja
M u zzaffar Syah h im s e lf , n o tw ith s ta n d in g h is im p o rta n t r o le in e n c o u r-

23. Colenbrander (ed .), Jan P ietersz. Coen, I (1919), p. 241; II (1920), p. 215.
24. D aghregister gehouden int Casteel Batavia vant passerende daer te r p laetse als
ever geheel N ederlandts-India (Batavia/The Hague: N ijhoff, 1888-1931), February
13, 1624, p. 15; July 19, 1625, p. 179; June 20, 1673, MEen b rie f van eerbiedig-
heyt, geschreven door Sulthan Mahometsia, Radja Seleman, Radja Malafarcha, Radja
Mansourcha ende 20 raetsheeren van de plaetse Indrapoura, aen den heer Gouver-
neur Generael, Joan Maetsuyker ende de Raden van India . . . ," 3de b rie f, pp.
156-57. The ruba-ruba was custom arily divided among the chiefs and constituted
th e ir main source of cash.
25. Ib id . , p. 156. Before the establishm ent of European influence the size of the
bahar weight in west Sumatra varied from 360 pounds to 600 pounds.
26. W. Ph. Coolhaas (ed .), Generale missiven van Gouverneurs-Generaal en Raden aan
Heren XVII der Verenigde Qostindische Compagnie, 1610-38 (5 v o ls.; The Hague:
N ijhoff, 1960-75), I, February 3, 1626, p. 193.
27. D aghregister, June 20, 1673, p. 157.
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a g in g tr a n s a c t io n s w ith th e D utch, esc ap e d pun ishm en t s in c e Aceh banked

on s e c u rin g h is a s s is ta n c e in re o rg a n iz in g th e a d m in is tr a tio n a t In d e-
r a p u r a . As a g ran d so n o f R aja Dewi28 (th u s w ith c lo s e c o n n e c tio n s to
th e A cehnese ro y a l h o u se) and as an i n f l u e n t i a l man a t In d e ra p u ra , he
was e v id e n tly c o n s id e re d th e m ost s u it a b le p e rso n f o r ap p o in tm en t as
g o v e rn o r o f th e re g io n . U nder th e term s o f h is a p p o in tm en t he was to
s u p e r v is e th e c o l l e c t i o n o f t o l l s , p a y a b le a t th e r a t e o f 408 " r e a l s
o f e ig h t" on each one hundred b a h a r o f p e p p e r e x p o r te d .29 The c h a rg e
was to be made in a d d itio n to 209 r e a l s in an ch o rag e and o th e r fe e s
e x tr a c te d from each v e s s e l. By t h i s tim e Aceh had i n s t a l l e d M ahabath
and S r i R aja as p an g lim a a t Padang and S a lid a r e s p e c t i v e l y . In th e
same t r a d i t i o n , P o n sadap ura was now made th e f i r s t o f th r e e s u c c e s s iv e
p an g lim a s ta tio n e d a t In d e ra p u ra d u rin g th e re ig n o f Is k a n d a r M uda.30
The 1633 p u n itiv e e x p e d itio n l e f t a deep f e a r o f A ceh, n o t o n ly
among th e in h a b ita n ts o f In d e ra p u ra , b u t a ls o th e p e o p le in th e a d j o in ­
ing p e p p e r d i s t r i c t o f P a s i s i r S e la ta n o r S apuluh Buah B andar (B andar
X) as w e ll. Though e f f e c t i v e l y cow ed, th e In d e ra p u re s e f e l t l i t t l e
in c e n tiv e to c u l t i v a t e u n d e r th e p r e v a ilin g com m ercial r e s t r i c t i o n s .
In 1637, p ro d u c tio n s t i l l had n o t re a c h e d i t s fo rm er l e v e l s , 31 a lth o u g h
M u z zaffar S y a h 's shrew d d ip lom acy had b ro u g h t a r e la x a tio n in A c e h 's
r e l a t i o n s w ith In d e ra p u ra . He was q u ic k to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f Is k a n d a r
M uda's re m a rk a b le m ellow ing and e a g e rn e s s f o r f r ie n d s h ip d u rin g th e
c lo s in g y e a rs o f h is r e i g n . 32 M u z z a ffa r Syah i s b e lie v e d to have won
Isk a n d a r M uda's c o n fid e n c e e s p e c ia lly th ro u g h h is r o le in cem enting
A cehnese f r ie n d s h ip w ith J o h o r e .3334 In a l l p r o b a b il i ty i t was d u rin g
t h i s p e r io d t h a t M u zzaffar Syah f i n a l l y g a in e d r e c o g n itio n as th e r u l e r
o f In d e r a p u ra ,3k p e rsu a d in g Is k a n d a r Muda to w ithd raw th e p an g lim a. In
th e l a t t e r 's p la c e , a lo c a l d ig n it a r y , R aja B en d ah ara, was d e s ig n a te d
to a d m in is te r th e tr a d e u n d er th e t i t a l o f S yaikh Zalam . But In d e ra p u ra
en jo y ed t h i s p r iv ile g e d s t a tu s o n ly u n t i l th e end o f Is k a n d a r M uda's
r e ig n in 1636, a f t e r w hich a new p a n g lim a , In d ra Palaw an was a p p o in te d .35*
Yet th e slow d e c lin e o f A cehnese p o l i t i c a l c o n tr o l o v e r th e w est
c o a s t u n d e r S u lta n T skandar T hani (1 6 3 6 -4 1 ) and A ceh’ s f i r s t q u e e n ,
S u lta n a T aju l-A lam S a f ia t u 'd Din Syah (1 6 4 1 -7 5 ), en co u rag ed a g ra d u a l
re s u rg e n c e o f com m ercial in d ep en d en ce a t In d e ra p u ra , a s i t u a t i o n w e l­
comed by th e lo c a l p an g lim a in th e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e i r p e rs o n a l p r o f i t s .
I n a b i l i t y to m a in ta in e f f e c t i v e c o n tr o l o v e r a f f a i r s on th e w est c o a s t
f i n a l l y le d Is k a n d a r T hani to y ie ld to D utch dem ands to be a llo w ed to
make d i r e c t c o l l e c t i o n s o f p e p p e r, in c lu d in g t h a t p a r t owed as a n n u al
t r i b u t e to A ceh. But he i n s i s t e d t h a t p r ic e s f o r th e l a t t e r , as w e ll
as a l l d u t i e s , w ere to be p a id a t B andar Aceh o r K ota R a ja , in o rd e r
to m a in ta in h is re v e n u e s in th e fa c e o f lo c a l d e f ia n c e . The new

28. Ib id ., p. 162.
29. Coolhaas (ed .), Generate M issiven, I, December 16, 1633, pp. 412-13. The "real
of eight" or Spanish d o llar was then valued at about 2% guilders or five s h il­
lin g s.
30. D aghregister, June 20, 1673, p. 163.
31. Coolhaas (ed .), Generate M issiven, I, December 9, 1637, p. 633.
32. In 1632, Iskandar Muda made h is f ir s t important concession to the Dutch on the
promise of support against the Portuguese. Ib id . , I, August 15, 1633, pp. 386-87.
33. D aghregister, June 20, 1673, 3de b rie f, p. 163.
34. He is referred to for the f ir s t time during th is period as king ("konink").
Ib id .
35. Ibid.
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a rran g em en t th r e a te n e d th e w est c o a s t p an g lim a f i n a n c ia l l y and th e y

r e s i s t e d i t . The D utch w ere re fu s e d d e liv e r y o f p ep p er u n le s s th e
k in g 's t o l l s and d u tie s w ere p a id l o c a l l y . 36 The p e rm is s io n se c u re d
by th e D utch from th e queen in 1655 to c o l l e c t In d e ra p u ra p ep p er a t
S a lid a o n ly in c re a s e d th e p a n g lim a 's i r r i t a t i o n and s t i r r e d d is c o n te n t
among th e I n d e r a p u re s e . The n e g e ri was th e n on u n f r ie n d ly term s w ith
S a lid a and r e l a t i o n s betw een them w ere so bad t h a t th e In d e ra p u re s e
d e c la re d th e y w ould d e s tro y t h e i r p e p p e r g ard e n s and make r i c e f i e l d s
r a t h e r th a n b rin g th e p ro d u ce th e r e f o r e x p o rt. The q u e e n 's a tte m p t,
som etim e e a r l i e r , to fin d a tem p o ra ry s o lu tio n by o rd e rin g In d e ra p u ra
p e p p e r to be d e liv e r e d to th e D utch a t A ir h a ji had a ls o p ro v ed i n e f f e c ­
t i v e . M eanw hile, th e In d e ra p u re s e began g ra d u a lly to fin d re a d y b u y e rs
among th e B r i t i s h . In 1655 a lo n e th e l a t t e r a re r e p o r te d to have c a r ­
r ie d away 1500 b a h a r o f p e p p e r, even a t th e c o s t o f tw e n ty -fiv e l i v e s .
In th e same y e a r a l l th e A cehnese p an g lim a on th e w est c o a s t w ere sum­
moned to c o u rt and th e new o rd e rs w ith re g a rd to th e p ep p er tr a d e r e ­
i t e r a t e d . The g o v e rn o r o f Daya was com m issioned s h o r tly a f t e r to c a rry
th e i n s t r u c t io n s to I n d e r a p u r a ,37 w hich s u g g e s ts t h a t th e lo c a l p an g ­
lim a had f a i l e d to a tte n d . P re su m ab ly , th e A cehnese ro y a l r e p r e s e n t a ­
t i v e th e r e had long s in c e c e ase d to a c t in th e i n t e r e s t s o f h is p a tro n
o r to su bm it to h e r o r d e r s .

I n d e r a p u r a 's R esurgen ce
The d e c lin e o f A cehnese in f lu e n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y a lo n g th e s o u th e rn
f r in g e o f i t s com m ercial em pire on th e w est c o a s t, and D utch e f f o r t s
to f i l l th e power vacuum , in a u g u ra te d a tu r b u le n t e ra w hich le d to
I n d e r a p u r a 's u ltim a te d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . The fo re m o st exp o nen t o f th e
D utch fo rw ard p o lic y on th e w est c o a s t was Jo h an G roenew egen, who was
a p p o in te d R e sid e n t a t Aceh in 1659. U nder G roenew egen, Company p o lic y
to w ard s In d e ra p u ra was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from A c e h 's in i t s h e y ­
d ay , and was te m p o ra rily co n d u c iv e to th e re s u rg e n c e o f lo c a l p o l i t i c a l
g ro u p s. W hereas Aceh had a tte m p te d to a d m in is te r i t s co n q u ered t e r r i ­
t o r i e s d i r e c t l y th ro u g h ro y a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , th e D utch a t t h i s s ta g e
w anted minimum a d m in is tr a tiv e in v o lv e m e n t. A cehnese p o lic y had ten d ed
to mean th e s u p p re s s io n o f a u to c h th o n o u s p o l i t i c a l l i f e , b u t now th e
D utch c o n s id e re d i t im p e ra tiv e to b o l s t e r lo c a l a u th o r ity to e n s u re
a g a in s t e x te r n a l c h a lle n g e s and to m a in ta in lo c a l i n t e r n a l c o h e s io n ,
th e two e s s e n t i a l c o n d itio n s f o r p e a c e fu l t r a d e .
The i n i t i a l D utch move was to s e c u re a d i r e c t t r e a t y c o n tr a c t and
a ll i a n c e w ith th e r u l e r o f In d e ra p u ra . T h is was a c h ie v e d in A ugust
1660 in th e form o f an agreem en t c o n firm in g th e r e le v a n t c la u s e s o f
th e 1659 D utch t r e a t y w ith A ceh, in c lu d in g s t i p u l a t i o n s p e r ta in in g t-o
th e p a y a b le t o l l s and d u t i e s . On th e A cehnese s id e th e Company t r e a t y
w ith In d e ra p u ra was w itn e s s e d by h e r a m b a ssa d o rs, S ri In d e ra and S r i
N ara W angsa.38 But s in c e In d e ra p u ra f a i l e d s u b s e q u e n tly to f u l f i l l th e

36. Kathirithamby-W ells, "Achehnese C ontrol," p. 465. 37. Ib id . , pp. 468-69.

38. Treaty of June 29, 1659, Batavia, in J . E. Heeres (ed .), Corpus Diplomaticum
Neerlando-Indicum (5 v o ls.; The Hague: N ijhoff, 1907-38), I I , pp. 152-54; Treaty
of August 16, 1660, Inderapura, ib id . , pp. 165-67. In addition to presents of
cloth and other a rtic le s stip u lated for the "king," Raja Muzzaffar Syah, the 20
menteri (senior court o ffic ia ls , see below, p. 72) and port functionaries were
e n title d to the following to lls on every 100 bahar of pepper: 408 re a l to the
queen of Aceh, 25 real to the "king," and 10 real to the port functionaries. An
additional anchorage fee was also payable at the ra te of 50 real to the "king"
and 150 re a l to the menteri on each shipload of pepper. Ib id . , pp. 166-67.
72

term s p e r ta in in g to th e paym ent o f t o l l s to A ceh, th e t r e a t y am ounted

to th e r e g io n 's assu m p tio n o f fo rm al d ip lo m a tic r e l a t i o n s w ith th e
D u tch , en d in g a p e rio d o f fo rm id a b le A cehnese d o m in a tio n .
Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , A c e h 's d e c lin e had en co u rag ed th e r e s o u r c e f u l
R aja M u z z a ffa r Syah to c o n s o lid a te h is a u t h o r it y . In fu r th e r a n c e o f
t h i s a m b itio n he h ad , in 1660, s e t t l e d th e s u c c e s s io n on h is son Muham­
mad S yah, in s t r i c t a c c o rd a n c e w ith p a t r i l i n e a l d y n a s tic t r a d i t i o n s .
I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t th e new r u l e r assum ed th e t i t l e o f s u lt a n , w hich
h is f a t h e r a p p e a rs n ev e r to have u se d . P erh ap s as a r e s u l t he came
in to c o n f l i c t w ith th e c h i e f s , who a s s e r te d t h e i r own a u th o r ity in
a c c o rd a n c e w ith an o pp o sin g t r a d i t i o n o f n o n a u to c r a tic r u le and m a tr i-
l i n e a l c o n c e p ts c a r r ie d o v e r from th e M inangkabau p a s t. The rem oval
o f e x te r n a l p o l i t i c a l d o m in a tio n th u s opened th e way to a v io le n t i n ­
t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l s tr u g g le . The p u ll betw een th e s e two o p p o sin g f o rc e s
became th e p red o m in an t f e a tu r e o f th e r e g io n 's h is to r y d u rin g t h i s
p e rio d and b ro u g h t in to s i g n i f i c a n t fo c u s th e a d m in i s t r a ti o n 's i n t e r n a l
s t r u c tu r e and w o rk in g s.
D uring th e l a t e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y , In d e ra p u ra p ro p e r, c o n s t i ­
t u t i n g th e r i v e r b a s in s o f A ir h a ji and B atang In d e ra p u ra , was d e s c rib e d
as th e N eg e ri Dua P uluh K ota o r th e la n d o f th e tw en ty menteri. T heo­
r e t i c a l l y , th e m e n te ri a d m in is te re d th e tw e n ty k o ta in th e same t r a d i ­
t io n as th e p en g hu lu in M inangkabau. The s u b o rd in a te re g io n o f Anak
S u n g a i, w hich in c lu d e d th e M enjuto and A ir d i k i t b a s in s (th e N eg eri
Empat B e la s K ota) and Mukomuko (o r Lima K o ta ), w ere s im i l a r ly o rg a ­
n iz e d , each u n d er i t s r e s p e c tiv e number o f m e n te r i .3940 A i r d i k i t ,
B a n ta l, T riam ang , Ip u h , A ira m i, S e b la t, K etaun and U rei c o n s titu te d
th e s o u th e rn e x tre m ity o f th e In d e ra p u ra t e r r i t o r i e s . H ere th e M inang­
kabau a d m in is tr a tio n gave way to th e so u th S um atran t r i b a l t r a d i t i o n ,
a c c o rd in g to w hich th e v il l a g e s w ere u n d e r th e a u th o r ity o f peroatin
( c h ie f s in c h a rg e o f s e t t l i n g d is p u te s and la w s u its a t riv e r-m o u th s )
o f w hich th e r e w ere o r i g i n a l l y f i f t y - n i n e (peroatin nan kurang satu
enam puluh). In th e same fa s h io n as th e k o ta g ro u p in g s headed by th e
m e n te ri, th e v i l l a g e s headed by a p e r o a tin o p e ra te d as a f e d e r a tio n .
Above th e m e n te ri and p e r o a tin sto o d th e a u th o r ity o f th e r a j a o r
s u l t a n . 1+0
In th e l a t e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y , th e p e r o a tin o f th e In d e ra p u ra
"kingdom " c o n tin u e d t h e i r f u n c tio n s as v i l l a g e a u t h o r i t i e s r e s p o n s ib le
f o r th e m a in te n a n c e o f p eace and o rd e r and th e c o l l e c t i o n o f t r i b u t e
f o r th e ro y a l o v e r l o r d .41 In c o n t r a s t , th e r o le o f th e m e n te ri had
u nd erg on e s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s. F o llo w in g th e p ro c e s s o f In d e r a p u r a 's
e v o lu tio n from a M inangkabau n e g e ri to a s e p a r a te kingdom u n d er i t s
own r u l e r , th e m e n te ri h a d , in a d d itio n to t h e i r r o le as t e r r i t o r i a l
c h i e f s , ta k e n on c o u rt d u tie s in a c c o rd a n c e w ith fe u d a l t r a d i t i o n .
T hese fe u d a to ry f u n c tio n s in e v ita b ly v a r ie d in im p o rta n ce a c c o rd in g to
th e p h y s ic a l p ro x im ity o f th e r e s p e c tiv e g ro u p s o f m e n te ri to th e ro y a l
h e a d q u a r te r s . The m e n te ri dua p u lu h k o ta a t In d e ra p u ra to o k p rid e o f
p la c e and a c te d as th e r u l e r 's c o u n s e lo rs and a d v is o r s . The m e n te ri
em pat b e la s came n e x t and re n d e re d im m e d ia tely s e r v ic e s a t c o u r t.

39. Farmer (tra n s .), "Undang Undang of Moco Moco," pp. 11-12.
40. Ib id . , pp. 10-12.
41. Marsden, A H istory of Sumatra, p. 353. For the la te seventeenth century the
names of the fifty -n in e peroatin, in a to ta l of nine d is tr ic ts , are lis te d by
V alentijn, in Pud enNieuw O ost-Indien, V, pp. 14-15. The peroatin carried high-
sounding t i t l e s , such as baginda, r a ja , datuk, patih and sometimes k ia i.
 73

T h e ir d u tie s w ere " to c a rry and to p la c e [as th e d is h e s a t an e n t e r ­

ta in m e n t] , to a rra n g e and to p u t in o r d e r , to e s tim a te and s e rv e o u t
a c c o rd in g ly , to f u r n is h a tte n d a n ts and p e o p le to do th e w ork, to su p ­
p o r t [th e r u l e r 's ] d ig n ity . . . The m e n te ri lim a k o ta , who ran k ed
lo w e s t, w ere o b lig e d to c o l l e c t b u ild in g m a te r ia ls ( e a r t h , a tt a p and
r a t t a n ) f o r th e r u l e r and w ere a ls o e n tr u s te d w ith th e g e n e ra l d e fe n se
o f th e t e r r i t o r i e s , k ee p in g g u ard " ly in g on th e ground exposed to th e
dew s. " 4243
More im p o rta n t th a n t h e i r fe u d a to ry and c e re m o n ia l f u n c tio n s was
th e r o le o f th e m e n te ri as g u a rd ia n s o f th e a d a t . The im p o rta n ce
a s c rib e d to t h i s d u ty was p ro b a b ly in th e s p i r i t o f th e o r i g i n a l Koto
P ilia n g a d a t t r a d i t i o n , 1+3 b ased on th e s t e r n e r law s o f th e adat Kate-
menggungan, b e lie v e d to have b een more p r e v a le n t th a n th e a d a t Bodi
C aniago o r adat Perpatih (nan) Sebatang in I n d e r a p u r a .44 D uring th e
p e rio d o f A cehnese in f lu e n c e , th e p re s e n c e o f th e p an g lim a and t h e i r
r e tin u e o f A cehnese o f f i c i a l s had overshadow ed th e power o f th e men­
t e r i , b u t t h i s s i t u a t i o n r a p id ly changed w ith th e r e a s s e r t i o n o f in d e ­
pendence by th e r u l e r . The m e n te ri once a g a in came in to t h e i r own an d ,
in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e e g a l i t a r i a n t r a d i t i o n s o f th e r e g io n ,45 e x p e c te d
to work as a c o r p o ra te body w ith th e s u lta n in ru n n in g th e a f f a i r s o f
th e kingdom , p e rh a p s on th e model o f th e tfaja nan tigo silo and th e
m i n is t e r s , th e basa empat balai, a t P ag ar Ruyung. The m e n te ri w ere,
t h e r e f o r e , q u ic k to oppose th e a u t h o r i t a r i a n le a n in g s o f R aja M u zzaffar
Syah and to cham pion th e p r e s e r v a tio n o f M inangkabau i n s t i t u t i o n a l
tra d itio n s .
R aja M u z z a ffa r S y a h 's a p p o in tm en t o f h is so n , Muhammad S yah, as
s u c c e s s o r d id n o t, s t r i c t l y s p e a k in g , tr a n s g r e s s th e e x is tin g M inang­
kabau s u c c e s s io n p r i n c i p l e w h ich , a lth o u g h in a l l o th e r r e s p e c ts
s t r i n g l y m a t r i l i n e a l , re c o g n iz e d th e p a t r i l i n e in th e c a se o f th e
r u l e r s h i p . Not u n t i l th e d e a th in 1676 o f S u lta n Ahmad S yah, r u l e r a t
P ag ar R uyung, was th e r u l e c h a lle n g e d in M inangkabau p r o p e r , when th e
t i t l e o f R aja Alam was c o n te s te d betw een h is son and nephew . T h is
s tr u g g le was a p p a re n tly s e t t l e d in 1683 in fa v o r o f th e m a t r i l i n e a l
s y s te m ,46 b u t had been a n t i c i p a te d some two d ec a d es e a r l i e r by a s im i­
l a r i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a lle n g e , mutatis mutandis, in U jung P ag ar Ruyung
o r In d e ra p u ra .

42. Farmer (tra n s .), "Undang Undang of Moco Moco," pp. 11-12.
43. The Koto P iliang negeri recognized a hierarchy of chiefs including the penghulu,
the menteri (adat c lerk ), the malim and the hulubalang, known c o llectiv ely as
the orang empat jen is (men of four types). In the Bodi Caniago negeri, charac­
terized by more e g a lita ria n ru le s, h ierarch ical positions were less sharply de­
fined and the rank of menteri was not known. Jo u stra, Minangkabau, p. 100.
44. According to the adat Katemenggungan, high crimes were punished with death and
offenses with fin es. See Farmer (tra n s .), "Undang Undang of Moco Moco," pp.
9-10.
45. This found expression, fo r instance, in the Minangkabau proverb in the Kaba
Cindua Mato, which ran d ila h ir urang majambah, d ib atin k ito manjambah meaning,
"externally the ru le r is to be respected by h is su bjects, but actu ally i t is the
ru le r who has to respect h is su b jects." Zahara Daulay, "Minangkabau: A Prelim i­
nary Study of the Culture and People" (unpublished M.A. th e sis, Cornell Univer­
s ity , 1960), p. 38; A. M. Datuk Maruhum Batuah and D. H. Bagindo Tanameh, Hukum
Adat dan Adat Minangkabau (Jakarta: Poesaka, 1956), p. 31.
46. L. Andaya, "Satu Prinsip Baru Penggantian di Pagar Ruyung diakhir Abad Ketujuh-
b elas," Jernal Sejarah (Kuala Lumpur), XV (1972/73), pp. 99-101.
74

A ltho u gh th e in a u g u ra tio n o f Muhammad Syah as s u lta n d id n o t in

i t s e l f m eet o v e rt o p p o s itio n from th e m e n te ri, th e su b seq u en t e x te n s io n
o f h is a u t h o r it a r i a n in flu e n c e in to th e N eg eri Empat B elas K ota (o r
M enjuto) provoked a r e a c tio n . De f a c to a u th o r ity in t h i s re g io n was
in th e hands o f R aja A d il (o r R aja I ta m ) , R aja M u zzaffar S y a h 's e ld e s t
s i s t e r 's so n . He had th e u n d iv id e d su p p o rt o f th e f o u rte e n m e n te ri
who fa v o re d th e m a t r i li n e a l t r a d i t i o n , b u t th e o ld M u zzaffar Syah, i g ­
n o rin g p o p u la r w ish e s, a p p o in te d h is s o n -in -la w Sulaim an to th e ra n k
o f wakil ( d e p u ty ) .1*7 T h is was a d e l i b e r a t e ly c a lc u la te d move to h o ld
R aja A d il in check in th e know ledge t h a t th e young c h ie f aim ed u l t i ­
m a te ly a t a tt a i n i n g th e r u le r s h ip o f In d e ra p u ra on th e b a s is o f h is
m a t r i li n e a l c la im s , as opposed to th e p a t r i l i n e a l c la im s o f S u lta n
Muhammad Syah. When " c i v i l w ar” en su e d , even th e tw en ty m e n te ri a t
In d e ra p u ra th rew in t h e i r l o t w ith R aja A d il, fo rc in g th e s u lta n and
h is f a t h e r to seek a s s is ta n c e in November 1662 from th e D utch a t
S a lid a .
The a r r i v a l o f th e In d e ra p u ra r u l e r s a t S a lid a was w e ll-tim e d . A
d e le g a tio n o f c h ie f s from th e M inangkabau c o a s ta l re g io n was th e n abo u t
to d e p a rt on a m issio n to B a ta v ia to o b ta in r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i r t r e a ­
ty a ll i a n c e w ith th e D u tch , r e j e c t i n g A cehnese s u z e r a in ty . The p r o s ­
p e c t o f s e c u rin g th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f In d e ra p u ra in th e same t r e a t y
a p p e a le d to Johan G roenew egen. C o n d itio n a l on th e r e s t o r a t i o n o f
S u lta n Muhammad Syah, th e D utch w ere p ro m ised e x c lu s iv e r i g h t s o v er
p e p p e r. In March 1663, w h ile th e s u lta n rem ained a t S a lid a a w a itin g
f u r t h e r D utch a c tio n , h is son M ansur Syah jo in e d G roenew egen' s m issio n
to B a ta v ia to s ig n w hat came to be known as th e t r e a t y o f P a in a n .1*8
G roenew egen' s tem p o rary ab sen ce from th e w est c o a s t o f f e r e d , how­
e v e r, an o p p o rtu n ity f o r Aceh to make a f i n a l e f f o r t to re g a in i t s h o ld
on In d e ra p u ra . Through th e m e d ia tio n o f two bujang o r am b assa d o rs,
S u lta n Muhammad Syad and th e m e n te ri a g re e d to a r e c o n c il i a ti o n . In
O cto b er 1663, th e r u l e r re tu r n e d to In d e ra p u ra on th e c le a r term s t h a t
he w ould acknow ledge R aja A d il as w a k il a t M enjuto 1*9 th o u g h , in a c tu a l
f a c t , th e fo rm er c o n tin u e d u n d er th e in f lu e n c e o f h is o ld f a t h e r , R aja
M u zzaffar S yah, who was unhappy ab o u t th e a rra n g e m e n t. T here was l i t ­
t l e p ro s p e c t of la s ti n g p eace how ever, an d , a n tic ip a tin g th e ra p id
w ith d ra w a l o f th e A cehnese r e p r e s e n t a ti v e s , th e r u l e r s p la n n e d to
reo p en n e g o tia tio n s w ith G roenewegen as soon as he r e t u r n e d .4748950
S u lta n Muhammad S y a h 's a m b itio n s f o r th e rem oval o f R aja A d il d id
n o t t o t a l l y c o in c id e w ith D utch p o lic y . S in ce t h e i r s o le i n t e r e s t in
th e a re a was th e p ro cu rem en t o f M e n ju to 's p ep p er s u p p lie s , th e y w ere
n o t p re p a re d to engage in h o s t i l i t i e s a g a in s t R aja A d il w ith o u t f i r s t
f e e lin g o u t h is a t t i t u d e s to w ard s th e m s e lv e s . In Ja n u a ry 1664, Company
fo rc e s w ere th e r e f o r e s e n t to in v e s tig a te th e R a ja 's i n c l i n a t i o n s , w ith
i n s t r u c t io n s n o t to a tta c k u n le s s p ro v o k e d .51 A d il d id n o t resp o n d
a m ic a b ly , b e in g f u l l y aw are t h a t an a l l i a n c e w ith th e D utch would mean
a fo rc e d com prom ise w ith S u lta n Muhammad Syah. In A ugust 1665, t h e r e ­
f o r e , th e D utch lau n ch ed an e x p e d itio n , to g e th e r w ith S u lta n Muhammad
Ryah, w hich fo rc e d R aja A d il to w ithd raw to S e b la t. M enjuto came u n d er
D utch i n f l u e n c e ,52 though o n ly te m p o r a r ily , f o r on G roenew egen's d e a th

47. W. J . A. de Leeuw, Het Painansch Contract (Amsterdam: P aris, 1926), p. 27.

48. D aghregister, April 4, 1663, p. 137; March 27, 1663, pp. 91-92.
49. Ib id . , February 17, 1664, p. 48.
50. De Leeuw, Painansch C ontract, p. 56. 51. Ib id .
52. D aghregister, August 27, 1665, p. 238; October 31, 1665, p. 312.
 75

in December th e same y e a r , th e " r e b e l" c h ie f re g a in e d c o n tr o l o f th e

a r e a . 5345
Even a t In d e ra p u ra c o n d itio n s rem ained u n s e t t le d . Of th e tw e n ty
m e n te ri in th e n e g e ri o n ly n in e rem ain ed firm ly in su p p o rt o f th e
r u l e r , w hich was n o t s u r p r is in g in view o f R aja M u zzaffar S y a h 's c o n ­
tin u e d in te r f e r e n c e in th e governm ent and ty r a n n ic a l e x e r c is e o f pow er.
T h ere w ere c o m p la in ts o f u n d u ly heavy ta x e s and le v ie s an d , in c o n s e ­
q u e n ce , th e r e was an exodus o f p o p u la tio n to th e s o u th , in s e a rc h o f
b e t t e r c o n d itio n s and s e c u r ity u n d e r R aja A d i l . 51*
W ith R aja A d il r id in g a t i d e o f p o p u la r ity , G roenew egen' s s u c c e s ­
s o r , Abraham V e r s p r e e t, th o u g h t i t p ru d e n t to make new e f f o r t s to
r e c o n c ile him w ith S u lta n Muhammad S yah, u sin g th e " r e b e l" l e a d e r 's
c lo s e f r ie n d , R aja M a ta ri o f B atang K apas, as m e d ia to r. The new D utch
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s im u lta n e o u s ly to o k s te p s to o rg a n iz e m a tte rs in I n d e r a ­
p u ra on a more s ta b le f o o tin g , f i r s t and fo re m o st by g ra d u a lly in c r e a s ­
ing th e in f lu e n c e and e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f S u lta n Muhammad Syah. The r u l e r
was te m p o ra rily r e lie v e d o f pow er in In d e ra p u ra , w hich was tu rn e d o v er
to th e more c h a r a c te r f u l and i n f l u e n t i a l R aja M u zzaffar Syah and th e
tw en ty m e n te ri. M eanw hile, th e s u lta n h im s e lf was to g a in th e n e c e s ­
s a ry e x p e rie n c e in th e e x e r c is e o f in d e p e n d e n t a u th o r ity by s e rv in g
away from h is f a t h e r ; f o r t h i s p u rp o s e , he was in v ite d to a s s i s t th e
Company in re o rg a n iz in g a f f a i r s in n e g e ri S epuluh Buah B andar (B andar
X) in th e n o r t h . 55 T h is e x te n s iv e p e p p e r a r e a , w hich in c lu d e d P ain an
and S a lid a and composed th e t e r r i t o r y betw een In d e ra p u ra and P adang,
c o n s is te d , as th e name s u g g e s ts , o f te n d i s t r i c t s , each u n d er a c h i e f .
Supreme a u th o r ity r e s t e d , in th e o r y , w ith a c o u n c il o f fo u r r a j a , 56
a lth o u g h in r e a l i t y t h e i r pow ers w ere so lim ite d t h a t th e y w ere u n a b le
to m a in ta in th e t e r r i t o r i e s as a c o h e siv e u n i t . 57 U nder th e Com pany's
p la n f o r e f f e c t in g p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y and econom ic im provem ent, th e
n e g e ri re c e iv e d th e new name A d ila s , th e o r i g i n a l name S a lid a in r e ­
v e r s e , and was p la c e d u n d e r th e s u p e r v is io n o f Muhammad S y a h .58
To th e d isa p p o in tm e n t o f th e D u tch , a f f a i r s in In d e ra p u ra d id n o t
f a r e w e ll u n d er R aja M u zzaffar S yah, who f a i l e d to d ev e lo p a w orking
r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e tw en ty m e n te ri. A fte r a tim e , how ever, th e l a t ­
t e r d id show some w illin g n e s s to p le d g e c o o p e ra tio n w ith S u lta n Muhammad
S yah, who c o n s e q u e n tly re tu r n e d to resum e c o n t r o l , 59 le a v in g A d ila s in
th e c a re o f S r i N ara, th e i n f l u e n t i a l c h ie f o f Bunga P asan g . I t was
e v id e n tly th e C om pany's b ro a d e r aim to r e s u s c i t a t e th e kingdom o f
In d e ra p u ra , in c o r p o r a tin g A d ila s , u n d er S u lta n Muhammad Syah. The
p la n , h ow ever, was n e v e r r e a liz e d b ec a u se S r i N ara was u n w illin g to

53. Kolonial Archief (KA) (The R ijk sarchief, The Hague), Overgekomen Brieven (OB)
1149, Evert M ichielsen, Pulau Cinko to G.G. and Raden (Council), June 23, 1766,
ff. 2121-22; H. Kroeskamp, De Westkust en Minangkabau, 1665-1668 (Utrecht:
Schotanus § Jens, 1931), p. 53.
54. Ib id ., pp. 67, 105. 55. Ib id . , p. 103.
56. The council of four chiefs (Raja nan Empat) consisted of Raja A irh aji, Raja
Bunga Pasang/Lakitan, Raja Kambang and Raja Pelangkai.
57. De Leeuw, Painansch C ontract, p. 17.
58. KA 1155, OB, Instruction for Jacob Jo rrisse P its, head of the west coast of
Sumatra, May 23, 1667, f f . 281-86.
59. Ib id . , Report of Commander Abraham Verspreet to G.G. and Raden, June 13, 1667,
ff . 287-94; Kroeskamp, Westkust, p. 129.
76

a c c e p t th e o v e rlo rd s h ip o f th e s u lt a n . He had th e f u l l sym pathy o f

th e c h ie f s and in h a b ita n ts o f A d ila s who, fo llo w in g th e re p u b lic a n
t r a d i t i o n s o f th e a re a , re s e n te d th e r u l e r f s p r e te n tio n s to a u th o r ity
o v er t h e i r n e g e r i60 and h is in te r f e r e n c e in t h e i r a f f a i r s a t th e g e n ­
e r a l assem b ly o f c h ie f s a t P a d a n g .61
D e sp ite D utch e f f o r t s to b o l s t e r th e a u th o r ity o f S u lta n Muhammad
Syah, he was u n a b le to w in p o l i t i c a l c r e d i b i l i t y even in M enjuto and
th e s o u th e rn t e r r i t o r i e s o f Anak S u n g a i. H ere R aja A d il c o n tin u e d to
h o ld in d e p e n d e n t sw ay. W hile e v e n tu a lly he came to have c o r d ia l r e l a ­
tio n s w ith th e Company and , in 1668, a s s i s t e d i t in s e c u rin g a t r e a t y
w ith th e K e rin c i c h ie f s f o r th e p u rc h a se o f g o l d ,62 to w ard s th e s u lta n
he rem ain ed h o s t i l e . In 1673, th e Company made y e t a n o th e r e f f o r t to
r e c o n c ile th e two m en ,6364 b u t R aja A d il was adam ant, p ro b a b ly ta k in g
a d v a n ta g e o f h is o p p o n e n t’ s i n s e c u r i ty in In d e ra p u ra i t s e l f . The c h ie f
so u rc e o f tr o u b le th e r e was R aja M u z z a ffa r Syah who, e m b itte re d by h is
d is a s s o c i a t i o n from th e g o v ern m en t, had begun to c r e a te m is c h ie f , a c t ­
ing once a g a in in le a g u e w ith h is s o n -in -la w S u laim an . The o ld r a j a
(who s u rv iv e d t i l l 1674) c ir c u l a te d a rum or o f an im pending A cehnese
in v a s io n , w hich g ain ed w ide c u rre n c y , p a r t i c u l a r l y on th e r e tu r n from
Aceh o f R aja P alaw an, a le a d in g p en g h u lu o f B ajan g , who c o rro b o ra te d
th e s to r y t h a t an arm ada was e x p e c te d to a r r iv e in a few m o n th s .61+
The c o n se q u e n t u n r e s t a f f e c te d econom ic a c t i v i t y in th e n e g e r i, w hich
was a lre a d y h e a v ily in d e b t to th e Company. M en ju to , by c o n t r a s t ,
f lo u r is h e d u n d er R aja A d il, who su c ce e d e d in fo rg in g a v ia b le p o l i t i ­
c a l and com m ercial a l l i a n c e w ith B a n te n .65

The E n try o f R iv a l E uropean I n t e r e s t s

and I n d e r a p u ra Ts P is i n t e g r a t ion
S u lta n Muhammad S yah ’ s i n a b i l i t y to e s t a b l i s h de f a c to a u th o r ity
in th e t e r r i t o r i e s n o m in a lly u n d er h is c h a rg e c o n s titu te d o n ly one a s ­
p e c t o f th e d isa p p o in tm e n t th e D utch fa c e d a t In d e ra p u ra . D utch com­
m e rc ia l r e tu r n s from th e a re a a ls o f e l l f a r s h o r t o f e x p e c ta tio n s .
The p ro s p e c t o f e x p lo itin g th e le g e n d a ry g o ld m ines o f In d e ra p u ra , b e ­
lie v e d to have been long je a lo u s ly g u ard ed and c o n c e a le d from th e A ceh­
n e s e , had been a m ajor in c e n tiv e f o r D utch e x p a n sio n in to th e r e g io n .66
C aught up in f in a n c ia l t r o u b le s , th e s u lta n m ight have been w illin g to
g iv e th e D utch a c c e ss to th e m in es, had any e x is te d . But in 1670,

60. KA 798, OB, Report of Commander Abraham Verspreet to G.G. and Raden, October 29,
1667, ff. 724-25.
61. Kroeskamp, Westkust, p. 127. Under the tre a ty the Company signed in August 1680
with the west coast chiefs, Sri Nara was recognized as governor of Salida. See
also Heeres (ed .), Corpus Diplomaticum, I I I , "West Sumatra,11 p. 220.
62. KA, 1158, OB, Contract between the Company and the Minangkabau king on the one
side and the twelve adipati of Kerinci on the other, 12th Syawal H 1076.
63. KA, 1184, OB, "Vrede contrackt" between Sultan Muhammad Syah and Raja Adil of
Menjuto (undated), ff. 493a-94.
64. Kroeskamp, Westkust, p. 129; D aghregister, April 3, 1670, p. 279.
65. W. Ph. Coolhaas (ed .), GeneraleM issiven, 1675-85, IV (The Hague: N ijhoff, 1971),
pp. 286, 387.
66. The most important sources of gold in Sumatra were Agam, Rau and Salida. Some
sand-gold was also exported from K erinci. Dutch company o ffic ia ls during th is
period were, however, misled in regarding the island as an El Dorado.
 77

en co u rag ed th e Company’s hopes f o r a number o f y e a r s , he and th e men-

t e r i c o n fe sse d th e e m p tin ess o f th e c la im and p le a d e d t h a t in o r i g i ­
n a lly r e p r e s e n tin g In d e ra p u ra as a ’’g o ld m ine” th e y had r e f e r r e d to
n o th in g more th a n i t s w e a lth in p e p p e r .67
But even in term s o f th e p ep p er t r a d e , th e Company found c o n d i­
tio n s u n s a tis f a c to r y as R aja A d il c o n tin u e d h is sh ip m en ts to B anten in
s e ttle m e n t o f t r i b u t e and fo r s a l e . 68 M enjuto had t r a d i t i o n a l l y made
an im p o rta n t c o n tr ib u tio n to S i l e b a r ’s p ep p er e x p o rts to B an ten , and
t h i s l in e o f tr a d e had g u a ra n te e d th e n e c e s s a ry econom ic b ase fo r th e
’’s e p a r a t i s t ” movement headed by R aja A d il. The B r i t is h s e ttle m e n t o f
B enkulen in J u ly 1685, h ow ever, w hich gave them c o n tro l o v er S ile b a r
p e p p e r ,69 and t h e i r t r e a t y a ll i a n c e e a r l i e r t h a t y e a r w ith S u lta n
Muhammad S y a h ,70 w ith th e i n te n tio n o f e s ta b lis h in g h is de f a c to
a u th o r ity in M en ju to , now th rew R aja A d i l ’s f a t e in th e b a la n c e .
The t h r u s t o f B r i t i s h in f lu e n c e in to th e a re a com pelled th e D utch
to s u p p o rt B an ten ese c la im s to B en k u len . H ow ever, th e B an ten ese e x p e ­
d i t i o n f i t t e d o u t in 1685 w ith D utch a s s is ta n c e f a i l e d to e x p e l th e
B r i t i s h from B e n k u le n .71 The moment seem ed r ip e f o r S u lta n Muhammad
Syah f i n a l l y to underm ine h is opp o nen t w ith B r i t i s h a s s i s t a n c e , th o u g h ,
as i t tu rn e d o u t, t h i s was n o t p ro v id e d w ith any d e g re e o f g e n e r o s ity
due to e x ig e n c ie s a t B e n k u le n .72 The s u l t a n ’ s r e l a t i o n s w ith th e
B r i t i s h w ere f u r t h e r s tr a in e d by h is f a i l u r e to s e t t l e lon g s ta n d in g
d e b ts w ith th e Com pany.7374* The D utch to o k a d v a n ta g e o f th e s i t u a t i o n
to p re s s th e s u lta n to ex p el th e B r i t i s h , b u t th e shrew d R aja A d il
s e iz e d th e o p p o rtu n ity to r e t r i e v e h is own econom ic p o s i t io n . Now
th a t B r i t is h c o n tr o l o v er S ile b a r b lo c k e d up h is s u p p lie s to B a n te n ,
R aja A d il a r r iv e d a t a modus vivendi w ith th e E n g lish Company. A c c e p t­
ing th e s u l t a n ’ s com m ercial agreem en t w ith th e Company as w e ll as h is
nom inal a u th o r ity o v er Anak S u n g a i,71* he a d m itte d B r i t i s h tr a d e a t

67. D aghregister, August 11, 1670, p. 400.

68. N. MacLeod, "De Oost-Indische Compagnie op Sumatra in de 17e eeuw," De Indische
Gids, IV/1 (1905), pp. 126-27.
69. P. Wink, "Eenige Archiefstukken betreffende de Vestiging van de Engelsche fac-
to rij te Benkoelen in 1685," T ijd sc h rift voor Indische T aal-, Land- en Volken-
kunde (B atavia), LXIV (1924), pp. 464-69.
70. Java Factory Records (India Office Library, Foreign and Commonwealth O ffice,
London), 7, Inderapura-East India Co., March 10, 1685/6, f. 61; H. Dodwell
(ed .), Records of Ft. St. George: L etters to Ft. St. George (Madras: Madras Gov-
ernmcnt Press, 1917j , III, Ralph Ord and Thomas Stubbs, Madras R epresentatives,.
Inderapura, October 9, 1685, pp. 205-7.
71. J. K. J. de Jonge, De opkomst van het Nederlandsch gezag in Oost-Indie (13 v o ls.;
The Hague: N ijhoff, 1862-88), V III, pp. L-LI; Wink, "Eenige A rchiefstukken," pp.
482-86.
72. L etters to Ft. St. George, III, Benjamin Bloome and Robert Bellamy, York Fort,
December 30, 1686, p. 125.
73. Sumatra Factory Records (India O ffice Library, Foreign and Commonwealth O ffice,
London), 2, L etters and Consultations (Cons.), November 7, 1687; MacLeod, "De
Oost-Indische Compagnie op Sumatra in de lie eeuw," De Indische Gids, XXVIII/2
(1906), p. 1420.
74. L etters to Ft. St. George, I I I, Joan[n]es Camphuys, Batavia, April 30, 1685, pp.
207-9; Sumatra Factory Records, 2, L etters and Cons., Inderapura to York F ort,
tra n sla tio n of a le tte r from the menteri of Menjuto and Raja Adil to Hammon
Gibbon, Governor of Inderapura, October 21, 1687.
78

M en ju to . A sid e from such econom ic c o n s id e r a tio n s , t h i s tem p o rary

r e c o n c i l i a t i o n was made im p e ra tiv e by th e o u tb re a k o f c i v i l war in Men­
j u t o , w here L aran g an , a g ra n d so n o f S u lta n B akopia o f Dua B elas K ota
to th e n o r th o f P a ria m a n ,75 a tte m p te d to s e iz e p o w e r.76 In f a c t , th e s e
d ev elo p m en ts in M enjuto drew S u lta n Muhammad Syah away from h is em bar­
r a s s in g s i t u a t i o n in th e n o r th . He a p p e a rs to have a p p re c ia te d th e
new o p p o rtu n ity to g a in de f a c to c o n tr o l o v e r M enjuto w hich was e c o ­
n o m ic a lly more s i g n i f i c a n t th a n th e c o re re g io n o f Dua P uluh K ota.
The a d m in is tr a tio n in In d e ra p u ra he l e f t in th e hands o f h is n ie c e ,
th e raja perempuan o r tengku padusi , who a c te d as c u s to d ia n in k eep in g
w ith M inangkabau t r a d i t i o n . The r a ja p erem p u an 's m a rria g e c o n n e c tio n
w ith th e panglima raja o f P a d a n g ,77 w here th e D utch had t h e i r h e a d q u a r­
t e r s m ean t, h ow ever, th a t id e a l c o n d itio n s w ere em erging f o r In d e ra -
p u r a 's a b s o r p tio n in to th e D utch sp h e re o f in flu e n c e in th e n o r th .
Soon a f t e r S u lta n Muhammad S y a h 's t r a n s f e r o f power to h is n ie c e
th e a c t i v i t i e s o f L arangan and h is a d h e re n ts began to a f f e c t p o l i t i c s
in In d e ra p u ra p ro p e r. W ith in th e s h o r t sp a ce o f a y e a r th e s i t u a t i o n
became d i f f i c u l t f o r th e r a ja perem puan, who so u g h t re fu g e in Padang
le a v in g th e c o u n try in u n r e s t and tu r m o il. The m e n te ri, u n d er th e
le a d e r s h ip o f R aja M ansur, th e b r o th e r o f th e ten g ku p a d u s i, a p p e a le d
fo rm a lly in 1689 f o r D utch i n t e r v e n t i o n .78
M eanw hile, S u lta n Muhammad S yah, who was s t i l l busy in M en ju to ,
f i n a l l y conceded R aja A d i l's o r i g i n a l b id f o r r e c o g n itio n as h e i r -
a p p a re n t to th e In d e ra p u ra th r o n e , on c o n d itio n t h a t th e l a t t e r m ar­
r ie d one o f h is d a u g h te rs . In 1689. R aja A d il l e f t f o r In d e ra p u ra to
f u l f i l l th e n u p tia l c o n t r a c t , an o c c a s io n th e s u lta n s e iz e d to t r y to
s a lv a g e m a tte rs a t h is c a p i t a l . He com m issioned R aja A d il to rem ain
b eh in d in In d e ra p u ra to s u p e rv is e th e a d m in is tr a tio n , b u t s in c e t h i s
ra n c o u n te r to th e w ill o f h is s o n -in -la w who was a n x io u s to r e tu r n to
M en ju to , th e S u lta n 's p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s in In d e ra p u ra rem ained
n e g le c te d .
In Anak S u n g a i, on th e o th e r h an d , th e s u l t a n ’ s fo rtu n e s showed a
tem p o ra ry im provem ent. The su p p o rt o f th e fo u rte e n m e n te ri had swung
d r a m a tic a lly in h is fa v o r as th e y w ere d e te rm in e d a t a l l c o s ts to p r e ­
v e n t L arangan from ta k in g pow er, on a c c o u n t o f h is n o n lo c a l o r ig in and
h is ty r a n n ic a l d i s p o s i t i o n . 79 The s u lta n was aw are t h a t t h e i r a d h e r­
ence was te m p o ra ry , how ever, and a p p re c ia te d th e n e c e s s ity o f r e ly in g
on B u g in ese and Company f o r c e s , 80 p a r t i c u l a r l y as L arangan had by th e n
e n te re d a fo rm id a b le a ll i a n c e w ith th e M inangkabau a d v e n tu re r Ahmad

75. MacLeod, "De Oost-Indische Compagnie" (1906), p. 1420; Coolhaas (ed .), Generale
M issiven, V, December 23, 1687, p. 178; December 27, 1688, p. 231.
76. Sumatra Factory Records, 2, L etters and Cons., October 21, 1687; March 26, 1689.
77. Ib id . , March 13, 1688, p. 178; December 27, 1688, p. 231. The panglima raja
headed Padang and was assisted by a datuk bendara and seven regents or panglima.
78. Sumatra Factory Records, 2, L etters and Cons., Inderapura to York F ort, March
29, 1689; MacLeod, "De Oost-Indische Compagnie" (1906), p. 1421; Coolhaas (ed .),
Generale M issiven, V, December 30, 1689, p. 324.
79. Sumatra Factory Records, 2, L etters and Cons., Inderapura to York Fort (tra n sla ­
tio n of a le tte r from the menteri of Menjuto and Raja Adil to Hammon Gibbon,
governor of Inderapura), October 21, 1687; ib id . , January 9, 1688.
80. Ib id ., November 4, 1689.
 79

Syah ib n Is k a n d a r, whom th e B r i t is h e x p e lle d from B enkulen in 1 6 8 9 .81

The enemy was soon v an q u ish ed and i t was o n ly a m a tte r o f tim e b e fo re
su p p o rt f o r S u lta n Muhammad Syah once a g a in d e c lin e d . In 1691, he was
o v erth ro w n in Anak S ungai by a lo c a l c h i e f , R aja Ita m , th e son o f
MIn c ik R e d ik ,M a d e sc e n d a n t o f th e r u lin g house o f P a ria m a n .82 In
In d e ra p u ra , to o , th e s u l t a n ’s ca u se was l o s t as B r i t is h i n t e r e s t in th e
a re a g ra d u a lly waned th ro u g h a c o m b in a tio n o f f a c to r s such as D utch
h a ra s sm e n t, in c r e a s in g c o n v ic tio n o f In d e ra p u ra * s l im it a ti o n s as a
so u rc e o f p e p p e r ,83 and th e la c k o f a s s is ta n c e from B enkulen. P re sse d
on a l l s i d e s , th e s u lta n fo rm a lly d e c id e d in 1691 to la y down h is g ov ­
ernm ent a t In d e ra p u ra , w hereupon th e D utch h a p p ily i n s t a l l e d t h e i r
p r o te g e , R aja M ansur, as S u lta n M ansur S y a h .8485 T h is e v e n t s e a le d th e
lo c a l f a t e o f th e B r i t is h who, in 1693, e v a c u a te d t h e i r lod g e in
In d e ra p u ra and w ithd rew p e rm a n e n tly from th e M inangkabau a re a s n o rth
o f M e n ju to . 8 5
The ap p o in tm en t o f R aja M ansur as s u lta n a ls o co n firm ed th e new
m a t r i li n e a l s u c c e s s io n arran g em en t in In d e ra p u ra . A c c o rd in g ly , on
R aja M ansur S y a h 's d e a th in 1696 he was su cceed ed by R aja P a s i s i r , th e
tengku p a d u s i's g ra n d so n , who was o n ly s ix y e a rs o l d . 86 D uring h is
m in o rity th e governm ent was managed th e r e f o r e by h is g ran d m o th er and
th e tw en ty m e n te r i .87

81. Ib id . , Stephen Anderson to York Fort, ? 1689. For more on Ahmad Syah ibn Iskan­
dar, see my nAhmad Shah ibn Iskandar and the Late 17th Century 'Holy War1 in
Indonesia,M Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal A siatic Society
(JMBRAS), XLIII/1 (1970), pp. 48-63.
82. 0. L. H elfrich, MDe Adel van Benkoelen en Djambi," Adatrechtbundel, XXII (1923),
p. 315.
83. Sumatra Factory Records, 2, L etters and Cons., Ft. St. George to York F ort,
October 24, 1688; July 24, 1689; L etters to Ft. St. George, IV, Hammon Gibbon
and John F ield, Inderapura, February 28, 1686/7, p. 127. This may have been
due p artly to current p o litic a l upheavals in the negeri, but pepper production
seems generally to have declined here and in Menjuto, as both were superseded
by Mukomuko (see below, p. 83, n. 110). By the m id-eighteenth century produc­
tio n in Mukomuko, in tu rn , was on the decline and the southern pepper d is tric ts
of Manna, Kawur and Krue came to the fore as the English Company' s main pro­
ducers. This decline in output, following a period of high productivity, was
most probably on account of so il exhaustion.
84. E. B. K ielstra, M0nze kennis van Sumatra's Westkust omstreeks de h e lft der
achttiende eeuw," BKI, XXXVI (1887), p. 556; MacLeod, "De Oost-Indische Com-
pagnie" (1906), pp. 1424-25; Coolhaas (ed .), Generale M issiven,1686-95, V,
January 31, 1692, p. 474.
85. L etters to Ft. St. George, V, September 18, 1693, p. 135; February 11, 1694/5,
p. 20.
86. According to Coolhaas (ed .), Generale M issiven, IV, December 11, 1692, p. 539,
Raja Mansur married the daughter of the tengku padusi and the panglima raja of
Padang, which would make him the fath er of Raja P a sisir. This relation sh ip does
not seem lik e ly , as Raja Mansur was a brother of the engku adusi and would
have been prevented by Minangkabau custom from marrying a niece on the maternal
side.
87. The grandmother acted as guardian, apparently in accordance with Minangkabau
custom, in her capacity as the tengku padusi. On her death in 1698, the mother
of Sultan P a sisir succeeded to the t i t l e , but de facto authority passed into the
hands of the m enteri. To reestab lish the in tern al balance of power Sultan Muham­
mad Syah was invited to return to Inderapura as advisor to the young ru le r. He
80

The cam paign i n i t i a t e d o r i g i n a l l y by S u lta n M u zzaffar Syah and

c o n tin u e d a f t e r him by S u lta n Muhammad S yah, to e s t a b l is h s tro n g mon­
a r c h ic a l r u le b ased on p a t r i l i n e a l s u c c e s s io n , had p roved f u t i l e .
I r o n i c a l l y , th e f a i l u r e o f th e movement tu rn e d o u t n o t to th e ad v an ­
ta g e o f th e m e n te ri, th e sta u n c h g u a rd ia n s o f th e M inangkabau r e p u b l i ­
can t r a d i t i o n , b u t th e D utch a d m in is tr a tio n , whose in f lu e n c e g a in e d
s te a d y asc en d an c e in th e re g io n a f t e r th e a b d ic a tio n o f S u lta h Muhammad
Syah. By th e m id -e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry th e D utch w ere in f u l l c o n tr o l o f
p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s a t In d e ra p u ra , in c lu d in g th e ro y a l s u c c e s s io n . E v i­
dence o f t h i s i s to be found in th e e v e n ts fo llo w in g th e d e a th o f th e
s u lta n o f In d e ra p u ra s h o r tly a f t e r A dolphus E sc h els-K ro o n was a p p o in te d
R e sid e n t a t A irb a n g is in 1766. The Company, he re c o rd e d , ad h e re d to
i t s p o lic y o f u p h o ld in g th e m a t r i l i n e a l s u c c e s s io n p r i n c i p l e . But th e
c la im s o f th e two o ld e r nephew s w ere s e t a s id e b ec a u se o f t h e i r e x c e s ­
s iv e a d d ic tio n to opium , c o c k - f ig h tin g and th e s e r a g li o . I n s te a d , th e
Company so u g h t th e s e l e c t io n o f th e y o u n g e s t, tw e n ty - f iv e - y e a r - o ld
D atuk Muda, re p u te d ly a man o f se n se and u n u su a l e n t e r p r i s e an d , m ore­
o v e r, an imam ( le a d e r a t mosque p r a y e r s ) . U nder th e c irc u m s ta n c e s th e
Company had l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y in d e p a rtin g from th e norm al p r a c t i c e o f
re c o g n iz in g th e o ld e s t c la im a n t, by u s in g th e in f lu e n c e w hich th e malim
( r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t i e s ) w ie ld e d among th e p e o p le . In a g e n e ra l assem ­
b ly o f th e n e g e ri a rra n g e d by th e R e s id e n t, th e s e r e l ig i o u s d i g n i t a r i e s
se c u re d th e p u b lic e le c t io n o f th e C om pany's nom inee w ith o u t a p p a re n t
s ig n s o f g e n e ra l d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n o r p r o t e s t . 8889
The s u b o rd in a tio n o f lo c a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l form s to th e s u p e r io r
w il l and s a n c tio n o f th e Company was a ls o a t t e s t e d in p ro c e d u re s p e r ­
ta in in g to th e c o n firm a tio n o f a l l a p p o in tm e n ts and t i t l e s a t I n d e r a ­
p u ra . Each a p p o in tm e n t, in c lu d in g t h a t o f th e r u l e r , th e mangkubumiB9
and o th e r c h i e f s , was s u b je c t to th e a p p ro v a l o f B a ta v ia w h ich , in
r e c o g n itio n o f th e t i t l e , made o u t a c e r t i f i c a t e w ith an o f f i c i a l s e a l
is s u e d on paym ent o f a fe e p r o p o r tio n a te to th e incom e o f th e c h i e f .
In to k e n o f i t s a u t h o r it y , th e Company a ls o a llo c a te d to each c h ie f a
s t i c k o r c a n e , m ounted w ith a knob o f g o ld a llo y o r s i l v e r o r c o p p e r,
a c c o rd in g to h is p a r t i c u l a r r a n k .90 The t i t l e s o f th e s u lta n and men­
t e r i rem ained in form o n ly . By th e e a r ly n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , th e f o r ­
m er, w ith th e tengku panglim a o f P ad ang , assum ed th e s t a t u s o f r a j a o f
th e f i r s t ra n k , w hich c a r r ie d w ith i t l i t t l e more th a n th e empty honor
o f a th ir te e n - g u n s a lu te and a r e c e p tio n by th e R e sid e n t a t G overnor
H ouse. The h e ir - a p p a r e n t h im s e lf w orked as a c le r k in P ariam an , "a
m easure o f how f a r th e f a m ily 's f o r tu n e s had d e c l in e d ." 91

did not remain long in th a t p ositio n , however, for in 1701 he got involved in a_
reb ellio n against the Dutch.
88. Gottlob Benedict van Schirach (in tro .), Adolphus Eschels-Kroon, "Account of the
Island of Sumatra" (contains tra n sla tio n s into English of extracts of Adolph
Eschels-Kroon's Beschrijving van het Eilang Sumatra [Haarlem: Bohn, 1783]) in
Mackenzie C ollection 1822 (India O ffice Library, Foreign and Commonwealth O ffice,
London), XVII, ff . 24-31.
89. The mangkubumi (su ltan ’s principal a ssista n t) stood over and above the twenty
m enteri. The position appears to have been defunct during the reigns of Muzzaf­
far Syah and Muhammad Syah who fought for royal absolutism .
90. Mackenzie C ollection 1822, XVII, ff . 24-31. This custom had early origin s. On
the Dutch Company's in itia l establishm ent of formal re latio n s with Inderapura, a
gold-plated stick mounted with a knob was presented, evidently as a mark of honor
to the ru le r. D aghregister, June 20, 1673, p. 156.
91. "Nota over de S tatie der Voorname Hoofden Langs de Westkust van Sumatra, van
 81

Anak S u n g a i's Em ergence as a S e p a ra te S u lta n a te

W hile In d e ra p u ra p ro p e r c a rv e d o u t i t s in d e p e n d e n t d e s tin y u n d er
D utch t u t e l a g e , in th e seced ed t e r r i t o r y o f Anak S u n g a i, w here R aja
Itam d ie d soon a f t e r h is v ic to r y a t Anak S u n g a i92 le a v in g a m in o r,
G ulem at, as s u c c e s s o r ,9394 c i v i l w ar c o n tin u e d to r e ig n . The t e r r i t o r y
was u n a b le to e s t a b l i s h i t s e l f on a s ta b le fo o tin g u n d er an in d e p e n d e n t
h e a d , due la r g e ly to th e i n t e r n a l s t r a i n s b ro u g h t on by th e lin g e r in g
p o l i t i c a l a lle g ia n c e o f th e m e n te ri to th e o ld ro y a l c a p i t a l , and th e
lo c a l r u l e r 's la c k o f power to c o n tr o l them .
B r i t is h a n x ie ty to se e p e a c e fu l c o n d itio n s o f tr a d e in Anak S ungai
u n d er a c e n t r a l iz e d a u to c h th o n o u s a u th o r ity sh o u ld have been s a t i s f i e d
by S u lta n Muhammad S y a h 's renew ed p la n to c o n s o lid a te h is c la im s in th e
so u th a f t e r R aja Ita m 's d e a th . E a r l i e r r e l a t i o n s betw een th e two p a r ­
t i e s h ad , how ever, been u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . F in a ll y , th e s u l t a n 's a b d ic a ­
t io n in In d e ra p u ra in 1691, w hich made way f o r th e D utch i n s t a l l a t i o n
o f R aja M ansur, i r r e p a r a b ly damaged B r i t i s h o p in io n o f h im .99 They
o p ted th e r e f o r e to e sp o u se th e c la im s o f G ulem at a g a in s t Muhammad
S y a h 's b id f o r re c o v e ry o f th e t e r r i t o r y . 95
D e sp ite G u le m a t's y o u th , Muhammad Syah fa c e d s tro n g m i l i t a r y oppo­
s i t i o n . The r a j a perem puan, m o th er1 and g u a rd ia n o f th e young r u l e r
h ad , s in c e th e d e a th o f h e r h u sb an d , m a rrie d R aja M akota, a man o f c o n ­
s id e r a b le in f lu e n c e among th e m e n te ri. The lo c a l f a c tio n in su p p o rt
o f G ulem at was a ls o jo in e d by th e o ld r e b e l , R aja A d il, who, e m b itte re d
by th e D utch c o n firm a tio n o f R aja M ansur as s u lta n o f In d e ra p u ra , r e ­
e n te re d p o l i t i c s in th e s o u th . T h e ir com bined fo r c e s su cceed ed in e x ­
p e l l in g Muhammad Syah from th e s o u th e rn d i s t r i c t s o f Anak S u n g a i, b u t
th e c a p i t a l o f M enjuto rem ained in h is h a n d s .96 T here was a ls o th e
problem o f how b e s t to accom m odate th e a m b itio n s o f R aja A d il. As th e
man i n i t i a l l y r e s p o n s ib le fo r Anak S u n g a i's s e p a r a tio n from In d e ra p u ra ,
he s t i l l commanded w ide p o p u la r ity in th e re g io n "g a in e d by h is g e n tle
and m ild g o v e rn m e n t." The m e n te ri and p e r o a tin even w ent so f a r as to
esp o u se h is c la im s to th e l e g itim a te r u l e r s h i p o f th e n e g e r i . 97 H ence,
d e s p ite t h e i r m isg iv in g s ab o u t th e f i d e l i t y o f R aja A d il, th e B r i t i s h

Indrapoera to t Tico, Welke A lhier Zullen Gerangschikt Worden Volgens hunne Classe
en Waardigheid." Padang c. 1820. Koninklijk In stitu u t voor T aal-, Land- en
Volkenkunde [Royal In stitu te of Ethnography, Leiden], Manuscript H113, quoted
in E. Graves, "The Ever-Victorious Buffalo: How the Minangkabau of Indonesia
Solved Their 'C olonial question'" (unpublished Ph.D. th e sis, U niversity of Wis­
consin, 1971), p. 150.
92. See p. 79.
93. Sumatra Factory Records, 3, Diary and Cons., York Fort and Triamang, September
6, 1695.
94. Ib id . , September 16, 1695. 95. Ib id . , September 6, 1695.
96. Sumatra Factory Records, 2, L etters and Cons., York F ort, Inderapura, January
18, 1691/2; March 10, 1692; March 18, 1692; April 21, 1692. The Dutch evidently
landed th e ir forces at Menjuto at the time Muhammad Syah held i t . Later, in
1695, when Gulemat's government stepped up operations against Muhammad Syah (see
below, p. 82), the Dutch forced the la tte r to relin q u ish , form ally, the tra n sfe r
both of the Dua Puluh Kota (Inderapura) and the Empat Belas Kota (Menjuto), at
a meeting attended by the menteri of the respective regions. Coolhaas (ed .),
Generate M issiven, V, February 14, 1695, p. 725.
97 . Sumatra Factory Records, 3, Diary and Cons., York Fort and Triamang, September
23, 1695.
82

c o n s id e re d i t " c o n v e n ie n t f o r th e b e t t [ e r ] s tre n g th e n in g a g a in s t th e
E m p ero r," i f he w ere re c o g n iz e d in j o i n t a u th o r ity w ith G ulem at. The
Company made a c a lc u la te d and t a c t f u l move; by accom m odating R aja A d il
and s e c u rin g th e re b y th e c o o p e ra tio n o f th e c h i e f s , i t hoped to m ain ­
t a i n a u n ite d s ta n d in Anak S ungai a g a in s t th e t h r e a t posed by Muhammad
S y a h .989 On th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e p la n th e e x p e c te d su p p o rt came
from th e o ra n g k a y a , m e n te ri and p e r o a tin . Muhammad Syah was th u s i s o ­
la te d and pushed o u t o f th e r e g i o n . "
The arra n g e m e n t o ff e r e d a tem p o ra ry s o lu tio n u n t i l th e r e s t l e s s
R aja A d il came once a g a in to a b r i e f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w ith Muhammad
S y a h .100 A d e s p e ra te e f f o r t was made by th e B r i t is h r e p r e s e n t a ti v e ,
C h a rle s B a rw e ll, to m a in ta in th e s t a t u s quo by a d iv is io n o f th e Anak
S ungai t e r r i t o r i e s , w ith R aja A d il in in d e p e n d e n t c o n tr o l o f M enjuto
and G ulem at o f th e re m a in in g d i s t r i c t s in th e s o u th . The p a r t i t i o n
d id n o t l a s t and R aja A d il b ro k e h is a ll i a n c e w ith th e B r i t i s h and c o n ­
tin u e d to s t i r up tr o u b le in M e n ju to .101
The r e b e l l io n o f R aja A d il c a u se d a d e c lin e in p o p u la r su p p o rt
f o r G ulem at, p a r t i c u l a r l y as th e l a t t e r had grown up to d is p la y few
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s tr e n g th and in d e p e n d e n c e . A cco rd in g to B r i t i s h
o f f i c i a l o p in io n , he was a man o f se n se and wisdom b u t g iv e n to women
and g am b lin g , a t r a i t w hich h is s t e p f a t h e r , R aja M akota, who had ta k e n
c h a rg e o f h is e d u c a tio n , had n o t t r i e d to c h e c k . In f a c t , on th e o c c a ­
s io n o f a m isu n d e rsta n d in g w ith th e r a j a perem puan, R aja M akota e x ­
p lo ite d G u le m a t's w eakness to p e rsu a d e th e m e n te ri to s u p p o rt th e r i v a l
c la im s o f h is n a tu r a l so n , S u laim an , to th e t h r o n e .102 An a d d itio n a l
f a c to r a g a in s t G ulem at was th e m e n te r i's s k e p tic is m ab o u t th e l e g a l i t y
o f h is c la im s , as h is ap p o in tm en t had n e v e r been co n firm ed by th e ro y a l
house o f In d e r a p u ra . 103104*
G u le m a t's f a i l u r e to w in unanim ous su p p o rt came as a shock to th e
B r i t i s h who, h av in g h e lp e d e s t a b l i s h th e de f a c to fram ew ork f o r an
in d e p e n d e n t s u lta n a te in th e s o u th , f r e e o f D utch i n t e r f e r e n c e , had
e x p e c te d to see l a s t i n g p e a c e . On f in d in g o th e rw is e , th e y w ere d i s ­
posed to se c u re fo rm al s a n c tio n from th e r u l e r o f M inangkabau to g u a r­
a n te e s t a b i l i t y in Anak S u n g a i.101* H ow ever, w ith th e D utch firm ly in
c o n tr o l o f In d e ra p u ra , t h i s p la n p ro v ed a b o r tiv e .
G u le m a t's p r e c a r io u s p o s itio n was f u r t h e r c o m p lic a te d by th e a r ­
r i v a l o f a new d e p u ty -g o v e rn o r o f B en k u len , Jo se p h C o lle t (1712-16)
who, in th e i n t e r e s t s o f m in im iz in g B r i t i s h com m itm ents, ad o p ted a

98. Ib id . , June 27, 1695; August 12, 1695; September 13, September 16 and 26, 1695.
99. Ib id . , September 24, 1695.
100. By 1697, the allian ce had broken up and Muhammad Syah was reported to have fled
to Kota di-Hulu. Coolhaas (ed .), Generale M issiven, V, January 19, 1697, p.
793; Sumatra Factory Records, 4, Diary and Cons., York F ort, May 31, 1699.
101. Ib id . , 3, Diary and Cons., September 14, 1695; October 8, 1695; ib id . , 4, Diary
and Cons., York F ort, May 31, 1699.
102. Ib id . , 7, A bstracts of L etters from Sumatra, February 26, 1708; May 15, 1714.
103. H elfrich, "De Adel," p. 315.
104. The B ritish seem to have believed th at the "Emperor" of Minangkabau was the
legitim ate authority who had previously appointed the adm inistrative heads at
both Inderapura and Anak Sungai. Sumatra Factory Records, 7, A bstracts of
L etters from Sumatra, February 26, 1708.
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s t r i c t p o lic y o f n e u t r a l i t y in i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s . 105 Even a f t e r G ule-

mat l o s t M enjuto and Mukomuko in 1712, C o lle t s tu c k r e s o l u t e ly to h is
p o lic y o f n o n i n t e r f e r e n c e .106 C o n d itio n s in Anak Sungai d e t e r i o r a t e d
f u r t h e r and th e fo u rte e n m e n te ri a t M enjuto jo in e d th e r e b e l f o r c e s .
W ith G u le m a t's f a t e en d an g ered and p e p p e r c u l t i v a t i o n s e v e r ly a f f e c t e d ,
C o lle t was f i n a l l y fo rc e d to change h is p o lic y . R e in fo rc e m e n ts from
B enkulen w ere ru sh e d to Anak S ungai and by 1713 Mukomuko and M enjuto
w ere r e ta k e n . The l a t t e r a re a in p a r t i c u l a r , due to i t s p ro x im ity to
In d e ra p u ra , had p ro v id e d f e r t i l e ground f o r o p p o s itio n a g a in s t G ulem at.
But by 1714, a f t e r th e e x p u ls io n o f th e r e b e l le a d e r s from M en ju to , th e
t e r r i t o r y was in c o rp o ra te d f o r a l l tim e w ith Anak S u n g a i, u n d er G u le­
mat ' s r u l e . 107
I n te r n a l c o n d itio n s in Anak S ungai rem ained u n s e ttle d due to G u le­
m a t's c o n tin u in g f a i l u r e to w in th e c o n fid e n c e and su p p o rt o f th e men­
t e r i . R aja M a k o ta 's s u rv iv in g so n , R aja K ec il B e sa r, to o k a d v a n ta g e
o f th e s i t u a t i o n to underm ine th e a u th o r ity o f th e r u l e r , who f e l l
re a d y v ic tim to a p lo t to a li e n a t e him from h is B r i t i s h a l l i e s . On
re c e iv in g a l e t t e r p u r p o rte d ly w r itte n by h is c o n f id a n t, P en g eran
Mangku R aja o f S ungai Lemau, w arn in g him o f a C o lle t p la n to d ep o se
him , G ulem at w ith d rew q u ie tly from c o u rt in Ju n e 1716 to a v o id p e rs o n a l
d is g r a c e a t th e hands o f th e C om pany.108 F a ilin g to p e rsu a d e him to
r e t u r n , th e B r i t i s h w ere o b lig e d to i n v i t e th e R aja K ec il B esar o r
"Tengku d i Bawa P a u k ," as th e n e x t in l i n e , to ta k e th e th r o n e . The
move was m is in te r p r e te d by G ulem at as c o n firm in g h is s u s p ic io n s o f
B r i t i s h i n t e n t i o n s . From K e r in c i, w here he e s ta b lis h e d h is h e a d q u a r­
t e r s , he began i n s t i g a t i n g th e n e ig h b o rin g c h ie f s and jo in e d a g e n e ra l
movement a g a in s t th e B r i t i s h a t B en k u len , w hich fo rc e d t h e i r tem p o ra ry
e x p u ls io n in 1719. 109
G ulem at d is a p p e a re d from th e sc en e on th e r e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f B r i t ­
is h c o n tr o l d u rin g th e n e x t d e c a d e . H is s u c c e s s o r , R aja K e c il, who
r u le d u n d er th e t i t l e o f S u lta n K e c il Muhammad Syah p ro v ed a b le , a l ­
th o u g h th e f a c t t h a t h is t i t l e was u n co n firm ed by In d e ra p u ra rem ained
a s o re p o in t w ith th e m e n te ri. On th e r u l e r 's n o m in a tio n o f h is son
as h e ir - a p p a r e n t, th e m e n te ri b ro k e o u t in open o p p o s itio n . In t h e i r
q u e s t f o r a c a n d id a te w ith th e n e c e s s a ry c o n n e c tio n s w ith In d e ra p u ra ,
th e y n o m in ated M erah B angun, who, as w e ll as b e in g a p rin c e from t h a t
ro y a l h o u se , had e s ta b lis h e d s u b s t a n t i a l lo c a l c o n n e c tio n s d u rin g h is
y e a rs o f s e r v ic e as c o u rt a d v is o r to G ulem at. The lo c a l B r i t i s h r e p r e ­
s e n t a t i v e , F a rth in g h a m , e n d o rse d t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s , s e e in g t h i s as th e
o n ly means to s e t t l e th e s u c c e s s io n p ro blem in Anak S u n g a i. By an a c t
o f r e g ic id e in 1728 th e m e n te ri b ro u g h t t h e i r p la n to f r u i t i o n . (The
B r i t i s h R e s id e n t's im p lic a tio n in th e a f f a i r rem ain s u n c e r t a i n .) M erah
Bangun was in v e s te d w ith th e t i t l e o f S u lta n Gundam M ersah (1 7 28 -3 0)
a t th e new ro y a l c a p i t a l a t Mukomuko110 and th e Company saw f a i r p ro s -

105. Ib id . , February 28, 1708; December 30, 1708.

106. Ib id . , 8, L etters and Cons., York F ort, September 1, 1712; October 22, 1712.
107. H. H. Dodwell (ed .), The Private L etter Books of Joseph Collet (London: Long­
mans, Green, 1933), pp. 61-67; Sumatra Factory Records, 8, L etters and Cons.,
York F ort, September 12, 1713; May 15, 1714.
108. Ib id . , May 15, 1714.
109. L etters to F t. St. George, XIV (1932), Thomas Cooke, F t. Marlborough, November
29, 1718, pp. 13-14; June 23, 1719, pp. 57-58.
110. As early as January 1696 the English Company had favored Mukomuko as a suitable
royal cap ital because i t had a more pleasant location and, by then, furnished
84

p e c ts o f a l a s t i n g p e a c e .111 W hether th e m e n te ri a c tu a lly re c e iv e d

th e s a n c tio n o f th e r u l e r o f In d e ra p u ra f o r M erah B ang un 's ap p o in tm en t
as s u lta n o f Anak Sungai rem ain s u n c le a r . But th e r e l a t i v e p eace p r e ­
v a i l in g in th e a re a a f t e r th e i n v e s t i t u r e im p lie s t h a t th e new r u l e r 's
d i r e c t b lo o d r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e o ld c o u r t f u l f i l l e d , in p a r t a t
l e a s t , th e n e c e s s a ry c o n d itio n s f o r e s t a b l is h i n g a le g itim a te d y n a sty
in Anak S u n g a i. The m e n te r i's f i n a l r e c o n c i l i a t i o n to th e s i t u a t i o n
m arked an im p o rta n t t u r n in g - p o in t, a f t e r w hich i t g ra d u a lly became
e a s ie r f o r th e B r i t i s h to o rg a n iz e a s e p a r a te and in d e p e n d e n t p o l i t y
a t Anak S u n g a i, f r e e o f I n d e r a p u r a 's in f lu e n c e . W ith th e E n g lish Com­
pany now th e dom inant a u t h o r it y , th e p r e c a r io u s b a la n c e o f power b e ­
tw een r u l e r and m e n te ri was f i n a l l y b ro k e n . The a re a moved away from
th e m a t r i l i n e a l l y - i n c l i n e d t r a d i t i o n s o f th e M inangkabau n o rth to w ard s
th e p a t r i l i n e a l t r a d i t i o n s , b ased on t e r r i t o r i a l r a t h e r th a n g e n e a lo g i­
c a l r u l e , fa v o re d by th e B r i t i s h a t B e n k u le n .112
In i t s e v o lu tio n as an in d e p e n d e n t p o l i t y and in i t s l a t e r e n ­
d ea v o r to p re s e rv e th e u n ity o f i t s com ponent p a r t s , th e In d e ra p u ra
kingdom e x p e rie n c e d th e c l a s s i c "pow er c o n f l i c t betw een th e k in g and
th e lo c a l n o t a b l e s ." 113 B u t, in a d d itio n , th e c h ro n ic i n s t a b i l i t y and
d is o r d e r w ith in th e c o re a re a o f Dua P uluh K ota i t s e l f m ust be e x ­
p la in e d in p a r t by th e r e g io n 's re m a rk a b le a tta c h m e n t to M inangkabau
lin e a g e and i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s . The e g a l i t a r i a n c h a r a c te r o f
M inangkabau p o l i t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n ca u se d s tro n g r e s i s t a n c e to c e n ­
t r a l i z e d a u t o c r a t i c r u le by an in d e p e n d e n t s o v e re ig n . E uropean i n t e r ­
fe re n c e c e r t a i n l y added to th e p o l i t i c a l c o m p lic a tio n s . The d i s i n t e ­
g r a tio n o f th e In d e ra p u ra kingdom was th e i n e v ita b le c o n se q u e n c e ,
le a d in g to th e p o l a r i z a t i o n o f th e com ponent t e r r i t o r i e s to w ard s th e
r e s p e c tiv e E uropean h e a d q u a rte rs a t Padang and B engkulen.

more pepper than Menjuto. The ru le r and chiefs, however, were adamantly op­
posed, because Menjuto was the tra d itio n a l c a p ita l. Sumatra Factory Records,
4, Diary and Cons., York F ort, January 13, 1696; January 15, 1696.
111. Ib id . , 8, L etters and Cons., York F ort, September 30, 1728. According to
H elfrich, "De Adel," p. 315, the appointment was made on the m enteri's request
to the ru le r of Inderapura, though there is nothing in the B ritish records to
support th is claim. Insofar as the English Company was concerned, the formal
investure of the new sultan took place in August 1728 at Mukomuko. See Sumatra
Factory Records, 8, L etters and Cons., York F ort, September 30, 1728.
112. For an account of th is process, see my "A Survey of the Effects of B ritish
Influence on Indigenous Authority in Southwest Sumatra (1685-1824)," BKI,
CXXIX/2 § 3 (1973), pp. 239-68.
113. Schrieke, Indonesian Sociological S tudies, I, p. 171.