Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

Module-2
Properties, Composition, and Industrial Application of Engineering Materials:
Metals-Ferrous: Tool steels and stainless steels. Non-ferrous /metals: aluminum alloys.
Ceramics- Glass, optical fiber glass, cermets. Composites- Fiber reinforced composites, Metal
matrix Composites. Smart materials- Piezoelectric materials, shape memory alloys,
semiconductors, and super-insulators.
Metal Joining Processes: Soldering, Brazing and Welding: Definitions. Classification and
methods of soldering, brazing, and welding. Brief description of arc welding, Oxy-acetylene
welding, Introduction to TIG welding and MIG welding.
Heat Transfer Applications: Review of modes of Heat Transfer; Automobile Radiators;
Condensers and evaporators of refrigeration systems; Cooling of Electrical and Electronic
Devices; Active, Passive, and Hybrid Cooling.
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INTRODUCTION:
In the materials world we are living in, when making a new device/component, most
often we come across a very familiar problem. This is nothing but select the right material.
Selection of material can play very important role preventing failures. Selection of material for
a specific purpose depends on many factors. Some of the important ones are: strength, ease of
forming, resistance to environmental degradation, etc. Another dimension an engineer should
be aware of it is how to tailor the required properties of materials. Materials can be are broadly
classified as metals, ceramics and plastics. This chapter introduces different classes of metallic
materials, common fabrication methods, and means to alter their properties on purpose.

Figure: Classification of Engineering Materials

METALS
Metallic materials are broadly of two kinds - ferrous and non-ferrous materials. This
classification is primarily based on tonnage of materials used all around the world. Ferrous
materials are those in which iron (Fe) is the principle constituent. All other materials are
categorized as non-ferrous materials.

a) Mild Steel – Carbon content of 0.1 to 0.3% and Iron content of 99.7 – 99.9%. Used for
engineering purposes and in general, none specialized metal products.
b) Carbon steel – Carbon content of 0.6 to 1.4% and Iron content of 98.6 to 99.4 %. Used to
make cutting tools such as drill bits.
c) Stainless Steel – The name comes from their high resistance to corrosion i.e. they are rust-
less (stain-less). Steels are made highly corrosion resistant by addition of special alloying
elements, especially a minimum of 12% Cr along with Ni and Mo. Stainless steels are mainly
three kinds: ferritic & hardenable Cr steels, austenitic and precipitation hardenable (martensitic,
semi-austenitic) steels. This classification is based on prominent constituent of the
microstructure. Typical applications include cutlery, razor blades, surgical knives, etc.
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d) Tool steel or High carbon steels-These are strongest and hardest of carbon steels, and of
course their ductility is very limited. These are heat treatable, and mostly used in hardened and
tempered conditions. They possess very high wear resistance, and capable of holding sharp
edges. Thus these are used for tool application such as knives, razors, hacksaw blades, etc.
With addition of alloying element like Cr, V, Mo, W which forms hard carbides by reacting
with carbon present, wear resistance of high carbon steels can be improved considerably.

e) Cast iron- Though ferrous alloys with more than 2.14 wt.% C are designated as cast irons,
commercially cast irons contain about 3.0-4.5% C along with some alloying additions. Alloys
with this carbon content melt at lower temperatures than steels i.e. they are responsive to
casting. Hence casting is the most used fabrication technique for these alloys.

f) Hard and brittle constituent presented in these alloys, cementite is a metastable phase, and
can readily decompose to form α-ferrite and graphite. In this way disadvantages of brittle phase
can easily be overcome. Tendency of cast irons to form graphite is usually controlled by their
composition and cooling rate. Based on the form of carbon present, cast irons are categorized
as gray, white, nodular and malleable cast irons.

NON-FERROUS MATERIALS
Non-ferrous materials have specific advantages over ferrous materials. They can be fabricated
with ease, high relatively low density, and high electrical and thermal conductivities. However
different materials have distinct characteristics, and are used for specific purposes. This section
introduces some typical non-ferrous metals and their alloys of commercial importance.

Aluminum alloys: These are characterized by low density, high thermal & electrical
conductivities, and good corrosion resistant characteristics. As Al has FCC crystal structure,
these alloys are ductile even at low temperatures and can be formed easily. However, the great
limitation of these alloys is their low melting point (660°C), which restricts their use at elevated
temperatures. Strength of these alloys can be increased by both cold and heat treatment – based
on these alloys are designated in to two groups, cast and wrought. Chief alloying elements
include: Cu, Si, Mn, Mg, Zn. Recently, alloys of Al and other low-density metals like Li, Mg,
Ti gained much attention as there is much concern about vehicle weight reduction. Al-Li alloys
enjoy much more attention especially as they are very useful in aircraft and aerospace
industries. Common applications of Al alloys include: beverage cans, automotive parts, bus
bodies, aircraft structures, etc. Some of the Al alloys are capable of strengthening by
precipitation, while others have to be strengthened by cold work or solid solution methods

Copper alloys (Brass Bronze): As history goes by, bronze has been used for thousands of
years. It is actually an alloy of Cu and Sn. Unalloyed Cu is soft, ductile thus hard to machine,
and has virtually unlimited capacity for cold work. One special feature of most of these alloys
is their corrosion resistant in diverse atmospheres. Most of these alloys are strengthened by
either cold work or solid solution method. Common most Cu alloys: Brass, alloys of Cu and
Zn where Zn is substitutional addition (e.g.: yellow brass, catridge brass, muntz metal, gilding
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metal); Bronze, alloys of Cu and other alloying additions like Sn, Al, Si and Ni. Bronzes are
stronger and more corrosion resistant than brasses.

CERAMICS
Ceramics which were traditionally being used for pottery and clay products only, these days
are finding application in electronics, aerospace, bio-applications etc. The application spectrum
of ceramics has increased because ceramics possesses specific properties such as corrosion
resistance, wear resistance, high hardness, low density etc. The classification of ceramics based
on the application is as follows:

(i) Glasses: Glasses are based on Silicate (SiO2) along with other additives to shrink the
melting point and to impart special characteristic properties. Glasses are mainly used in the
manufacturing of the following products;
(a) Containers (b) households (c) optical glasses etc.

(ii) Optical fibre glasses: Since optical fibers were introduced in 1960s, they have
subsequently attracted much attention for a range of applications such as fiber amplifiers and
fiber lasers. A glass-ceramic optical fiber containing Ba2TiSi2O8 Nano crystals fabricated
using a novel combination of the melt-in-tube method and successive heat treatment is reported
for the first time.

(iii) Cermets: Cermets are composites in which ceramic materials and metals join together,
typically to give something with the high temperature performance or wear resistance of a
ceramic and the toughness, flexibility, or electrical conductivity of a metal. Cermets offer a
perfect solution in components such as resistors and vacuum tubes (valves). Machine tools are
another increasingly common use for cermets, which offer greater toughness and wear
resistance than more traditional materials. The interesting surface properties of cermets also
make them useful for reducing friction in machine parts.

COMPOSITES
There is an unabated quest for new materials which will satisfy the specific requirements for
various applications like structural, medical, house-hold, industrial, construction,
transportation, electrical; electronics, etc. Metals are the most commonly used materials in
these applications. In the yore of time, there have been specific requirements on the properties
of these materials. It is impossible of any material to fulfill all these properties. Hence, newer
materials are developed. In the course, we are going to learn more about composite materials.
First, we will deal with primary understanding of these materials and then we will learn the
mechanics of these materials.
A composite material is defined as a material which is composed of two or more materials at a
microscopic scale and has chemically distinct phases. Thus, a composite material is
heterogeneous at a microscopic scale but statistically homogeneous at macroscopic scale. The
materials which form the composite are also called as constituents or constituent materials. The
constituent materials of a composite have significantly different properties.
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Further, it should be noted that the properties of the composite formed may not be obtained
from these constituents. However, a combination of two or more materials with significant
properties will not suffice to be called as a composite material.

Figure: Building blocks of composite

Classification of composites:
Composites may be classified either on the type of matrix material incorporated or geometry
of reinforcement used in the fabrication of composites. According to the type of matrix material
used, there are three types of composites:

Figure: Classification of metal matrix Composites

Fibre Reinforced Composites: are the most common and widely used composites. In PMCs,
polymers are used as matrix material. PMCs consist of glass, carbon, or other high strength
fibers as reinforcement in a thermoset or thermoplastic matrix. The resulting materials are
strong, stiff, and corrosion resistant. Polymer matrix composites offer several advantages over
traditional metals and alloys such as flexibility in design, easy processing and ability to produce
near net shape products.

Metal matrix composites (MMC): In metal matrix composites, metals like Aluminium (Al),
Magnesium (Mg) and Copper (Cu) are used as matrix materials. Widely used reinforcements
in MMCs are silicon carbide (SiC), Alumina (Al2O3) and Tungsten (W). Metals have much
higher strength and stiffness in comparison to polymeric materials like Epoxy which is used as
matrix in polymeric material. He application of MMCs are currently restricted to the following
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fields: Aerospace applications - like helicopter transmission system, Acid Battery, Super alloys
for high-speed Turbine blades

SMART MATERIALS
Smart Materials are being developed since last decade in the laboratories all around the world.
These are materials which are capable of generating controllable response to the environment.
As actuators, they can produce controllable force to modify the response of a system. As
sensors, the same material could be used to monitor the response of the system. Smart materials
are being traditionally used in aerospace applications since last decade. Using smart actuators
one can modify the flexible modes of a system such that the control effort would not interfere
with the vibrating frequencies of the structure. Active vibration controllers are developed for
Helicopters and Large space structures using this principle. Tailoring the gamut of smart
materials towards diverse applications is still a major challenge to the researchers and engineers
involved in these fields.

Piezoelectric materials
Piezoelectric materials are very common example of such materials where they produce a
voltage when stress is applied. Since this effect also applies in the reverse manner, a voltage
across the sample will produce stress within the sample. Suitably designed structures made
from these materials can therefore be made that bend, expand or contract when a voltage is
applied. They can also be used in optical tracking devices, magnetic heads, dot-matrix printers,
computer keyboards, high frequency stereo speakers, accelerometers, micro-phones, pressure
sensors, transducers and igniters for gas grills.

Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)

Shape memory polymers, are materials that can hold different shapes at various temperatures.
They can be deformed and returned to their original shape by heating. In the process, they
generate an actuating force. Shape memory alloy, such as nitinol, an alloy of nickel and
titanium, which has a corrosion resistance similar to stainless steel, making it particularly useful
for biomechanical applications. Such types of materials can be used in coffee-pot thermostat,
super elastic spectacle frames, stents for veins, whereas shape memory polymer has the ability
to regain its original shape when heated. These are generally used in biodegradable surgical
sutures that will automatically tighten to the correct tension and also in self-repairing car bodies
that will recover shape on gentle heating after a dent.

Insulator
Any of various substances that block or retard the flow of electrical or thermal currents.
Although an electrical insulator is ordinarily thought of as a no conducting material, it is in fact
better described as a poor conductor or a substance of high resistance to the flow of electric
current. Different insulating and conducting materials are compared with each other in this
regard by means of a material constant known as resistivity Electrical insulators are used to
hold conductors in position, separating them from one another and from surrounding structures.
They form a barrier between energized parts of an electric circuit and confine the flow of
current to wires or other conducting paths as desired. The insulation of electrical circuits is a
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necessary requirement for the successful operation of all electrical and electronic apparatus.
Various types of materials are used as electrical insulators, the selection being made primarily
on the basis of the specific requirements of each application
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Metal Joining Processes

Joining process is where two or more pieces of parts are joined together to produce a single
product of required shape and size. The parts required for joining are produced by any other
manufacturing technique. There are different methods used to join the parts. The joining
process can be classified as
a) Permanent joining process b) Semi – permanent or temporary joining process
Permanent joining process is done by fusing the metal together. In this process the metal is
heated to its melting state and then it is fused to become one. Some of the examples for
permanent joining process are welding soldering and brazing Temporary joining process is
where the metal is not heated. The joining process is carried out at room temperature.
Temporary joining process can be done using nuts, bolts, screws and adhesives.

SOLDERING
It is defined as “a joining process wherein coalescence is produced by heating to a suitable
temperature and by using a filler metal having a melting point not exceeding 427oC and below
the solidification temperature of the base metals”. The filler metal fills in the gap of the joint
by capillary action. Soldering uses fusible alloys to join metals know as solder. Ordinary gas
flames or electric soldering iron is used to supply the heat to melt the solder. Fluxes are used
with solder in soldering process. Fluxes are defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous material
when heated accelerates the wetting of metal with the solder. Due to wetting molten solder
flow into the joint and fills the space between the two pieces to be soldered. At elevated
temperature flux is highly reducing in nature preventing the formation of metal oxides. Fluxes
that are generally used in soldering are Rosin, Zinc Chloride and Aluminum Chloride.
The kind of solder used depends on the metals to be joined. There are two different types of
solders:
a) Hard solders are called spelter and hard soldering process is called silver solder brazing.
The hard solder has lead and silver as it constituents. The melting point of the hard solder is in
the range of 3500C and above. This process gives greater strength and will stand more heat
than soft solder.
b) Soft solder is used for joining most common metals with an alloy that melts at a temperature
below that of the base metal, and always below 4270C. The melting range of soft solder is
1500C to 2000C. The solder contains tin and lead as it constituents.

Figure: Mechanical and Electric Soldering gun

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Advantages
1. The process is done at low temperatures hence, no metallurgical damage to the base metal.
2. The soldering joint can be dismantled by simple heating of the solder.
3. It is cost effective

Disadvantages
1. The strength of the joint is not good compared to welding.
2. Flux material has to be cleaned after soldering, as most of the fluxes are corrosive in nature.

BRAZING
Brazing is a joining process, which produces coalescence of materials by heating to a suitable
temperature and using a filler metal having a melting temperature above 427°C and below the
solidification temperature of the base metals being joined. The filler metal is distributed
between the closely fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary attraction. Brazing is distinguished
from soldering in that soldering employs a filler metal having a melting point below 427°C.

Brazing procedure: The metal to be joined is cleaned for oxides, dust and oil. Fluxes are
applied on the entire surface where the brazing is carried out. The parts are aligned in position
for brazing. The joint is heated using a gas torch with a Carburizing flame. Filler metal is added
into the space where the metal is to be joined. Due to the wetting action of the flux, the molten
filler metal fills the space by capillary action. The joint is allowed to cool and then the fluxes
are cleaned from the surface.
The fluxes used in brazing are borax, boric acid, borates, chlorides and fluorides. Some of the
filler metal alloys used for brazing are Aluminum – Silicon, magnesium, copper and copper
zinc etc.

Advantages
1. It can be used to join dissimilar metals.
2. It provides good pressure tight joints.
3. Different cross sectional thickness material can be brazed.
4. Brazing avoids metallurgical damage to the metal.

Disadvantages
1. Size limitations of the parts to be brazed. As the outer area has to be elevated to the higher
temperature, in large sections increasing the temperature is difficult.
2. Tight mating parts are necessary for capillary action.
3. Flux are corrosive in nature, they have to be cleaned properly after brazing.
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WELDING PROCESS
At one time, the simple definition of welding was "joining metals through heating them to a
molten state and fusing them together." As technical progress in welding processes has
advanced, the definition has had to change.
Welding is defined as “a localized coalescence of metals, wherein coalescence is obtained by
heating to suitable temperature, with or without the application of pressure and with or without
the use of filler material. This filler material has the melting point same as the base material.”
It is also known as a metallurgical joining process of two metal pieces, to produce a single
piece of product.

Figure: Classification of Welding Process

ARC WELDING

The principle of arc welding is as follows. When two conductors of an electric circuit are
touched together momentarily and then instantaneously separated slightly, assuming that there
is sufficient voltage in the circuit to maintain the flow of current, an electric arc is formed.
Concentrated heat is produced throughout the length of the are at a temperature of about
5000oCto 6000°C. In arc welding, usually the parts to be welded are wired as one pole of the
circuit, and the electrode held by the operator forms the other pole. When the arc is produced,
the intense heat quickly melts the workpiece metal which is directly under the arc, forming a
small molten metal pool. At the same time the tip of the electrode at the are also melts, and this
molten metal of the electrode is carried over by the are to the molten metal pool of the
workpiece. The molten metal in the pool is agitated by the action of the arc, thoroughly mixing
the base and the filler metal. A solid joint will be formed when the molten metal cools and
solidifies. The flux coating over the electrode produces an inert gaseous shield surrounding the
arc and protects the molten metal from oxidizing by coming in contact with the atmosphere.
Figure illustrates the arc welding process.
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Figure: Principle of Arc Welding

Gas Welding

Gas welding is a fusion method of welding, in which a strong gas flame is used to raise the
temperature of the workpieces so as to melt them. As in arc welding, a filler metal is used to
fill the joint. The gases that can be used for heating are: (i) oxygen and acetylene mixture and
(ii) oxygen and hydrogen mixture. The oxy-acetylene gas mixture is most commonly used in
gas welding.

Oxy-Acetylene Welding

When right proportions of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and then
ignited, the flame produced at the nozzle tip is called as the oxy-acetylene flame. This flame
when used in welding is known Oxy-acetylene welding. The temperature attained by the oxy-
acetylene flame is around 3200°C and therefore has the ability to melt all commercial metals.
Thus, there is a complete bonding of the joining metals that can be achieved during welding.

Equipment. The oxy-acetylene gas equipment consists of two large steel cylinders one
containing oxygen at high pressure, and the other dissolved acetylene also at high pressure,
rubber tubes, pressure regulators and blow torch. The oxygen and the acetylene are supplied to
the blow torch separately, where both of them get mixed and come out through the nozzle of
the blow torch.

Working The typical oxy-acetylene welding process is shown in Figure. After the initial
equipment preparation, the to-be-welded component setup and safety checks are completed,
the pressure regulators fitted to the oxygen and acetylene cylinders are adjusted to draw the
oxygen and acetylene gas in the required proportions from the cylinders respectively. The
pressure regulator in each of the cylinders is fitted with two gauges. One gauge indicates the
gas pressure inside the cylinder and the other gauge indicates the reduced pressure at which the
gas goes out. The respective gases from cylinders are carried from the pressure regulator to the
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welding torch using the rubber hose pipes. Upon reaching the welding torch, these gases are
allowed to mix in a mixing chamber and then are led out of the torch through the orifice of the
blow pipe. The resultant flame at 3200 degrees Celsius is used melt the work pieces. To fill up
the gap between work pieces and to add strength to the joint, filler rods (mostly of metal similar
to the work pieces) are added to the molten metal pool. A Flux such as borax is used to dissolve
and remove metal oxides formed during welding. The technique used to weld can be leftward
or rightward welding technique. In the left ward welding technique, the flame from the torch
preheats the material yet to be welded, while in the right ward welding, the flame post-heats
the weld-bead. The molten metal pool that contains molten metal of the filler rod and the work
piece solidifies to form a welded joint.

Figure: Oxy-Acetylene Welding Set up

TIG Welding
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) welding is the arc welding process in
which arc is generated between non consumable tungsten electrode and work piece. The
tungsten electrode and the weld pool are shielded by an inert gas normally argon and helium.
Figure shows the principle of tungsten inert gas welding process.

Figure: Principle of TIG Welding

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The tungsten arc process is being employed widely for the precision joining of critical
components which require controlled heat input. The small intense heat source provided by the
tungsten arc is ideally suited to the controlled melting of the material.
Since the electrode is not consumed during the process, as with the MIG or MMA welding
processes, welding without filler material can be done without the need for continual
compromise between the heat input from the arc and the melting of the filler metal. As the filler
metal, when required, can be added directly to the weld pool from a separate wire feed system
or manually, all aspects of the process can be precisely and independently controlled i.e. the
degree of melting of the parent metal is determined by the welding current with respect to the
welding speed, whilst the degree of weld bead reinforcement is determined by the rate at which
the filler wire is added to the weld pool.

Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG welding)

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is the process in which arc is struck between bare wire
electrode and work piece as shown in the figure. The arc is shielded by a shielding gas and if
this is inert gas such as argon or helium then it is termed as metal inert gas (MIG) and if
shielding gas is active gas such as CO2 or mixture of inert and active gases then process is
termed as metal active gas (MAG) welding. Figure illustrates the process of GMA welding.

Figure: Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding

Direct current power source is the requirement of GMAW process. The electrode wire passing
through the contact tube is to be connected to positive terminal of power source so that stable
arc is achieved.
GMA welding requires consumables such as filler wire electrode and shielding gas. Solid filler
electrode wires are normally employed and are available in sizes 0.8, 1.0, 1.2- and 1.6-mm
diameter. Similar to submerged arc welding electrode wires of mild steel and low alloyed steel,
are coated with copper to avoid atmospheric corrosion, increase current carrying capacity and
for smooth movement through contact tube.
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The process is extremely versatile over a wide range of thicknesses and all welding positions
for both ferrous and nonferrous metals, provided suitable welding parameters and shielding
gases are selected. High quality welds are produced without the problem of slag removal. The
process can be easily mechanized / automated as continuous welding is possible.
However, process is costly and less portable than manual metal arc welding. GMA welding has
high deposition rate and is indispensable for welding of ferrous and specially for nonferrous
metals like aluminium and copper-based alloys in shipbuilding, chemical plants, automobile
and electrical industries. It is also used for building structures.

Comparison between MIG and TIG welding:

MIG Welding TIG Welding

Consumable electrode wires are used.
Bare welding wire is made of desired
composition
Electrodes generates arc and melt also.
Widely used for thick plates.
Used for joining similar materials.
Welding Process is faster.
Non-consumable electrodes are used.
Electrodes are made of tungsten or tungsten
alloys.
Electrodes only generate arc.
Easily welds thin parts and sheet metals.
Used for joining dis similar materials
Welding process is Slower.

Comparison between Welding, Soldering and Brazing

Sl.
Welding
No.
1 Welding joints are
strongest joints used to bear
the load. Strength of the
welded portion of joint is
usually more than the
strength of base metal.
2 Temperature required is
3800°C in welding joints.
3 To join work pieces need to Heating of the work
be heated till their melting pieces is not required.
point.
4 High cost is involved and
high skill level is required.
Heat treatment is generally
required to eliminate
undesirable effects of
welding.
Soldering Brazing
Soldering joints are Brazing joints are weaker
weakest joints out of than welding joints but
three. Not meant to bear stronger than soldering
the load. Use to make joints. This can be used to
electrical contacts bear the load up to some
generally. extent.
Temperature requirement Temperature may go to
is up to 450°C in 600°C in brazing joints.
soldering joints.
Work pieces are heated
but below their melting
point.
Cost involved and skill Cost involved and sill
requirements are very required are in between
low. other two.
No heat treatment is No heat treatment is
required. required after brazing.

5 No preheating of workpiece
is required before welding
as it is carried out at high
temperature.
6 Mechanical properties of
base metal may change at
the joint due to heating and
cooling.
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Preheating of workpieces Preheating is desirable to
before soldering is good make strong joint as
for making good quality brazing is carried out at
joint. relatively low
temperature.
No change in mechanical May change in
properties after joining. mechanical properties of
joint but it is almost
negligible.
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Heat Transfer Applications

Heat Transfer:
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use,
conversion, and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems.
Modes of Heat Transfer:
1. Conduction Heat Transfer
2. Convection Heat Transfer
3. Radiation Heat Transfer
CONDUCTION: “Thermal Conduction is a mechanism of heat propagation from a region of
higher temperature to a region of low temperature within a medium ( Solid, liquid or gaseous)
or between different mediums in direct physical contact”
The law which governs Conduction heat transfer is Fourier’s law of conduction. Fourier’s
law of thermal conduction states that “the rate of heat transfer through a material is
proportional to the area measured normal to the direction of heat flow and to the
temperature gradient in that direction.”
��
�� = −��.
��

Where Qx = Rate of heat flow through area ′A′in the positive x − direction
k = thermal conductivity of the material in W/mK
A = Cross section area in m2
dT
= Temperature gradient in positive x direction
dx
Process of Conduction:
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 Consider the flow of heat along a metal rod, one end of which is placed adjacent
to the flame.
 The elementary particles (molecules, atoms, electrons) composing the rod, and
which are in immediate vicinity of the flame get heated.
 Because of the resulting temperature growth their kinetic energy increases as a
result it starts vibrating about their mean position.
 These more active particles collide with less active molecules lying next to them
hence the energy gets transferred to the adjacent molecules.
 The process is repeated for layer after layer of molecules until the other end of
the rod is reached.
 Each layer of molecules is at a slightly higher temperature than the preceding
one that is a temperature gradient exists along the length of the rod.
 The rate of heat flow between the two ends depends upon the length of the rod,
temperature difference between the two ends and the physical and chemical
composition of the bar material.
Examples for conduction of Heat:
 Utensils used to handle charcoal or other very hot substances.
 The ice, when put in a cup of boiling water, melts completely.
 When you bring water to a boil, the gas stove flame transmits the heat to the
pot, and from one moment to the next the water is already heated.
 The heat that comes from a kitchen utensil when you leave it on a container and
turn over it a soup that is practically burning.

CONVECTION:
Thermal Convection is a process of energy transport affected by the circulation
or mixing of a fluid medium (gas, liquid or a powdery substance). Convection is
possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the transport of medium
itself.
Convection is the process of heat transfer in fluids by the actual motion of matter.
 It happens in liquids and gases.
 It may be natural or forced.
 It involves a bulk transfer of portions of the fluid.
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Process of Convection:
` When a fluid is heated from below, thermal expansion takes place. The lower
layers of the fluid, which are hotter, become less dense. We know that colder fluid is
denser. Due to buoyancy, the less dense, hotter part of the fluid rises up. And the colder,
denser fluid replaces it. This process is repeated when this part also gets heated and
rises up to be replaced by the colder upper layer. This is how the heat is transferred
through convection.

Figure: Process of Convection Heat Transfer

Note: The initial heat transfer between the object and the fluid takes place through
conduction, but the bulk heat transfer happens due to the motion of the fluid.
Types of Convection
There are two types of convection, and they are:
a) Natural convection
b) Forced convection
a) Natural convection: When convection takes place due to buoyant force as there is
a difference in densities caused by the difference in temperatures it is known as natural
convection. Examples of natural convection are oceanic winds.
b) Forced convection: When external sources such as fans and pumps are used for
creating induced convection, it is known as forced convection. Examples of forced
convection are using water heaters or geysers for instant heating of water and using a
fan on a hot summer day.
The Newton law of Cooling governs the convection heat transfer. Newton’s law of cooling
which states that “the rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the difference in the
temperatures between the body and its environment”
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

RADIATION:
“Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of Electromagnetic
waves or particles through space or through a material medium”
 Radiation emitted by a body is a consequence of thermal agitation of its composing
molecules.
 Radiation heat transfer can be described by reference to the 'black body'
 A black body is a hypothetical body that completely absorbs all wavelengths of thermal
radiation incident on it. Such bodies do not reflect light, and therefore appear black if
their temperatures are low enough so as not to be self-luminous. All black bodies heated
to a given temperature emit thermal radiation.

The law which governs Radiation heat transfer is Stefan-Boltzmann Law which states that
“The radiation energy per unit time from a black body is proportional to the fourth power of
the absolute temperature” and can be expressed as

q = σ T4 A

where

q = heat transfer per unit time (W)

σ = 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4) - The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
T = absolute temperature in kelvins (K)
A = area of the emitting body (m2)
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

AUTOMOBILE RADIATORS:
“The radiators are heat exchangers used to transfer thermal energy from one medium to
another for the purpose of cooling and heating”
1. Radiators are used to convert thermal energy from one mode to another for the purpose
of cooling and heating.
2. Radiators function in automobiles, buildings as well as in electronics.
3. It acts as a coolant source for automotive engine cooling.
4. Radiators transfer most of their heat via convection rather than thermal radiation.
5. If there are large temperature differences, it can cause distortion of the engine
components.
6. The radiator will do the cooling purposes because the temperature of the burning gases
in the engine cylinder reaches up to 1500 to 2000°C.
7. If the heat is not dissipated there can be a failure of the cylinder material. Radiators can
reduce the chances of piston seizure and keep the temperature minimum.

Radiator Main Parts or Construction:

Figure: Constructional details of Automobile Radiator

Parts of Radiators
Below are the major parts of radiators and their functions:
a) Core:
The core is the major part of a radiator that serve its main purpose. It is a metal block
with small metal fins which through it the coolant heat is a vent to the air surrounding the
radiator. Cores are used to classified radiators, for instance, one-core, two-core, or even three-
core radiators.
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

b) Pressure/Filler Cap:
As the coolant in the radiator is always under pressure, which helps to keep the coolant much
hotter under without boiling. This allows the system to be much more efficient. The function
of the pressure cap is to bleed off the hot coolant since it rises at some point. The hot coolant
could cause damage to the coolant parts if the pressurize cap not functioning well.
c) Outlet and Inlet tank:
The outlet and the inlet portion of the radiator are where the flows in and out of the radiator.
It’s located in the radiator head which is made of metal or plastic. From the engine, hot coolant
flows through the inlet portion to radiator and from the outer portion to the engine. The hose is
used to make the connections.
d) Cooler:
Some cars use the same cooler as the engine transmission cooler. In the transmission system,
the fluid passes through a steel pipe to ensure the coolant circulation. This coolant is also cooled
within the radiator because heat is also generated through an automatic transmission. Although
some engines are designed with separate radiator for the transmission.

Working Principle:
In a radiator, there is a tank on each side, and inside contained a transmission cooler.
There are inlet and outlet ports, which from the inlet port coolant flows to the tubes where they
are exposed to cooling. The tubes are in a parallel arrangement, where they come in contact
with cooling fins to draw away heat from the core. As the hot water enters through the inlet
port to the tubes, the cooling fan behind the radiator cools down the hot water in the tubes. The
cool coolant then passes through the outlet port back to the engine to cool the hot part again

Types of Radiator:
The various types of radiators are classified according to their core. Below are the
types of radiator used in automotive engines:

1. Tubular Core Type:

In these types of radiator, the upper and lower tanks are connected by a series of tubes
that passes the water within the radiator. There are fins location around the tube for efficient
heat transfer. It absorbs the heat from the coolant through the fans to the atmosphere. Due to
the fact water passes through all tube in this radiator type, defect on one tube will affect the
cooling process.

2. Cellular Core Type:

In the cellular types of radiators, the coolant flows through the spaces between the
tubes. The core is made of a large number of individual air cells surrounded by the coolant. Air
passes through the tubes while the coolant flows in the spaces between them. The cellular core
radiator is also known as honeycomb radiator because of its appearance. Unlike the tubular
type, clogging in the tube affects a small part of the total cooling surface.
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

Radiator Advantages:
 The radiator is of good heat dissipation. It obviously saves material and energy.

 Good performance of oxidation corrosion resistance

 They are highly responsive.
 They are environmentally friendly to produce, so they are less polluting.
 They are easy to mold, and so you can find some very cool and unusual designs.
 Ceramic, cast iron, and other materials used to construct them will hold heat.

Radiator Disadvantages:
 Heat loss takes place if not used and maintained properly.
 Noisy operation
 It needs an adequate amount of airflow in the room in order for a radiator to properly
work.
 The heats from the unit will simply sit around the unit, which can reduce the comfort
levels within your home and create drafts and cold spots.
 Radiators can grow extremely hot to the touch while working. Please avoid
especially small children or pets from the working radiator.

Radiator Application:
The main uses or application of Radiator are:

 To cool motor oil or power steering fluid.

 Automatic transmission fluid.
 Air conditioner and Automobiles.
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

Condensers and evaporators in Refrigeration system:

Working principle of a Domestic refrigerator:

1. The compressor compresses the refrigerant gas. The compressed gas heats up as it
is pressurized.
2. The coils on the back of the refrigerator let the hot refrigerant gas dissipate its heat.
The refrigerant gas condenses into liquid at high pressure.
3. The high-pressure liquid flows through the expansion valve.
4. The liquid immediately boils and vaporizes, its temperature dropping to about -
25°F, as the cold gas flows through the expansion coils (inside the refrigerator) it
makes the inside cold by absorbing heat.
5. The low-pressure refrigerant gas is sucked up by the compressor, and the cycle
repeats.

Figure: Block diagram of the Refrigeration process

Condenser:
The condenser is a device used in the high-pressure side of a refrigeration system. The
function of the condenser is to remove the heat of the hot vapor refrigerant discharged from the
compressor. The heat from the hot vapor refrigerant in a condenser is removed first by
transferring it to the walls of the condenser tubes and then from the tubes to the condensing or
cooling medium.
Three main and different types of condensers:
1) Air-cooled condenser
b) Natural convection type
c) Forced convection type
2) Water-cooled condenser
a) Double pipe or tube-in-tube type
b) Shell-and-coil type
c) Shell-and-tube type
3) Evaporative Condenser
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

Air-cooled condenser:
An air-cooled condenser is one, in which the removal of heat is done by air (cooling
medium). It consists of steel or copper tubing through which, the refrigerants flows. The size
of tube usually ranges from 6mm to 18mm outside diameter, depending upon the size of
condenser. Generally copper tubes are used because of excellent heat transfer ability. The
condensers with stell tubes are used in ammonia refrigerating systems to avoid problem of
corrosion. The tubes are usually provided with plate type fins to increase the surface area for
increasing heat transfer rate. The fins are usually made from aluminium, because of its light
weight property. The fin spacing is quite wide to reduce dust clogging.

Working of Air-cooled condenser:

Refrigerant flows inside the tubes or coils and air flows over the external surface of
condenser tubes. Atmospheric air comes in contact with the warm condenser tubes and absorbs
heat from the refrigerant. The warm air moves up due to decrease in density. In natural
convection, heat transfer rate is slow, so it requires large surface area of condenser as compared
to forced convection condenser. The major disadvantage of an air cooled condenser is that , it
operates at a higher condensing temperature than water cooled condenser. The higher
condensing temperature causes the compressor to work more and hence compressor consumes
more power

Figure: Natural and Forced Air-Cooled Condensers

Natural Convection air cooled condenser:

In this type of condenser, air comes into contact with the hot coil, absorbing the heat of
the refrigerant inside the coil, resulting in an increase in the air temperature. As the warm air
is lighter, it moves up and replaces the cold air, and again the cold air comes to touch the hot
coils to reject heaters. This natural cycle continues until refrigerants lose their heat.Since the
airflow rate is low and the radiative heat transfer is also not very high, the combined heat
transfer coefficients in these condensers are small. As a result, relatively large condensing
surfaces are required to reject a certain amount of heat. Therefore this type of condenser is used
for small capacity refrigeration systems like home refrigerators & freezers.
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

Forced Convection air cooled condenser:

One other type of condenser is forced convection. The fan or blower plays the most
important role in removing the heat from the refrigerant inside the coil. The fan blows air into
the wing coils. An important tip should be noted here, and that is that the fins of the forced
convection condenser are tightly placed next to each other; Therefore, if dust and dirt fill a
small space between the fins, wind blowing and heat rejection pose great trouble. Forced
convection type condenser is commonly used in window air conditioners, water coolers, and
packaged air conditioning plants.

Water-Cooled Condenser:

Double Pipe or tube-in-tube type:

(a) (b)

Figure: (a) Double pipe water cooled condenser (b)Shell type water cooled condenser

Double pipe condensers are normally used up to 10 TR capacity. Figure shows the schematic
of a double pipe type condenser. As shown in the figure, in these condensers the cold water
flows through the inner tube, while the refrigerant flows through the annulus in counter flow.
Headers are used at both the ends to make the length of the condenser small and reduce pressure
drop. The refrigerant in the annulus rejects a part of its heat to the surroundings by free
convection and radiation. The heat transfer coefficient is usually low because of poor liquid
refrigerant drainage if the tubes are long.

Shell-and-coil type:

These condensers are used in systems up to 50 TR capacity. The water flows through
multiple coils, which may have fins to increase the heat transfer coefficient. The refrigerant
flows through the shell. In smaller capacity condensers, refrigerant flows through coils while
water flows through the shell. Figure shows a shell-and-coil type condenser. When water flows
through the coils, cleaning is done by circulating suitable chemicals through the coils.
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

Shell-and-tube type:

Figure: Shell and tube type condenser

This is the most common type of condenser used in systems from 2 TR upto thousands of TR
capacity. In these condensers the refrigerant flows through the shell while water flows through
the tubes in single to four passes. The condensed refrigerant collects at the bottom of the shell.
The coldest water contacts the liquid refrigerant so that some subcooling can also be obtained.
The liquid refrigerant is drained from the bottom to the receiver. There might be a vent
connecting the receiver to the condenser for smooth drainage of liquid refrigerant. The shell
also acts as a receiver. Further the refrigerant also rejects heat to the surroundings from the
shell. The most common type is horizontal shell type. A schematic diagram of horizontal shell-
and-tube type condenser is shown in Figure. Vertical shell-and-tube type condensers are
usually used with ammonia in large capacity systems so that cleaning of the tubes is possible
from top while the plant is running.
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

Evaporator:
The function of the evaporator is to absorb the heat from the space or surrounding
medium which is to be cooled by means of refrigeration. The process of heat removal from the
substance to be cooled or refrigerated is done in the evaporator. The liquid refrigerant is
vaporized inside the evaporator (coil or shell) in order to remove heat from a fluid such as air,
water etc. Evaporators are manufactured in different shapes, types and designs to suit a diverse
nature of cooling requirements. Thus, we have a variety of types of evaporators, such as prime
surface types, finned tube or extended surface type, shell and tube liquid chillers, etc.

Construction of Evaporator:
The evaporator as shown in the figure is the part of the refrigeration system where the
refrigerant vaporizes as it picks up heat. Heated air is forced through and past the fins and tubes
of the evaporator. The heat from the air is picked up by the boiling refrigerant and is carried in
the system to the condenser. The evaporator is usually installed in housing under the dash panel.

Figure: Block diagram for the representation of Evaporator

Working of Evaporator:
When the air conditioning system is turned on, warm air from the passenger compartment is
blown through the coils and fins of the evaporator. The evaporator receives refrigerant from
the thermostatic expansion valve or orifice tube as low pressure, cold atomized liquid. As the
cold refrigerant passes through the evaporator coil, heat moves from the warm air into the
cooler refrigerant. When the liquid refrigerant receives enough heat, a change of state from a
low-pressure liquid into a low-Pressure vapor takes place. The thermostatic expansion valve or
orifice tube continually meters the precise amount of refrigerant necessary to maintain
optimum heat transfer, which ensures that all of the liquid refrigerants will have changed to a
vapor by the time it reaches the evaporator outlet. The vaporized refrigerant then continues on
to the inlet (suction) side of the compressor.

Types of Evaporator:
Evaporators are divided mainly into three groups.

1. Natural circulation evaporator

i) Evaporating pans
ii) Evaporating stills
iii) Short tube evaporator.
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

2) Forced circulation evaporator.

3) Film evaporator
i) Wiped Film evaporator
ii) Long Tube Evaporator
a) Climbing film evaporator
b) Falling film evaporator Types of Evaporators.

Cooling of Electrical and Electronic Devices; Active, Passive, and Hybrid Cooling.
Fundamentally, we can divide electronics cooling techniques into two categories: passive
cooling and active cooling.

 Passive cooling utilizes natural conduction, convection, and radiation to cool a

component.
Passive cooling is the only cooling mode available to many mobile devices. In
particular, handheld computing platforms are likely to have closed cases and run on
batteries. These platforms typically contain devices that can throttle performance to
reduce heat generation. These devices include processors, graphics processing units
(GPUs), battery chargers, and display backlights.

Example: The heat sink is the most important thermal path from each LED to
the open air. It provides a path for the heat to travel outside and acts as the main role in
heat dissipation as well. The heat sink has two apparent advantages over the fan that is
its free from noise, free from the extra electricity bill.

 Active cooling requires the use of energy specifically dedicated to cooling the
component.
Active cooling might be more straightforward to implement, but has several
potential drawbacks. The addition of active cooling devices (for example, fans) might
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

increase the cost and size of the hardware platform. The power required to run an active
cooling device might reduce the time that a battery-powered platform can operate on a
battery charge. Fan noise might be undesirable in some applications, and fans require
ventilation.
Example: When your room is built with many LEDs or has no enough airflow,
you might need to consider mounting a fan to your lights to get more airflow for a
cooler environment.
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

Questions:
Engineering Materials
1. How do you classify Engineering Materials?
2. Classify and explain the various types of ferrous metals.
3. Classify and explain very briefly the various types of non-ferrous materials.
4. What are the main types of Non-metallic Materials? Explain very briefly each type and
subtypes.
5. Define Composite.
6. What are the constituents of a Composite? Explain.
7. How do you classify composites based on matrix material? Explain very briefly each type.
8. How do you classify composites based on reinforcement material? Explain very briefly
each type.
9. List the important properties of a Composite.
10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Composites?
11. State the various applications of Composite Materials.
12. What are advanced composite materials?
13. State the applications of Composite Materials in Aircraft.
14. State the applications of Composite Materials in Automobiles.

Joining Process:
1. Define welding.
2. Explain the principle of welding.
3. What are the differences between pressure welding and fusion welding?
4. Differentiate between arc welding and gas welding.
5. With a neat sketch, explain the oxy-acetylene welding process.
6. State the advantages and disadvantages of oxy-acetylene welding.
7. What are the merits and demerits of welding?
8. What are the applications of welding?
9. Differentiate between soldering and brazing.
10. With the help of a neat sketch explain the gas welding.
11. Explain soldering. What fluxes are commonly used in soldering?
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

12. Explain the soldering iron method of soldering with a neat sketch.
13. Explain the common types of soldering.
14. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Soldering?
15. Explain torch brazing.
16. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Brazing?

Heat Transfer:
1. Explain the process of heat transfer and modes of Heat Transfer with suitable example
for each case.
2. Explain the conduction heat transfer along with the Fourier law of Conduction heat
transfer.
3. Differentiate among the different modes of Heat Transfer.
4. Explain the concept of Black body
5. Explain the working principle of an Evaporator in refrigeration.
6. With suitable example explain the working principle of Condenser in Refrigeration
7. Discuss the need of cooling in electrical and electronic appliances.
8. With suitable examples discuss the active, passive and Hybrid Cooling systems used in
colling of electrical and electronic equipment’s.