Acoustics - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Acoustics#History

Acoustics
(Redirected from History of acoustics)

Acoustics is a branch of physics that

deals with the study of mechanical
waves in gases, liquids, and solids
including topics such as vibration,
sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A
scientist who works in the field of
acoustics is an acoustician while
someone working in the field of
acoustics technology may be called an
acoustical engineer. The application of
acoustics is present in almost all aspects
of modern society with the most obvious
being the audio and noise control
industries.

Hearing is one of the most crucial

means of survival in the animal world
and speech is one of the most distinctive
characteristics of human development
and culture. Accordingly, the science of
acoustics spreads across many facets of
human society—music, medicine,
architecture, industrial production,
warfare and more. Likewise, animal
Lindsay's Wheel of Acoustics, which shows fields within acoustics
species such as songbirds and frogs use
sound and hearing as a key element of
mating rituals or for marking territories.
Art, craft, science and technology have provoked one another to advance the whole, as in many other fields
of knowledge. Robert Bruce Lindsay's "Wheel of Acoustics" is a well accepted overview of the various fields
in acoustics.[1]

History

Etymology

The word "acoustic" is derived from the Greek word ἀκουστικός (akoustikos), meaning "of or for hearing,
ready to hear"[2] and that from ἀκουστός (akoustos), "heard, audible",[3] which in turn derives from the
verb ἀκούω(akouo), "I hear".[4]

The Latin synonym is "sonic", after which the term sonics used to be a synonym for acoustics[5] and later
a branch of acoustics.[5] Frequencies above and below the audible range are called "ultrasonic" and
"infrasonic", respectively.

Early research in acoustics

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In the 6th century BC, the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras

wanted to know why some combinations of musical sounds seemed
more beautiful than others, and he found answers in terms of
numerical ratios representing the harmonic overtone series on a string.
He is reputed to have observed that when the lengths of vibrating
strings are expressible as ratios of integers (e.g. 2 to 3, 3 to 4), the tones
produced will be harmonious, and the smaller the integers the more
harmonious the sounds. For example, a string of a certain length would
sound particularly harmonious with a string of twice the length (other
factors being equal). In modern parlance, if a string sounds the note C
when plucked, a string twice as long will sound a C an octave lower. In
one system of musical tuning, the tones in between are then given by
The fundamental and the first 6
16:9 for D, 8:5 for E, 3:2 for F, 4:3 for G, 6:5 for A, and 16:15 for B, in
overtones of a vibrating string. The
ascending order.[6]
earliest records of the study of this
phenomenon are attributed to the
Aristotle (384–322 BC) understood that sound consisted of
philosopher Pythagoras in the 6th
compressions and rarefactions of air which "falls upon and strikes the
century BC.
air which is next to it...",[7][8] a very good expression of the nature of
wave motion. On Things Heard, generally ascribed to Strato of
Lampsacus, states that the pitch is related to the frequency of vibrations of the air and to the speed of
sound.[9]

In about 20 BC, the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius wrote a treatise on the acoustic properties of
theaters including discussion of interference, echoes, and reverberation—the beginnings of architectural
acoustics.[10] In Book V of his De architectura (The Ten Books of Architecture) Vitruvius describes sound
as a wave comparable to a water wave extended to three dimensions, which, when interrupted by
obstructions, would flow back and break up following waves. He described the ascending seats in ancient
theaters as designed to prevent this deterioration of sound and also recommended bronze vessels of
appropriate sizes be placed in theaters to resonate with the fourth, fifth and so on, up to the double octave,
in order to resonate with the more desirable, harmonious notes.[11][12][13]

During the Islamic golden age, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973-1048) is believed to have postulated that the
speed of sound was much slower than the speed of light.[14][15]

The physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly

Principles of acoustics have been
applied since ancient times: a
Roman theatre in the city of Amman
during and after the Scientific Revolution. Mainly Galileo Galilei
(1564–1642) but also Marin Mersenne (1588–1648), independently,
discovered the complete laws of vibrating strings (completing what
Pythagoras and Pythagoreans had started 2000 years earlier). Galileo
wrote "Waves are produced by the vibrations of a sonorous body, which
spread through the air, bringing to the tympanum of the ear a stimulus
which the mind interprets as sound", a remarkable statement that
points to the beginnings of physiological and psychological acoustics.
Experimental measurements of the speed of sound in air were carried
out successfully between 1630 and 1680 by a number of investigators,
prominently Mersenne. Meanwhile, Newton (1642–1727) derived the
relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone of physical
acoustics (Principia, 1687).

Age of Enlightenment and onward

Substantial progress in acoustics, resting on firmer mathematical and physical concepts, was made during
the eighteenth century by Euler (1707–1783), Lagrange (1736–1813), and d'Alembert (1717–1783). During

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this era, continuum physics, or field theory, began to receive a definite mathematical structure. The wave
equation emerged in a number of contexts, including the propagation of sound in air.[16]

In the nineteenth century the major figures of mathematical acoustics were Helmholtz in Germany, who
consolidated the field of physiological acoustics, and Lord Rayleigh in England, who combined the
previous knowledge with his own copious contributions to the field in his monumental work The Theory of
Sound (1877). Also in the 19th century, Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy between
electricity and acoustics.

The twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large body of scientific
knowledge that was by then in place. The first such application was Sabine's groundbreaking work in
architectural acoustics, and many others followed. Underwater acoustics was used for detecting
submarines in the first World War. Sound recording and the telephone played important roles in a global
transformation of society. Sound measurement and analysis reached new levels of accuracy and
sophistication through the use of electronics and computing. The ultrasonic frequency range enabled
wholly new kinds of application in medicine and industry. New kinds of transducers (generators and
receivers of acoustic energy) were invented and put to use.

Definition
Jay Pritzker Pavilion

At Jay Pritzker Pavilion, a LARES system is combined with a zoned sound reinforcement system, both suspended on an
overhead steel trellis, to synthesize an indoor acoustic environment outdoors.

Acoustics is defined by ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013 as "(a) Science of sound, including its production,
transmission, and effects, including biological and psychological effects. (b) Those qualities of a room that,
together, determine its character with respect to auditory effects."

The study of acoustics revolves around the generation, propagation and reception of mechanical waves and
vibrations.

The steps shown in the above diagram can be found in any acoustical event or process. There are many
kinds of cause, both natural and volitional. There are many kinds of transduction process that convert
energy from some other form into sonic energy, producing a sound wave. There is one fundamental
equation that describes sound wave propagation, the acoustic wave equation, but the phenomena that
emerge from it are varied and often complex. The wave carries energy throughout the propagating
medium. Eventually this energy is transduced again into other forms, in ways that again may be natural
and/or volitionally contrived. The final effect may be purely physical or it may reach far into the biological
or volitional domains. The five basic steps are found equally well whether we are talking about an
earthquake, a submarine using sonar to locate its foe, or a band playing in a rock concert.

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The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within the domain of physical
acoustics. In fluids, sound propagates primarily as a pressure wave. In solids, mechanical waves can take
many forms including longitudinal waves, transverse waves and surface waves.

Acoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave and how the wave interacts
with the environment. This interaction can be described as either a diffraction, interference or a reflection
or a mix of the three. If several media are present, a refraction can also occur. Transduction processes are
also of special importance to acoustics.

Fundamental concepts

Wave propagation: pressure levels

In fluids such as air and water, sound waves propagate as disturbances

in the ambient pressure level. While this disturbance is usually small, it
is still noticeable to the human ear. The smallest sound that a person
can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is nine orders of
magnitude smaller than the ambient pressure. The loudness of these
disturbances is related to the sound pressure level (SPL) which is
measured on a logarithmic scale in decibels.
Spectrogram of a young girl saying
"oh, no"
Wave propagation: frequency

Physicists and acoustic engineers tend to discuss sound pressure levels

in terms of frequencies, partly because this is how our ears interpret sound. What we experience as "higher
pitched" or "lower pitched" sounds are pressure vibrations having a higher or lower number of cycles per
second. In a common technique of acoustic measurement, acoustic signals are sampled in time, and then
presented in more meaningful forms such as octave bands or time frequency plots. Both of these popular
methods are used to analyze sound and better understand the acoustic phenomenon.

The entire spectrum can be divided into three sections: audio, ultrasonic, and infrasonic. The audio range
falls between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. This range is important because its frequencies can be detected by the
human ear. This range has a number of applications, including speech communication and music. The
ultrasonic range refers to the very high frequencies: 20,000 Hz and higher. This range has shorter
wavelengths which allow better resolution in imaging technologies. Medical applications such as
ultrasonography and elastography rely on the ultrasonic frequency range. On the other end of the
spectrum, the lowest frequencies are known as the infrasonic range. These frequencies can be used to
study geological phenomena such as earthquakes.

Analytic instruments such as the spectrum analyzer facilitate visualization and measurement of acoustic
signals and their properties. The spectrogram produced by such an instrument is a graphical display of the
time varying pressure level and frequency profiles which give a specific acoustic signal its defining
character.

Transduction in acoustics

A transducer is a device for converting one form of energy into another. In an electroacoustic context, this
means converting sound energy into electrical energy (or vice versa). Electroacoustic transducers include
loudspeakers, microphones, particle velocity sensors, hydrophones and sonar projectors. These devices
convert a sound wave to or from an electric signal. The most widely used transduction principles are
electromagnetism, electrostatics and piezoelectricity.

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The transducers in most common loudspeakers (e.g. woofers and

tweeters), are electromagnetic devices that generate waves using a
suspended diaphragm driven by an electromagnetic voice coil, sending
off pressure waves. Electret microphones and condenser microphones
employ electrostatics—as the sound wave strikes the microphone's
diaphragm, it moves and induces a voltage change. The ultrasonic
systems used in medical ultrasonography employ piezoelectric
transducers. These are made from special ceramics in which
mechanical vibrations and electrical fields are interlinked through a
property of the material itself. An inexpensive low fidelity 3.5 inch
driver, typically found in small
Acoustician radios

An acoustician is an expert in the science of sound.[17]

Education

There are many types of acoustician, but they usually have a Bachelor's degree or higher qualification.
Some possess a degree in acoustics, while others enter the discipline via studies in fields such as physics or
engineering. Much work in acoustics requires a good grounding in Mathematics and science. Many
acoustic scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to advance our
knowledge of the perception (e.g. hearing, psychoacoustics or neurophysiology) of speech, music and
noise. Other acoustic scientists advance understanding of how sound is affected as it moves through
environments, e.g. underwater acoustics, architectural acoustics or structural acoustics. Other areas of
work are listed under subdisciplines below. Acoustic scientists work in government, university and private
industry laboratories. Many go on to work in Acoustical Engineering. Some positions, such as Faculty
(academic staff) require a Doctor of Philosophy.

Subdisciplines

Archaeoacoustics

Archaeoacoustics, also known as the archaeology of sound, is one of the

only ways to experience the past with senses other than our eyes.[18]
Archaeoacoustics is studied by testing the acoustic properties of
prehistoric sites, including caves. Iegor Rezkinoff, a sound
archaeologist, studies the acoustic properties of caves through natural
sounds like humming and whistling.[19] Archaeological theories of
acoustics are focused around ritualistic purposes as well as a way of
echolocation in the caves. In archaeology, acoustic sounds and rituals St. Michael's Cave
directly correlate as specific sounds were meant to bring ritual
participants closer to a spiritual awakening.[18] Parallels can also be
drawn between cave wall paintings and the acoustic properties of the cave; they are both dynamic.[19]
Because archaeoacoustics is a fairly new archaeological subject, acoustic sound is still being tested in these
prehistoric sites today.

Aeroacoustics

Aeroacoustics is the study of noise generated by air movement, for instance via turbulence, and the

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movement of sound through the fluid air. This knowledge is applied in acoustical engineering to study how
to quieten aircraft. Aeroacoustics is important for understanding how wind musical instruments work.[20]

Acoustic signal processing

Acoustic signal processing is the electronic manipulation of acoustic signals. Applications include: active
noise control; design for hearing aids or cochlear implants; echo cancellation; music information retrieval,
and perceptual coding (e.g. MP3 or Opus).[21]

Architectural acoustics

Architectural acoustics (also known as building acoustics) involves the

scientific understanding of how to achieve good sound within a
building.[22] It typically involves the study of speech intelligibility,
speech privacy, music quality, and vibration reduction in the built
environment.[23] Commonly studied environments are hospitals,
classrooms, dwellings, performance venues, recording and
broadcasting studios. Focus considerations include room acoustics,
airborne and impact transmission in building structures, airborne and
structure-borne noise control, noise control of building systems and Symphony Hall, Boston, where
electroacoustic systems [1] (https://asastudents.org/about/what-are-tc auditorium acoustics began
s/).

Bioacoustics

Bioacoustics is the scientific study of the hearing and calls of animal calls, as well as how animals are
affected by the acoustic and sounds of their habitat.[24]

Electroacoustics

This subdiscipline is concerned with the recording, manipulation and reproduction of audio using
electronics.[25] This might include products such as mobile phones, large scale public address systems or
virtual reality systems in research laboratories.

Environmental noise and soundscapes

Environmental acoustics is concerned with noise and vibration caused by railways,[26] road traffic, aircraft,
industrial equipment and recreational activities.[27] The main aim of these studies is to reduce levels of
environmental noise and vibration. Research work now also has a focus on the positive use of sound in
urban environments: soundscapes and tranquility.[28]

Musical acoustics

Musical acoustics is the study of the physics of acoustic instruments; the audio signal processing used in
electronic music; the computer analysis of music and composition, and the perception and cognitive
neuroscience of music.[29]

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Noise

The goal this acoustics sub-discipline is to reduce the impact of

unwanted sound. Scope of noise studies includes the generation,
propagation, and impact on structures, objects, and people.

▪ Innovative model development

▪ Measurement techniques
The primary auditory cortex, one of
▪ Mitigation strategies the main areas associated with
▪ Inupt to the establishment of standards and regulations superior pitch resolution

Noise research investigates the impact of noise on humans and animals

to include work in definitions, abatement, transportation noise, hearing protection, Jet and rocket noise,
building system noise and vibration, atmospheric sound propagation, soundscapes, and low-frequency
sound.

Psychoacoustics

Many studies have been conducted to identify the relationship between acoustics and cognition, or more
commonly known as psychoacoustics, in which what one hears is a combination of perception and
biological aspects.[30] The information intercepted by the passage of sound waves through the ear is
understood and interpreted through the brain, emphasizing the connection between the mind and
acoustics. Psychological changes have been seen as brain waves slow down or speed up as a result of
varying auditory stimulus which can in turn affect the way one thinks, feels, or even behaves.[31] This
correlation can be viewed in normal, everyday situations in which listening to an upbeat or uptempo song
can cause one's foot to start tapping or a slower song can leave one feeling calm and serene. In a deeper
biological look at the phenomenon of psychoacoustics, it was discovered that the central nervous system is
activated by basic acoustical characteristics of music.[32] By observing how the central nervous system,
which includes the brain and spine, is influenced by acoustics, the pathway in which acoustic affects the
mind, and essentially the body, is evident.[32]

Speech

Acousticians study the production, processing and perception of speech. Speech recognition and Speech
synthesis are two important areas of speech processing using computers. The subject also overlaps with
the disciplines of physics, physiology, psychology, and linguistics.[33]

Structural Vibration and Dynamics

Structural acoustics is the study of motions and interactions of mechanical systems with their
environments and the methods of their measurement, analysis, and control [2] (https://tcsaasa.org/).
There are several sub-disciplines found within this regime:

▪ Modal Analysis
▪ Material characterization
▪ Structural health monitoring
▪ Acoustic Metamaterials
▪ Friction Acoustics

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Applications might include: ground vibrations from railways; vibration isolation to reduce vibration in
operating theatres; studying how vibration can damage health (vibration white finger); vibration control to
protect a building from earthquakes, or measuring how structure-borne sound moves through
buildings.[34]

Ultrasonics

Ultrasonics deals with sounds at frequencies too high to be heard by

humans. Specialisms include medical ultrasonics (including medical
ultrasonography), sonochemistry, ultrasonic testing, material
characterisation and underwater acoustics (sonar). [35]

Underwater acoustics

Underwater acoustics is the scientific study of natural and man-made

Ultrasound image of a fetus in the
sounds underwater. Applications include sonar to locate submarines,
womb, viewed at 12 weeks of
underwater communication by whales, climate change monitoring by
pregnancy (bidimensional-scan)
measuring sea temperatures acoustically, sonic weapons,[36] and
marine bioacoustics.[37]

Professional societies
▪ The Acoustical Society of America (ASA)
▪ Australian Acoustical Society (AAS)
▪ The European Acoustics Association (EAA)
▪ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
▪ Institute of Acoustics (IoA UK)
▪ The Audio Engineering Society (AES)
▪ American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Noise Control and Acoustics Division (ASME-NCAD)
▪ International Commission for Acoustics (ICA)
▪ American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Aeroacoustics (AIAA)
▪ International Computer Music Association (ICMA)

Academic journals
▪ Acta Acustica united with Acustica
▪ Applied Acoustics
▪ IEEE Transacions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control
▪ Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (JASA)
▪ Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Express Letters (JASA-EL)
▪ Journal of the Audio Engineering Society
▪ Journal of Sound and Vibration (JSV)
▪ Journal of Vibration and Acoustics American Society of Mechanical Engineers
▪ MDPI Acoustics
▪ Ultrasonics (journal)
▪ Ultrasonics Sonochemistry

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See also
▪ Outline of acoustics
▪ Acoustic attenuation
▪ Acoustic emission
▪ Acoustic engineering
▪ Acoustic impedance
▪ Acoustic levitation
▪ Acoustic location
▪ Acoustic phonetics
▪ Acoustic streaming
▪ Acoustic tags
▪ Acoustic thermometry
▪ Acoustic wave
▪ Audiology
▪ Auditory illusion
▪ Diffraction
▪ Doppler effect
▪ Fisheries acoustics
▪ Friction acoustics
▪ Helioseismology
▪ Lamb wave
▪ Linear elasticity
▪ The Little Red Book of Acoustics (in the UK)
▪ Longitudinal wave
▪ Musicology
▪ Music therapy
▪ Noise pollution
▪ One-Way Wave Equation
▪ Phonon
▪ Picosecond ultrasonics
▪ Rayleigh wave
▪ Shock wave
▪ Seismology
▪ Sonification
▪ Sonochemistry
▪ Soundproofing
▪ Soundscape
▪ Sonic boom
▪ Sonoluminescence
▪ Surface acoustic wave
▪ Thermoacoustics
▪ Transverse wave
▪ Wave equation

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Further reading
▪ Attenborough K, Postema M (2008). A pocket-sized introduction to acoustics (https://hal.archives-ouve
rtes.fr/hal-03188302/document). Kingston upon Hull: University of Hull. doi:10.5281/zenodo.7504060
(https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.7504060). ISBN 978-90-812588-2-1.
▪ Benade AH (1976). Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics (https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofmu0
000bena). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-502030-4. OCLC 2270137 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/2270137).
▪ Biryukov SV, Gulyaev YV, Krylov VV, Plessky VP (1995). Surface Acoustic Waves in Inhomogeneous
Media (https://books.google.com/books?id=WR-jfwMnDYYC). Heidelberg: Springer.
ISBN 978-3-540-58460-5.
▪ Crocker MJ, ed. (1997). Encyclopedia of Acoustics (https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofac0003un
se_l4l2/page/n5/mode/2up). Hoboken: Wiley. OCLC 441305164 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/441305
164).
▪ Falkovich G (2011). Fluid Mechanics, a short course for physicists (http://www.weizmann.ac.il/complex/
falkovich/fluid-mechanics). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00575-4.
▪ Fahy FJ, Gardonio P (2007). Sound and Structural Vibration: Radiation, Transmission and Response
(https://books.google.com/books?id=caelfFmWC28C) (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press.
ISBN 978-0-08-047110-5.
▪ Junger MC, Feit D (1986). Sound, Structures and Their Interaction (https://web.archive.org/web/20140
605030702/http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/sound-structures-and-their-interaction) (2nd ed.). Cambridge:
MIT Press. Archived from the original (http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/sound-structures-and-their-interact
ion) on 2014-06-05.
▪ Kinsler LE (1999). Fundamentals of Acoustics (https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofac00kins/pag
e/n5/mode/2up) (4th ed.). Hoboken: Wiley. ISBN 978-04718-4-789-2.
▪ Mason WP, Thurston RN (1981). Physical Acoustics (https://web.archive.org/web/20131225161706/htt
p://librarum.org/book/2513/1). Heidelberg: Springer. Archived from the original (http://librarum.org/book
/2513/1) on 2013-12-25.
▪ Morse PM, Ingard KU (1986). Theoretical Acoustics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 0-691-08425-4.
▪ Pierce AD (1989). Acoustics: An Introduction to its Physical Principles and Applications. Melville:
Acoustical Society of America. ISBN 0-88318-612-8.
▪ Raichel DR (2006). The Science and Applications of Acoustics (2nd ed.). Heidelberg: Springer.
ISBN 0-387-30089-9.

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Acoustics - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustics#History

▪ Lord Rayleigh (1894). The Theory of Sound. New York: Dover. ISBN 978-0-8446-3028-1.
▪ Skudrzyk E (1971). The Foundations of Acoustics: Basic Mathematics and Basic Acoustics.
Heidelberg: Springer.
▪ Stephens RW, Bate AE (1966). Acoustics and Vibrational Physics (2nd ed.). London: Edward Arnold.
▪ Wilson CE (2006). Noise Control (Revised ed.). Malabar: Krieger. ISBN 978-1-57524-237-8.
OCLC 59223706 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59223706).

External links
▪ International Commission for Acoustics (http://www.icacommission.org/)
▪ European Acoustics Association (https://euracoustics.org)
▪ Acoustical Society of America (http://acousticalsociety.org/)
▪ Institute of Noise Control Engineers (http://www.inceusa.org/)
▪ National Council of Acoustical Consultants (http://www.ncac.com/)
▪ Institute of Acoustic in UK (http://www.ioa.org.uk/)
▪ Australian Acoustical Society (AAS) (https://www.acoustics.org.au/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acoustics&oldid=1161639175#History"

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