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Question 1.23 1.3 What Is the History of Psychology?

So far we have discussed the nature of psychology and what modern-day psychologists do. But how did we arrive
Basic research is to ________ as applied research is to ________.
where we are today? Before discussing specific movements in psychology, it’s useful to explore a few of the influential
A Causes; problems questions, issues, and theories that have shaped the way psychology has developed and continues to develop today.
While psychology as its own discipline has a relatively recent history, its intellectual roots in both philosophy and
B Problems; solutions physiology continue to influence thought in psychology today.

C Causes; solutions 1.3.1 Influential Themes in the History of Psychology

The work of philosophers tends toward ultimate questions that are in many ways speculative and di!icult to study
D Solutions; causes
scientifically, such as “Where does knowledge come from?” or “What is the nature of the mind and soul?” Many of
these questions still guide psychologists today, as we continue to consider the nature of the mind through more
advanced measurement techniques. In particular, the question about where knowledge comes from speaks to an
Question 1.24 issue you have likely heard of before: the nature-nurture debate.

Translational research can be thought of as the bridge between what and what?
Put simply, to what extent is the human experience shaped by nature, and to what extent does the environment play a
role? The science of psychology is rooted in an empiricist tradition – the idea that true knowledge about psychology
A Applied research and applied practice
can only be obtained through observation – but we can apply empiricism to this problem as well. An entirely

B Basic research and applied practice

empiricist perspective on human experience would argue that the mind begins as a blank slate and who we are is
shaped entirely by the experiences we have. A contrasting position to empiricism is nativism, which hypothesizes that
C Basic research and clinical research some forms of knowledge are innate. Taken to its logical extreme, this position is called biological determinism.

D Applied research and clinical practice The biological determinist position is largely untenable, however – it is obvious that people learn and change as a
result of their experiences. Nativism should not be dismissed completely, though. For many of the basic processes of
perception, for example, it is di!icult to change the way a person sees something given additional experience. Optical
illusions demonstrate this well.

Question 1.25

Psychologists are only qualified to do either basic or applied research; few do both.

A True

B False

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Question 1.26

Which line do you perceive as longer, the top line, or the bottom line?

Figure 1.9: This image shows the “Ponzo” illusion, first described by Mario Ponzo (1882-1960). Despite knowing that the lines are of equal length, people
tend to perceive the top line as longer. It is hypothesized that this is due to an innate understanding of depth cues, similar to how we understand the
components of a train track. ​[9]​

A Top

B Bottom

Observers tend to perceive the top line in this situation (called the “Ponzo illusion”) as longer relative to the bottom
line, despite their equal length – even when aware that the lines are the same size. Similarly, even though I can tell you
that the blue-and-yellow “rotating snakes” image below is static and unchanging, it is nearly impossible for you not to
perceive movement in the image. Additionally, a large variety of individual di!erences in temperament, intelligence,
and personality have been shown to have at least some biological component (Saudino, 2005; Plomin & Deary, 2015;
South, Reichborn-Kjennerud, Eaton, & Krueger, 2015).

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Figure 1.10: This is one version of the rotating snakes illusion (Kitaoka, 2003). Motion is spontaneously perceived, despite knowing that the image is static.
[10]
While these demonstrations might be compelling, it is di!icult to prove that these kinds of illusions are in fact innate.
However, researchers have attempted to gather evidence in support of the nativist theory all the same. For example,
children who were born blind and receive surgical correction for their vision are still susceptible to the Ponzo illusion
immediately a"er surgery, despite not having any visual experience at all (Gandhi, Kalia, Ganesh, & Sinha, 2015). They
are susceptible to the Müller-Lyer illusion (below) as well.
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Figure 1.11: The Müller-Lyer illusion is shown here. Most people report observing that the middle line appears longer than the other two. [11]
Related to the nature-nurture debate, many early psychologists were heavily influenced by the discipline of biology. In
particular, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution (1859) has played a significant role in shaping thought in psychology,
and evolutionary theory continues to be influential today (as we will discuss later in this chapter). Darwin’s insight was
that over the course of many generations, traits that tend to be advantageous for survival and reproduction generally
spread through a population more readily than traits that are not advantageous. Darwin called traits that are
advantageous for survival and reproduction – such as a thick fur coat in an environment that is consistently cold –
adaptive traits. He reasoned that adaptive traits tend to spread throughout a population because of the benefits they
provide, by means of a process called natural selection. Importantly, Darwin also recognized that these inherited
traits could extend to behavioral tendencies, including human behavior (Darwin, 1871). Because the brain is a part of
the body, it too is subject to natural selection. The video below describes natural selection. Watch it and answer the
questions that follow.
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Question 1.30

The peppered moth example could be applied to psychological traits. Which hypothetical example below is most similar to the
peppered moths’ situation?

As humans have begun to use computers, people who learn to use technology are e!ectively evolving over the course of
A
their own lifespans.

B As many humans now live in large cities, sootier skin tones will help protect them from predatory birds.

C As most humans no longer need to hunt and produce their own food, evolution has e!ectively ended.

As humans began to live in larger social groups, those who could e!ectively communicate with other humans survived
D
and reproduced in greater numbers.

Many psychologists today recognize that many human faculties are at least in part products of natural selection, such
as the capacity for language (Pinker, 2003; Bolhuis & Everaert, 2013). The theory of evolution lent additional support to
nativist positions in psychology. Today, psychologists generally agree that most psychological phenomena are the
Figure 1.12: An example of a phrenological map. Phrenology was insightful in that it linked brain regions to specific functions, but the links it proposed
result of interactions between nature and nurture and instead argue over the extent to which nature and nurture are were entirely unsupported. [12]
responsible. The recent boom in studies related to epigenetics attests to this tension.

While philosophers have o"en guided the questions that psychologists ask, the work of physiologists has helped
psychologists forge links between the mind and the body. Early work in physiology o"en reached beyond its means,
Question 1.31
however, with phrenology as a prime example. Popular in the early nineteenth century, phrenology made the case
that the shape of the skull was the result of the size of brain structures beneath it. Further, because these di!erent Nativism is best contrasted with ________.
brain areas corresponded to di!erent characteristics or abilities, phrenologists believed that knowing about the shape
of a person’s skull could tell you about the person’s mental capacities as well. For example, phrenologists might claim A Empiricism
to be able to tell you about a person’s tendency toward benevolence or attentiveness based on the shape of his or her
head. Although now completely discredited, phrenology is a good example of how early, unscientific ideas about the B Biological determinism

relationship between the body and the mind have influenced the way in which psychology has developed. The
C Dualism
underlying assumption of phrenology - that brain areas are associated with specific functions - has been verified in
more recent decades, although the proportions of the skull have nothing to do with it.
D Phrenology

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Question 1.32

Evidence that the Ponzo illusion exists even in newly-sighted people demonstrates that which of the following is true?

A Not all knowledge is native

B All knowledge is native

C Not all knowledge is a result of experience

D All knowledge is a result of experience

1.3.2 Studying Psychology as a Science

While early thought on psychology provided promising starts, the scientific study of psychology did not emerge in
earnest until the latter half of the nineteenth century. Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in
1879 at the University of Leipzig in Germany, although he had already been conducting research in psychology prior to
the lab’s founding. Trained as a physiologist and medical doctor, but also as a competent philosopher, Wundt knew
how the experimental process worked and began applying it to psychology. In particular, Wundt was interested in
sensation and perception – how people understand the world and turn it into ideas and thoughts. Mental experience –
the mind – was his major area of study.
Further, Wundt was the first person to self-identify as a psychologist, largely because of his interest in the mind. Today,
Wundt is widely regarded as the “father of modern psychology” because of both the work he did in his laboratory and
his e!orts to establish psychology as its own discipline (Hunt, 1993). Many of his first experiments involved testing
response time, such as how quickly people could respond to a presented sound.​
Figure 1.13: Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), in 1902. [13]
1.3.2.1 Laying the Foundations: Structuralism
Wundt and his students treated the mind much like chemists and physicists of their day treated the world itself: They
wanted to break it down into fundamental pieces. John Dalton’s work on atomic theory in the early 1800s was
particularly influential, as he demonstrated that substances such as water contained definitive proportions of
hydrogen and oxygen. Wundt and many of the early thinkers in psychology adopted a similar position, attempting to
break down immediate conscious experience into its basic elements. Introspection was a method developed by
Wundt to understand the components of mental processes by relying on trained participants’ self-reports of their
thoughts, feelings, and mental images.

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Figure 1.14: Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) and his colleagues working in his University of Leipzig lab in roughly 1880. [14]

Figure 1.15: Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927) [15]

This first movement in psychology is known as structuralism, and its contributors as structuralists. Because Wundt
(and one of his most successful students, Edward Titchener) believed that psychology should focus on decomposing
Near the end of the nineteenth century, psychology as its own scientific discipline had begun to take o!, with many of
immediate conscious experience into its basic elements and understanding how those elements combine to create
Wundt’s students spreading the study to other European countries as well as North America. Titchener himself
experience (Wundt, 1896; Titchener, 1899), they believed that self-reports of conscious experience should be the
immigrated to the United States and founded a laboratory at Cornell University. He (among others) is widely
primary form of evidence in psychology. Two people’s descriptions of a subjective experience can be wildly di!erent,
considered responsible for popularizing the study of experimental psychology in North America, and he was also a
however, and it is di!icult to have any kind of objective sense of accuracy about another person’s internal experiences.
charter member of the American Psychological Association (APA), which was founded in 1892 (Boring, 1929). Because
As we discussed earlier, making inferences about the mind is one of the fundamental problems psychology as a
of its experimental nature and widespread influence, structuralism is recognized as the first significant movement in
science faces. Titchener believed that the problem could be solved through systematic introspection. Where
the history of psychology as a science.
introspection simply considered experiences of one individual, the process of systematic introspection attempted to
standardize the way conscious experiences were reported so that one person’s experiences could be compared to
another’s more e!ectively. Titchener’s laboratory used the technique extensively, and he developed an extremely
detailed manual that was designed to train a person how to introspect “properly” (Titchener, 1901).

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familiar with the methods and results of recent German researches in physiological psychology.” (Hall, 1879, p. 97).
Question 1.33
Hall was James’ student and the first person in the United States to receive a doctorate degree in psychology in 1878
Where was the first psychology laboratory founded? (and also the first president of the American Psychological Association; Thorne & Henley, 2004).

A The University of Leipzig

B Cornell University

C Vienna, Austria

D The University of Chicago

Question 1.34

Figure 1.16: William James (1842-1910). The “Father of American Psychology”​ [16]
The primary goal of structuralism is which of the following?

A To break down behaviors into the smallest units possible
B To understand the relationship between structures of the brain and their functions
C To break down conscious experience into its most basic parts
D To scientifically study people’s reactions to stimuli
James’ position was that the structuralist movement was fundamentally misguided. In fact, he went so far as to say in
a textbook that he wrote for undergraduates that “[Psychology] is no science, it is only the hope of science. . . at
present psychology is in the state of physics before the laws of motion…” (1892, p. 468). This was meant to be inspiring
– fundamental truths had yet to be discovered. While structuralists may be able to break down conscious experience
into its basic elements, he argued that studying these pieces without an understanding of their function would provide
little to no actual insight into the workings of the mind (1884; 1890). The position that psychologists must first
understand the function of a behavior or mental process in order to understand how its parts work together is called
functionalism, and its proponents functionalists.

1.3.2.2 Considering Purpose: Functionalism
As the study of psychology progressed, structuralism and the practice of systematic introspection began receiving
significant criticism, particularly in North America. Among these critics was William James. William James was an
American physician and philosopher, and he was the first person to o!er a course on experimental psychology in the
United States beginning in 1875 at Harvard University. These courses educated students on work that was being done
in Germany prior to the o!icial establishment of Wundt’s lab in 1879. As described by another famous psychologist, G.
Stanley Hall, James’ course was, “up to the present time the only course in the country where students can be made
Importantly, the functionalist movement was heavily influenced and inspired by Darwin’s theory of evolution (1859,
1871). Evolutionary theory heavily emphasizes the functional nature of traits and describes how adaptive traits exist to
solve specific problem. Examples of physical adaptive traits would be the selection for hairiness in environments
where cold weather is common or camouflaged body patterns in animals whose primary defense from predators is to
hide. While a structuralist might understand the length of each individual hair and the average spacing from one
follicle to the next, a functionalist would argue that those details are meaningless without knowing that the purpose of
fur is to keep the body warm. Functionalists simply extended the argument from physical traits to include
psychological processes as well. James himself had a list of 37 “instincts” that he believed humans possess, from

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walking, acquisitiveness, and anger, to cleanliness, sympathy, love, and a fear of strange men (James, 1892). Not all of
these are still supported, of course.
Because of his early work in the field of psychology as well as his influence with functionalism, William James is o"en
considered the “father of American psychology.” However, James was not the only functionalist. In fact, James
Rowland Angell is credited with defining the primary tenets of functionalism in his presidential address to the
American Psychological Association (1907). Due to functionalism’s focus on the problems that psychological
processes solve, it also opened up the range of topics psychologists explored. For example, John Dewey was an early
pioneer of educational psychology, and Edward Thorndike was influential in the field of animal learning.
While functionalism may have o!ered an alternative perspective to structuralism for how to go about the process of
psychological research, it would be unfair to say that functionalism superseded structuralism – structuralist
approaches continued vigorously in Europe despite functionalism’s criticisms. For example, Oswald Külpe and his
students at the University of Würzburg attempted to extend Wundt’s work to higher-order thought processes (Ogden,
1951). Similarly, a movement known as Gestalt psychology took root in Berlin, focusing on understanding how
people perceived a unified whole out of the many chaotic individual elements of sensation; this was in some
opposition to traditional structuralism as well. The “snakes” optical illusion presented earlier in the chapter, for
example, leads to a perception that is di!erent from simply the sum of its parts – motion is perceived where none
exists. Finally, both structuralism and functionalism (and most early work in psychology) focused on exploring
immediate conscious experience, and they o"en used similar methods to do so. The next movement in psychology
sought to shi" psychology’s focus substantially.
Question 1.35
The functionalist movement in psychology began in:
A Austria
B North America
C Germany
D The United Kingdom
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Question 1.36
Early functionalists were heavily influenced by which of the following?
A Aristotle’s concept of the blank slate
B Descartes’ concept of dualism
C Darwin’s evolutionary theory
D Phrenologists’ work on the skull
1.3.2.3 Refining Methodology: Behaviorism
As work in psychology continued into the early twentieth century, however, several factors led to the rise of a new
movement in psychology: behaviorism. Many psychologists were growing increasingly skeptical of introspection and
its inherently subjective nature. Because introspection was the primary method of studying conscious experience at
the time, skepticism developed around how possible it was to study the mind in a scientific fashion. As these fears
were rising, the study of animal psychology found itself gaining prominence as well. Importantly, introspection isn’t
possible with animals – you can’t simply ask a dog or a lab rat to tell you what it’s thinking. Due to this fact,
psychologists working with animals were forced to observe their behaviors: how quickly a rat can navigate a maze, the
rate at which a dog learns that a bell indicates dinner is on its way, and so on.
While both skepticism about the measurability of the mind and the increasing methodological rigor of animal
psychology contributed to the eventual shi" toward behaviorism, it was American psychologist John B. Watson who
finished the job. Watson popularized the notion that the mind and internal mental states were beyond the scope of
psychology, rebuking introspection as a meaningful technique and proposing that psychology should focus its e!orts
solely on the study of observable behavior (1913, 1919). Because of his belief that psychology should focus solely on
behavior, he called his perspective behaviorism.
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By the 1950s, B. F. Skinner was one of the leading thinkers in behaviorist psychology. Skinner is best known for his
work on operant conditioning in particular – the study of how behavior can be modified using a system of rewards and
punishments (1953). Many of his basic theories on operant conditioning are still valid, and they continue to be
influential today. Because the principles of operant conditioning focus on behavior in general, they can be applied to
incredibly di!erent tasks; therapies to reduce self-harming behaviors in people with autism (Myers & Johnson, 2007),
the treatment of cocaine addiction (Silverman, 2004), and the training of police dogs (Gerritsen & Haak, 2014) all use
concepts related to operant conditioning.

Figure 1.17: John Watson (1878-1978) famously believed that people were purely a product of their experiences – in the above “Little Albert” experiment
(so named for the boy pictured, “Albert”), Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner (1898-1935) conditioned a child to fear the prosthetic beard Raynor
wore (pictured above). [17]

Although Watson published his initial manifesto in 1913, World War I (1914-1918) may have delayed the rise of
behaviorism. By the early 1920s, however, it was the dominant approach to psychology in North America. The
influence of behaviorism on the study of psychology was extensive, with systematic introspection and references to
consciousness virtually eliminated from work done in the field by the 1930s. Behaviorism continued to dominate the
Figure 1.19: B.F. Skinner (1904-1990). ​[19]
majority of scientific work done in psychology for decades, and psychologists generally constrained their research to
observing animal behavior. Although a focus on the mind was mostly lost during these years, in many ways
psychology became a much more methodologically rigorous science because of behaviorism.

Question 1.37

Which of these was not a factor in the rise of behaviorism?

A Increasing skepticism regarding systematic introspection

B A rise in work done studying animal behavior

C John B. Watson’s e!orts to popularize the movement

D The advent of World War I

Figure 1.18: John B. Watson took a strong stance on how research in psychology should be conducted, as evidenced by some of his writings. [18]

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Question 1.39

Question 1.38 Steven Pinker explains that what device was instrumental in reshaping understanding of the mind?

Most of the discoveries made by behaviorist psychologists are considered no longer valid today. A The computer

A True B Cerebral angiography

B False C Radioactive neuroimaging devices

D Space shuttles

1.3.2.4 A Return to Mind: The Cognitive Revolution

Although behaviorism’s grip on psychology was extensive, a renewed interest in mental processes and the mind began
in the 1950s. Advances in methodology and measurement, as well as limitations in purely behaviorist models spurred
on this renewed interest. This so-called "cognitive revolution”was a major shi" away from the strict behaviorism
Question 1.40
that had dominated the field for several decades. Steven Pinker wrote about the cognitive revolution in his book The
Blank Slate (2002) and discusses its importance in the video below. Pinker lists a few topic areas that all fall under one “umbrella” term. What is this term?

A Neuroscience

B Cognitive science

C Linguistics
Video
Please visit the textbook on a web or mobile D Computing
device to view video content.

Today, most research in psychology does not take a strict behaviorist approach, preferring to use behavior as a means
to make inferences about the processes happening in the mind. As Pinker argues in the video, the computer (and its
increased “accessibility” – at least to researchers) was critical in shi"ing how psychologists thought about making
inferences about the mind. Other technologies that allowed scientists to “peek under the hood” of the brain in action
were developed around the 1950s and 1960s as well, including cerebral angiography (the mapping of blood vessels in
the brain), computerized tomography (“CT”) scans, and in the early 1970s, radioactive neuroimaging such as positron
emission tomography (“PET”) was developed.

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Together, these new technologies (with the computer at the forefront) allowed psychologists to reevaluate their
abilities to make inferences about people’s internal mental states. Furthermore, while “cognitive” refers to information
processing in general, the cognitive revolution did not only help psychologists interested in cognitive psychology
(remember, cognitive psychology is the study of topics such as attention, perception, and memory). By returning the
focus of psychology to the scientific understanding of mind, many more avenues of research blossomed in
psychology.​​
Figure 1.20: Le": A Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan of the brain. Right: A Computerized Tomography (CT) scan of the brain. [20]
1.3.3 Development of Psychology in the Clinic
Early thought on the treatment of mental illness was unsystematic and varied, with causes of mental illness thought to
be anything from an imbalance of four bodily fluids (referred to as humors) to demonic possession. Notably, some
early thinkers such as the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, tenth-century Persian physician Haly Abbas, and Swiss
“renaissance man” Paracelsus did make ties between mental illness and the physical body, including the brain – even
if these ties were incorrect. More modern conceptions of mental illnesses and their treatment didn’t emerge until the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, with Sigmund Freud at the forefront.
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Figure 1.21: A young Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), in roughly 1885. [21]
1.3.3.1 Freud and Psychoanalysis
As psychology was beginning to develop as a science in the laboratories of Europe and the United States, Sigmund
Freud was busy formalizing some of the first widely influential theories regarding the cause and treatment of mental
illness in Vienna, Austria. Freud made a living as a physician, and he was drawn to psychology in an attempt to
understand patients whose symptoms he believed had no physical cause (1953). His training as a neurologist (a
doctor who specializes in diseases of the nervous system) led him to the conclusion that these patients were su!ering
from maladies that were psychological in nature. Specifically, Freud believed that these illnesses originated from the
unconscious mind – a portion of the mind that is closed o! from conscious analysis.
Over the course of the next several decades, Freud described a system for understanding the unconscious mind and
treating the illnesses that stem from it (1900, 1910, 1940). He called this system psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis
proposes multiple theories about the unconscious mind that touch on a variety of topics in psychology, including
personality, development, and of course, causes of mental illness. According to Freud’s system of psychoanalysis, the
critical component to resolving mental health issues was the process of analyzing the contents of the unconscious
mind so that relevant thoughts and feelings could be brought up to the level of consciousness. Another way of
phrasing this is to say that he believed patients needed to gain insight into the unconscious factors that were causing
them distress. To do this, he used a variety of techniques that he believed tapped into the unconscious mind, however
obliquely – including analyzing minor errors or slips in speech, listening to his patients’ fantasies or having a patient
report her thoughts freely and without filtering their content (i.e., free association), and dream analysis. Freud would
spend hours and hours with his patients in an attempt to discover and analyze the contents of their unconscious
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minds. 1.3.3.2 The Humanists and Positive Psychology

Freud’s focus on the unconscious mind was unique in his day, when other psychologists were busy studying
introspection and behavior. Because of the broad nature of psychoanalytic theory and its place as one of the initial
forms of modern therapy, Freud’s influence continues to be felt throughout popular culture and psychology today,
although newer research and later movements in the clinic have certainly lessened his impact. We will explore Freud’s
ideas in greater detail in Chapter 12: Personality and Chapter 15: Treatment of Psychological Disorders.
While Freud’s theories of psychoanalysis dominated the clinical landscape for the beginning of the twentieth century,
all members of the growing mental health community did not readily accept them. Freud’s development of
psychoanalysis was greatly influenced by his understanding of Darwinian evolutionary theory, which led him to focus
on “base” unconscious urges related to sexual frustration and aggression. This unflattering portrait of human nature,
the arguably sexist assumptions of some of his theories, and his assertion that people are generally powerless to do
anything to address their unconscious urges without extensive analysis did not sit well with many clinicians.

Question 1.41
By the mid-twentieth century, a growing number of critics of psychoanalysis, including Carl Rogers and Abraham
From where did Freud believe psychological problems originate? Maslow, had unified under the banner of humanistic psychology. A response to Freud’s dark view of the human
condition and behaviorism’s focus on mechanistic behavior, humanistic psychology proposes that people have free
A The nervous system will and the capacity to realize their own potential. Further, it focuses on positive aspects of the human condition,
including creativity, choice, and the potential for growth. By shi"ing the focus away from the unconscious mind and
B An imbalance in bodily humors onto the capacity for change, humanistic psychologists aimed to give control back to their clients.

C Our failure to face reality Rogers and Maslow were two of the most influential humanists, with Rogers' person-centered approach to therapy
refocusing the clinical environment on the needs of the client rather than expertise of the clinician (1951). In person-
D The unconscious mind
centered therapy, the role of the therapist is to support and listen in contrast to a psychoanalyst’s need to analyze and
direct; this shi" continues to be seen in many therapeutic settings today. Abraham Maslow similarly reconstructed
Freud’s view of human nature, choosing to emphasize the internal driving force for humans to satisfy their basic needs
for survival. He went further than Freud, however – once basic needs are met, Maslow believed that people are
motivated to fulfill their psychological needs and ultimately strive for self-actualization, which is an ideal state of
Question 1.42 reaching one’s fullest potential (1943).

Multiple answers: Multiple answers are accepted for this question

Psychoanalysis is Freud’s system for:

A Tapping into the contents of the unconscious mind

B Allowing people to gain insight into their unconscious mind

C Helping people learn to lead healthier mental lives

Figure 1.22: Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). ​[22]

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More recently, psychologist Martin Seligman has created a renewed interest in studying the more positive aspects of
the human condition through his focus on what he has termed positive psychology. Positive psychology is a branch
of psychology focused not on what can go wrong with human functioning (as is the case with much of clinical Question 1.45

psychology) but instead on studying how humans flourish and how positive outcomes can be achieved (Seligman &
Which historical approach to the science of psychology appears most reasonable to you?
Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Recently, Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman have worked together to create a
classification of character strengths and virtues that is designed to complement classifications of mental illness and
A Structuralism
dysfunction (2004).

B Functionalism
Question 1.43
C Behaviorism
The humanist movement in clinical psychology was largely a reaction to ___________.

A Wundt’s structuralism

B James’ functionalism
Question 1.46
C Watson’s behaviorism
Select all of the psychologists you had heard of before reading this textbook.

D Freud’s psychoanalysis
A Wilhelm Wundt

B William James

C John B. Watson
Question 1.44
D B. F. Skinner
Positive psychologists focus on which of the following?
E Sigmund Freud
A How to treat psychological disorders
F Carl Rogers
B Improving human functioning and the positive side of human nature

G Abraham Maslow
C The positive aspects of Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis

D Making clients feel at ease and putting the client at the center of the therapeutic experience

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Question 1.47 Question 1.49

If you’ve heard of Sigmund Freud before, what are your general opinions on his work? Who is considered the “father of American psychology”?

A Positive A Sigmund Freud

B Somewhat positive B Wilhelm Wundt

C Neutral C James Watson

D Somewhat negative D William James

E Negative

F I had not heard of Freud before reading.

Question 1.50

Order the movements in the scientific study of psychology chronologically.

Question 1.48 A Behaviorism

Who is considered the “father of modern psychology”? B Functionalism

A Sigmund Freud C Structuralism

B Wilhelm Wundt D The Cognitive Revolution

C James Watson

D William James

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For any psychological phenomenon, there are multiple ways of explaining its cause. A primary way to divide these
Question 1.51
levels of explanation is in terms of ultimate and proximate explanations, a tradition that began in biology (Mayr,
What was the fundamental disagreement between psychoanalysts and the humanists? 1961; Ariew, 2003; Scott-Phillips, Dickins, & West, 2011). (As we have seen throughout this chapter, biological theories
have significantly influenced the development of psychology, with Darwin’s theory of evolution playing a large role in
A The role of outside influences on mental illness the conception of both functionalism and psychoanalysis.) Ultimate explanations attempt to address the reasons
why a psychological phenomenon occurs by appealing to its role in the process of evolution. A now-classic example of
B The biological basis of mental illness the distinction between ultimate and proximate explanations in human behavior is the many ways in which we can
attempt to explain why babies cry (Zeifman, 2001). An ultimate explanation of crying appeals to its evolutionary role:
C The capacity for free will and change
crying is a signal to caregivers that the infant needs care of some kind. In other words, the “crying as a signal to
caregivers” explanation provides the ultimate reason for why crying occurs.
D The techniques used by Freud

In contrast, proximate explanations attempt to describe an immediate cause of a psychological phenomenon.

Proximate explanations of infants’ crying would include both specific, functional reasons (such as getting a caregiver
1.4 How Do Psychologists Think Today? to provide food) as well as explanations that appeal to specific mental or physical processes (such as the experience of
While the movements of the past continue to influence modern thought on psychology, today’s psychologists are fear or the activation of biological systems that cause tears to well up in the eyes). For our purposes, it is useful to
generally more likely to identify with the kinds of work that they do rather than the approaches they adopt. For divide proximate explanations further based on the types just described: functional explanations and process-oriented
example, a psychologist who studies social influence is likely to identify as a social psychologist and a psychologist explanations. Functional explanations are proximate explanations that seek to identify a specific problem as the
who studies the causes of depression is likely to identify as an abnormal or clinical psychologist. Further, most cause of a psychological phenomenon, such as getting a caregiver to provide food or remove a painful object in our
psychologists reject the notion that there is one “true” way to study or practice psychology, instead acknowledging crying example. Process-oriented explanations are proximate explanations that focus on how a specific mental or
that di!erent schools of thought can o!er di!erent insights and strengths. physical process explains a psychological phenomenon, such as how crying is the result of biological processes
happening in the tear duct.
Considering the e!ectiveness of di!erent theoretical approaches has become especially prevalent in clinical settings
as scientific evidence continues to accumulate about what kinds of therapies are most e!ective for di!erent types of
mental illness and other clinical populations. Choosing the most e!ective therapeutic technique given the present
circumstances is known as an eclectic approach. (“Eclectic” means that ideas are taken from a variety of sources.) As
discussed earlier, therapies rooted in the analysis of behavior can be quite e!ective for improving outcomes for people
with autism, but other clinical issues can require a therapist to analyze the client’s history more thoroughly and assist
the client in dealing with past traumas or di!iculties.

For psychologists interested in research, much of the recent focus in psychology has been in terms of levels of
explanation rather than the development of an all-encompassing approach. The following sections first describe
these levels of explanation and then go on to give an account of four di!erent major modern approaches to issues in
psychology, each of which o!ers a unique and important perspective.

1.4.1 Ultimate and Proximate Explanations

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Question 1.52

Match each explanation with its proper level.

Premise Response

Language can be used to explain how people

1 Ultimate explanation A deceive one another to gain an advantage in a
trade.

Language is produced and understood by

2 Functional explanation B
portions of the temporal lobe of the brain.

Language exists because it was adaptive for

3 Process-oriented explanation C humans to be able to communicate with one
another over the course of evolutionary history.
Figure 1.23: Why do babies cry? Well, it depends on what you mean by “why.” [23]

Ultimate and proximate explanations are complementary in nature, as they explain di!erent aspects of the same
phenomena. Generally, knowing the ultimate explanation (the “evolutionary function”) for a phenomenon in
psychology helps you make predictions about its proximate explanations, including specific situational functions for
the phenomenon and the mental and physical processes involved in its execution (Nairne, 2015; although see Laland
et al., 2011).
It is important to note that not all phenomena in psychology are products of evolution – these phenomena do not
have truly ultimate explanations (as ultimate explanations must be rooted in evolutionary theory) and instead have
only functional or process-oriented explanations. For example, some psychologists believe that motion sickness is
simply a byproduct of how our nervous systems happen to be arranged: our balancing circuitry and our vomiting
circuitry just happen to be unfortunately close together (Golding, 2016). Because this explanation for motion sickness
stems from the arrangement of the nervous system (a process-oriented explanation) and not the functional or
evolutionary purpose of motion sickness, no functional or ultimate explanation is necessary. Psychologists today are
concerned with addressing these di!erent levels of explanation and understanding how they work with and inform
one another. To this end, psychologists study the evolutionary influences, cultural influences, biological influences,
and cognitive influences on behavior and mind.
1.4.2 Evolutionary Influences
We have touched on the influence of Darwin’s theory of evolution repeatedly throughout this chapter. While
evolutionary theory had a great deal of influence on the development of psychology, its influence waned in the
middle part of the twentieth century due to attacks on the theory itself and its cultural and scientific relevance to
human behavior. In particular, observations that some of the behaviors that people and animals exhibit appear to
actually hurt one’s chances for survival and reproduction rather than help it were quite problematic for understanding
how behavior is influenced by evolution. For example, how does helping someone else (“altruism”) improve your own
ability to survive and reproduce? Why would a mother sacrifice her life for that of her children? Don’t rising obesity
rates imply that our eating patterns are maladaptive? The rise of behaviorism coincided with the theory’s loss of
influence, and many psychologists decided to simply study how the environment shaped behavior rather than try to
appeal to any kind of ultimate explanation.
As the science of psychology and biology progressed, however, some psychologists and biologists returned to the
evolutionary study of behavior – particularly those behaviors that seemed inexplicable by evolution. The discovery of
DNA and genetic transfer revolutionized the way that biologists understand evolution. While natural selection was
originally thought to act primarily on individuals and their traits, the study of genetics allowed scientists to treat
individual genes as the unit of selection instead (Dawkins, 1976). Although behaviors are rarely the result of a single
gene, when the focus of evolution and natural selection is reoriented to the genetic level, some of the behaviors that
were originally inexplicable become understandable. For example, helping others is not necessarily immediately
beneficial to the individual, but altruism can be a highly adaptive trait in animals that are extremely social, like

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humans (Hamilton, 1964; Trivers, 1971).
Figure 1.24: Why do we help others if it doesn’t benefit ourselves? Gene-based perspectives of helping behavior can account for seemingly paradoxical
behaviors such as altruism. [24]
Another realization was that in order to understand a behavior completely, its context must be considered as well.
Behaviors that appear maladaptive today may not always have been so – a preference for sweet foods may lead to an
increased incidence of diabetes in today’s world of fast food and high fructose corn syrup, but was likely useful
throughout much of humanity’s evolutionary past. Fruits and other sweet food are calorie-dense and important
sources of nutrition for many apes and other animals. Further, it’s important to recognize that not all behaviors
necessarily have an evolutionary origin, as we’ve already discussed (Gould & Lewontin, 1979; Gould, 1991). Writing and
written language is another excellent example. While the mental and physical processes involved in language and
communication almost certainly have evolutionary origins (Chomsky, 1986), it is di!icult to say the same for written
forms of language. While writing is certainly functional and serves important uses in society, it is likely just a useful
combination of verbal and motor skills rather than its own unique genetic creation.
Some psychologists today continue to apply the theory of evolution to psychology, searching for ultimate
explanations of psychological phenomena. This approach to psychology is known as evolutionary psychology, and
it strives to explain how mental processes and behavior have developed over the course of evolutionary history.
Evolutionary psychologists o"en encounter resistance for their claims, because it is incredibly di!icult to gather
definitive evidence for ultimate explanations – there are no fossilized mental processes or behaviors to collect and
analyze. Still, many evolutionary psychologists persist by attempting to accumulate evidence for adaptation from a
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variety of sources to support their claims. Others, such as James Nairne, attempt to flip the process on its head by first
identifying adaptive problems humans would have had to solve, and then proposing ways to test for mental processes
that solve these problems (Nairne, 2015). For example, Nairne and colleagues hypothesized that information about
people and animals would likely be more important to remember than information about non-living things, and have
collected data that support their position (Nairne, VanArsdall, & Cogdill, 2017).
Question 1.53
Evolutionary psychologists’ claims are o"en di!icult to verify because of which of the following reasons?
A Their claims rely on experimental evidence
B It is di!icult to know exactly what happened over the course of evolutionary history
C Their claims are non-scientific
D It is di!icult to know the di!erence between and ultimate and a proximate explanation
1.4.3 Cultural Influences
Humans are incredibly social beings with elaborate cultural rituals and behaviors that vary widely from place to place.
It should come as no surprise then that the influence of culture on behavior and mind is an amazingly rich field of
study. Psychologists refer to culture as the shared set of beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and customs belonging to a
specific group or community of people. These groups and communities are generally organized around a shared
characteristic or set of characteristics, such as race or ethnicity, nationality, income, sexual orientation, religious
identity, or even sets of ideas such as political a!iliation. In the early days of psychological research, much of the focus
was on the attempt to uncover “psychological universals” that apply to everyone. More recently, however,
psychologists have begun to consider how culture can influence behavior and mind in meaningful ways. Classically,
much of the work on cultural influences in psychology focuses on development, especially the ways cultural
di!erences and social interactions a!ect children as they grow (Vygotsky, 1978).
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Figure 1.25: Di!erent cultures have many of the same traditions, such as street festivals and parades. But how do these traditions manifest di!erently
across cultures? Can you think of some traditions unique to certain cultures? ​[25]

Generally, cultural considerations of behavior help provide us with functional explanations, describing why a behavior
manifests di!erently based on a person’s cultural background or specific situational demands. Feminist psychology,
for example, analyzes the role that gender plays in a person’s development and behaviors, appealing to cultural
di!erences in the ways societies raise and treat men and women (Rutherford, 2010). Similar approaches exist for other Figure 1.26: Intersectional approaches to understanding cultural influences strive to understand how multiple identities all intersect on the level of the
cultural influences, including critical analyses of race, religion, military experience, and person. For example, the experiences of Black women are di!erent from those of both White women and Black men in unique ways. Similarly, lesbian,
gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people of color have di!erent, unique experiences compared to White LGBT people and heterosexual people of
lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender (LGBT) issues in psychology. The American Psychological Association (APA) has 50+ color. This photo from the Women’s March (January 21st, 2017) shows how many social movements are beginning to adopt intersectional thinking. How
many di!erent cultural identities and backgrounds can you spot represented in the image? [26]
divisions, many of which are devoted to these specific cultural influences and experiences (see
apa.org/about/division for a full list of divisions).

Of course, people belong to many of these groups simultaneously, and analyses limited to only one group may be
constrained in their scope. Legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw was the first to propose an intersectional approach to Question 1.54

studying issues related to culture and cultural identity, emphasizing that people are not defined by any single aspect
Early work on cultural influences on psychological processes focused on which of the following?
of their identities (Crenshaw, 1989). Her original proposal related to the situation of Black women: in many critical
analyses of race and gender, “Black” issues were generally only the issues Black men faced, while much of early A Discovering underlying “universals” cross-culturally
feminist thought ignored issues faced by Black women and women of color in general. Intersectional approaches to
issues in psychology emphasize the examination of how multiple social identities intersect at the level of the Comparing and contrasting Eastern and Western cultures to discover how they are fundamentally di!erent from each
B
individual person, influencing the ways in which they experience the world. We will explore social and cultural other

influences in psychology thoroughly over the course of this text.

C Investigating intersections of di!erent identities

D Describing the e!ects of cultural expectations on gender roles

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Question 1.55

An intersectional approach looks at _________.

A The unique experiences that people of color have

B The commonalities shared by all minority groups

C The unique experiences that result from having multiple identities

D The commonalities shared by minority and majority groups

1.4.4 Biological Influences

Advances in biomedical science have also led to improvements in the ways that psychologists comprehend the
biological underpinnings of behavior and mind. Today, we can “peek in” at mental processes as they are happening in
the brain using equipment such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), allowing us to view changes in
blood flow to di!erent regions of the brain in real time as people think. Primarily in animals, the electrical activity of
di!erent, individual brain cells can also be recorded independently using single-cell recording techniques, giving
incredibly granular insight into the biological correlates of behavior and thought.

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Figure 1.27: Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has given psychologists much more insight into the biological processes happening in the
brain during mental functioning. The image on the top shows how fMRI be used to can isolate functioning to particular regions, while the image on the
bottom shows successive cross-section scans of a brain. [27]​
Most research into the biological influences on psychology is informative because it provides us with insight into
process-oriented explanations, specifically concerning the biological processes that are linked to behavior. These
biological processes range from explanations of how neuron activity relates to the specific functions of di!erent areas
of the brain to predicting what changes in brain physiology accompany various forms of mental illness, such as
obsessive compulsive disorder and schizophrenia. O"en, insight into the biological origins of behavior can help
clinicians and researchers treat mental illness and develop new ways to think about its origin. Chapter 3: Biology &
Neuroscience explores the biological components of psychology.
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Question 1.56
To what level of explanation do biological influences on psychology generally point?
A Ultimate
B Functional
C Process-oriented
D Low-level
1.4.5 Cognitive Influences
Finally, we arrive at cognitive influences on human behavior, which are primarily process-oriented explanations about
mental processes. Recall from earlier in this chapter that cognitive psychology deals with information processing,
asking questions such as “How do people perceive the world around them?” and “How do people learn and
remember information?” In many ways, cognitive approaches to understanding behavior seek to provide prior context
for behavior in terms of experience.
Where evolutionary approaches o"en speak to more nativist explanations of psychology, knowing about the influence
of experience on behavior is useful for understanding the “nurture” component of the human experience. As we
discussed in the section on the cognitive revolution, cognitive psychologists o"en use computer-related metaphors in
their models of information processing, relating the mental states and processes of the mind to analogs in computer
systems. While the computer metaphor for mental processes isn’t perfect, it’s generally seen as an e!ective basic way
to think about them.
Cognitive approaches to understanding clinical behavior are also useful as well. Many clinicians believe that
depression is fundamentally a disorder related to maladaptive thought patterns more than anything else: If patients
can be taught how to interrupt and change their negative thoughts, then depression can be alleviated. Further,
evidence shows that cognitive therapies compared to antidepressants alone (a biological intervention) may result in
lower relapse rates over the long-term (Gloagen, Cottrauz, Cucherat, & Blackburn, 1998), although the combination of
both types of therapies is generally most e!ective.
Finally, because learning and experience create physical changes in the structure of the brain (Hebb, 1949), we can
think of cognitive and biological influences on psychology as relating to descriptions of either the mind (cognitive) or
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the brain (biological). Thus, cognitive approaches to psychology describe the mind that the brain is creating.
Throughout this text, we will explore cognitive approaches to explaining behavior and the mind in a variety of
situations.

Question 1.57 Video

Please visit the textbook on a web or mobile
Psychologists studying cognitive influences on psychology typically investigate which of the following?
device to view video content.

A The role of information processing on a problem or situation

B The role of brain structures on a problem or situation

C The role of upbringing on a problem or situation

D The role of adaptations to solve a problem or situation

Question 1.59

Which influence would we most likely be studying if we tried to understand whether di!erent groups of the same species of monkey
had di!erent rules regarding what was fair?

Question 1.58
A Evolutionary influences

Which influence on psychology do you find most interesting? Rank them from “most interesting” to “least interesting.”
B Cultural influences

A Biological influences
C Biological influences

B Cultural influences
D Cognitive influences

C Evolutionary influences

D Cognitive influences

Watch the video below and answer the questions that follow.

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attempt to explore. Additionally, the history of psychology section will be useful for you going forward, as you may be
Question 1.60
able to draw connections to other areas of psychology based on the time the research you are reading about was
Which influence would we most likely be studying if we tried to understand how a “sense of fairness” developed in humans compared conducted. Good luck on your journey, and have fun exploring a world of psychological phenomena.
to capuchin monkeys?

A Evolutionary influences

B Cultural influences

C Biological influences

D Cognitive influences

Question 1.61

Which influence would we most likely be studying if we tried to understand the hormones and neurons involved in activating a “sense
of fairness”?

A Evolutionary influences

B Cultural influences

C Biological influences

D Cognitive influences

1.5 Conclusion
Over the course of this chapter, we have discussed four primary questions: What is psychology? What do psychologists
do? What is the history of psychology? How do psychologists think today? The answers to these questions are
important, because they help us build a framework for understanding each of the various topics that make up the
chapters of this text. As you continue to read, consider coming back to this chapter to think about how each of the
various influences in psychology informs the topics discussed in the text and what level of explanation the topics

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Trivers, R. L. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 46(1), 35-57. [7] Image 7 courtesy of Tech. Sgt. Andy Dunaway in the Public Domain.

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2016). Occupational employment statistics, May 2016 national [8] Image 8 courtesy of Kendl123 under CC BY-SA 3.0.
data. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/oes/
[9] Image 9 courtesy of S-kay in the Public Domain.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press. [10] Image 10 courtesy of Cmglee under CC BY-SA 3.0.

Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as a behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-177. [11] Image 11 courtesy of Fibonacci under CC BY-SA 3.0.

Watson, J. B. (1919). Psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist. Philadelphia: Lippincott. [12] Image 12 courtesy of Wellcome Images under CC BY 4.0.

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[13] Image 13 courtesy of Weltrundschau zu Reclams Universum 1902 in the Public Domain Table 1.1:

[14] Image 14 courtesy of Kenosis in the Public Domain. Fields of Basic Research Area of Focus Specific Example
Understanding how and why
Researching how depression
[15] Image 15 courtesy of anonymous in the Public Domain. unusual and aladaptive
Abnormal might develop a"er a traumatic
behavioral, emotional, and
[16] Image 16 courtesy of Notman Studios in the Public Domain. event.
thought patterns develop.
Searching for genetic markers
[17] Image 17 courtesy of John B Watson in the Public Domain. Linking individual di!erences in
Behavioral genetics for autism, extraversion, or
behavior to genetic factors.
[18] Image 18 courtesy of John Broadus Watson in the Public Domain. schizophrenia.
Figuring out how people
Understanding mental
[19] Image 19 courtesy of Michaelrayw2 under CC BY 3.0. transform sensations produced
Cognitive processes, and how people
by the eyes into an
[20] Image 20a courtesy of Unknown photographer in the Public Domain. process information in general.
understandable image.
Studying non-human animal Testing whether a certain
  Image 20b courtesy of Andrew Ciscel under CC BY-SA 2.0.
behavior, o"en (but not always) chemical a!ects eating behavior
Comparative
[21] Image 21 courtesy of Unknown in the Public Domain. looking for commonalities with in mice before studying it in
humans. humans.
[22] Image 22 courtesy of Mehramooze under CC0 1.0. Describing and understanding Investigating how children learn
Developmental how and why behavior changes to speak, or why memory
[23] Image 23 courtesy of Beth under CC BY 2.0. across the lifespan. declines in old age.
Linking specific behavior
[24] Image 24 courtesy of Gary Dee under CC BY-SA 2.0.
patterns to underlying physical Linking the processing of faces
Behavioral neuroscience
components or activities in the to a specific area of brain cortex.
[25] Image 25a courtesy of Unsplash in the Public Domain.
brain.
  Image 25b courtesy of Afreeman under CC BY 3.0. Understanding how and why Describing how some people are
people di!er, and how these extraverted, and how
Personality
[26] Image 26 courtesy of bones64 in the Public Domain. di!erences may influence extraversion predicts specific
behavior. behavior patterns.
[27] Image 27a courtesy of M.R.W.HH in the Public Domain.
Studying how people
Investigating how and why
understand themselves and
Image 27b courtesy of the author. Social people are persuaded by an
others, and how behavior can be
argument or advertisement.
influenced by other people.

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Table 1.1: Examples of Basic Research in Psychology. Political political process, and predict how someone decisions about where
the role of politics in will vote in a given a candidate should
Please click here to return to Section 1.2.1. psychology. election. campaign.

Meeting with a student’s

Table 1.2: Using psychology to Researching e!ective
parents to recommend
improve the academic ways to prevent
Fields of Applied School a course of action for a
Area of Focus Research Example Practice Example and social experiences absenteeism in high
Psychology student with anger
of children in school. school settings.
Understanding the Investigating the Designing a product issues.
decisions consumers e!ectiveness of label in ways known to
Consumer behavior
make about products di!erent kinds of increase consumer Table 1.2: Examples of Applied Work in Psychology.
and services. advertisements. interest.
Please click here to return to Section 1.2.2.
Improving learning in Testing how e!ective Designing a textbook to
Educational classroom and other online homework is in take advantage of
Table 1.3:
educational settings. raising understanding. research on learning.
Designing products or Studying which Type of Clinician Area of Focus Required Training Example Activities
Designing a user
processes in ways that keyboard layout for Research: Evaluating
interface for a computer
Human factors improve usefulness or helicopter pilots the e!ectiveness of
program with the target
comfort for the people improves e!iciency and di!erent treatments for
audience in mind. Identifying, preventing,
using them. reduces errors. depression. Practice:
and relieving distress or
Applying psychological Investigating the Testifying that a Clinical psychologists Ph.D. or Psy.D. Diagnosing a mental
dysfunction that is
Forensic & Legal principles to features of accuracy of eyewitness defendant is competent illness; helping a client
psychological in origin.
the legal system. memory. to stand trial. learn coping strategies

Improving physical Creating a public health to overcome his social

Researching ways to anxiety.
health and healthcare campaign that explains
improve patients’ Identifying, preventing,
Health by applying known strategies for
adherence to a and relieving distress or
psychological reducing HIV Research: Medical
medication regimen. dysfunction that is
principles. transmission. research on physical
Helping organizations psychological in origin. causes of mental
Determining what kinds Consulting with a As medical doctors, M.D., multiple years of illness.
improve member Psychiatrists
Industrial & of job stresses lead to company to improve its they attempt to specialist training
performance,
Organizational increased turnover management training determine whether Practice: Managing a
motivation, or other
rates. program. symptoms could be the patient’s psychoactive
role-related outcomes.
result of physical illness medication.
Understanding the role Figuring out what kinds Using demographic
as well.
of psychology in the of demographic factors information to make

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Research: Developing a
Ph.D. in counseling,
Helping people dea new technique to help
Ed.D. (doctor of
Counseling with ongoing situations, veterans transition back
education), or a
psychologists or transitions from one to civilian life. Practice:
master’s program in
situation to another. Helping a married
specific specialty
couple work through a
rough patch.

Table 1.3: Types of Clinicians.

Please click here to return to Section 1.2.3.

Exported for Oliver Hardt on Sun, 07 Oct 2018 15:10:11 GMT

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