Flyschool Meteorology

Air Academy
Lesson 2
Altimetry

ATPL ME8 02
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Pressure Settings and Q Codes

Altimeters have a barometric setting control which can be adjusted so that the altimeter
reads heights above differing datums. The four main datum settings are:

QFE is a reading of station pressure taken on an accurate barometer and

adjusted for any difference in height between the barometer and the field elevation.
If QFE is set altimeters should read zero on the ground at the airfield. Height
QNH is the station pressure (QFE) adjusted down to mean sea level (MSL)
using ISA values for the temperature between the station and MSL. Since the i r QFE- station pressure
altimeter itself uses ISA values for its internal calculations, an altimeter with QNH set
should read station elevation on the ground at the station.
Pressure Altitude
Standard pressure (1013.2 hPa) above a set altitude called the transition altitude altitude
aircraft operate with a standard pressure setting of 1013.2 hPa. The heights
indicated are called pressure altitudes. They may also be given in an abbreviated
form by knocking off the last two zeroes, this is called a flight level (FL). Thus a
pressure altitude of 30 000 ft equates to FL300 QNH - mean sea level

Standard setting - 1013 hPa

(Q)FE = Field Elevation

(Q)NH = Nautical Height

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Pressure Settings and Q Codes continued

QFF is the station pressure adjusted down to MSL using the actual station
temperature and the actual lapse rate, taking into account any surface inversions, in
the calculation. This is not set on aircraft altimeters, but used by the meteorological
service as an accurate value for MSL pressure. QFF is the pressure displayed on
surface isobar charts.

QFE and QNH are available in various forms. Airfield QNH applies at the airfield. In UK
Flight Levels (1013.2 hPa)
airspace, away from the airfield, and below the transition altitude a regional QNH is used.
This is the lowest forecast QNH for the region for one hour ahead. Using the lowest of all
the forecast QNH values gives the maximum safety margin. Airfield QFE is the pressure transition
at the highest point of the airfield surface - again giving the greatest safety margin -and if
altitude
the touchdown point of the instrument runway in use is significantly below the high point
I Altitude (QNH)
then a touchdown QFE will also be given.

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Pressure Settings and Q Codes continued

Finally, For stations above sea level:

QNE this is not a pressure setting at all, but is the touchdown height that will b e
indicated on the altimeter if the standard setting, 1013 hPa, is set. In other words, it
is the pressure altitude of the touchdown point. This procedure is used at high
airfields, like La Paz in Bolivia, where QFE would be too low a value to set on the
If it is warmer than ISA then QNH is greater than QFF.
If it is colder than ISA then QNH is less than QFF.
For stations below sea level:

altimeter subscale and also when the QNH is too low to set o n the subscale. If it is warmer than ISA then QNH is less than QFF.

Note 1: The adjustment of the station pressure to sea level mentioned above under QNH If it is colder than ISA then QNH is greater than QFF.
and QFF is known as the "reduction of measured pressure to sea level
These relationships are expanded and illustrated on the subsequent pages.
Note 2: If the temperature at the station and lapse rate to sea level are in accordance with
the ISA then QNH = QFF.
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Changing the Sub-Scale Setting

When the pilot changes the altimeter sub-scale setting the reading on the altimeter
changes because the altitude Is being referenced to a different datum.

Example:

For take-off the altimeter is set to the QNH 1003 hPa. The transition altitude is
3000 ft on the QNH. As the aircraft passes through the transition altitude the pilot
resets the altimeter sub-scale to 1013.2 hPa. What will the altimeter read at that
point?

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Changing the Sub-Scale Setting continued

Solution:

Draw a sketch diagram marking In the two pressure datums. Notice that the higher
pressure is lower down. The difference in pressure of the two datums is 1 0 hPa
which, using 27 ft per hPa, is 270 ft. The diagram shows that 3000 ft on a setting of
1003 hPa equates to 3270 ft on the standard setting.

3000 ft amsl
3270 ft pressure altitude

msl --------- QNH 1003

10 Mb x 27 ft
=270 ft
---------Standard 1013.2

For altimetry problems we normally use 27 ft (8 m) per hPa.

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Barometric Errors

If everything is correctly set, using the QFE will indicate height above an airfield, QNH will
indicate altitude above mean sea level and using the standard setting will indicate a
pressure altitude or flight level.

Surface pressures change, though, and if an incorrect pressure setting is left on the
altimeter it will indicate higher than it should (over read) or lower than it should (under
read). This is called barometric error.

Barometric errors are particularly dangerous if you fly from high pressure to low, forthen
the altimeter will over read.

The image opposite shows an aircraft has the correct QNH set at point A and the altimeter
indicates altitude AMSL. Without resetting the subscale the pilot flies to point B, an area
of low pressure.

The QNH datum he has chosen is below sea level, so his true altitude is now less than his
indicated altitude and his obstacle clearance is compromised. The mnemonic is:

"high to low, careful go”.

High to low, careful go

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Barometric Error Examples

Example:

An aircraft is parked overnight with the QFE of 1008 hPa set on the altimeter
subscale. The following morning the correct QFE is given as 1002 hPa. Before the
subscale is reset and assuming 27 ft/hPa what will the altimeter read?

a) +320 ft
b) +160 ft
c) zero
d) -160 ft

Solution:

The pressure difference is 6 mb at 27 ft/hPa. The height difference will be:

6 x 2 7 = 162 ft

Use of the mnemonic, “high to low careful go” means the altimeter will over read.
Answer (b)

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Barometric Error Examples

Example:

An aircraft departs point Q atan altitude of 1500 m with the QNH set at 1010 hPa. It
arrives over point R where the QNH is 990 hPa, and there is an obstacle 1000 m
high. Assuming 8 m/ hPa what will be the obstacle clearance over R?

Solution:

Once again, the altimeter will be over reading. The size of the barometric error will
be:

1010 - 9 9 0 = 20 mb

At msl this is equivalent to

20 x 8 = 160 m

The aircraft amsl altitude will be

1500- 160 = 1340 m

and the obstacle clearance will be 340 m.

In a similar way, aircraft true altitude can be found at any given Flight Level if the QNH is
known. QNH is the pressure at msl, so the difference between true altitude and flight level
is the height difference between QNH and 1013 hPa. If no value is given assume
27 ft/hPa.

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Barometric Error Examples

Example:

An aircraft is at FL40. What is its amsl altitude if QNH is 998 hPa?

Solution:

QNH is a t a lower value than 1013, so the aircraft amsl altitude will be less than its
pressure altitude. The size of the difference will be:

1013-998 = 15hPa

This is the equivalent to an altitude error of

1 5 x 2 7 = 405 ft

The aircraft amsl altitude is therefore

4 0 0 0 - 4 0 5 = 3595 ft

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Temperature Error

Even if the barometric settings on the altimeter are correct, true altitude will differ from
indicated altitude, if the temperature differs from the ISA values. It was explained earlier
that in high temperature air masses, any given pressure level will be at a greater altitude
700 hPa
than in cold air masses. Altimeters measure pressure, so will show the same altitude at
700 hPa
the same pressure level irrespective of any temperature difference. The problem is
illustrated in the diagram. 700 hPa
In ISA temperature conditions the 700 hPa level is almost exactly 1 0 000 ft. In colder air,
the700hPa level - w h i c h the altimeter thinks is 10 000 ft - i s in reality much lower. In low
temperatures, therefore, the altimeter over reads, and in high temperatures it under
reads.
Cold ISA Warm
Air mass temperature deviation from ISA makes no relative difference to height keeping air air air
for air traffic reasons, for all aircraft will have the same error. However, as you can see
from the image opposite, the absolute separation between pressure levels is reduced in
cold air. This means that while there is a theoretical height separation between FL300
1013 hPa 1013 hPa 1013 hPa
and FL310 of 1000 ft in ISA conditions, the separation will be less in cold air and in warm
air it will be greater.

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Temperature Error Calculations

It is possible to calculate exactly the altitude correction for the given air mass
temperature. This is best done on a flight computer, and is covered fully in the 4% of height difference for every 10° of temperature difference
Instruments section of this course. There is, however, a “rule of thumb” approximation
than can b e quickly applied. or

The ground rules are: 4x (Height in Thousands of Feet) x ISA Deviation

■ Barometric error can be calculated separately, and should b e dealt with first. The height in this equation is the indicated altitude after any barometric correction
plus or minus the elevation of the station at which the pressure is measured.
■ The temperature correction applies to the band of atmosphere between the level
where the altimeter reads correctly and the aircraft. This datum level is station
elevation for airfield QNH and touchdown for QFE. If sea level pressure (QFF) is Example:
given, the datum is sea level.
You are flying at FL 200. Outside air temperature is -40°C. and the pressure at sea
■ ISA deviation can be assumed to be the same at all heights.
level is 1 033 hPa. What is the true altitude?
■ Pressures are whole millibars rounded down.
(the solution is on the next page).
■ That done, the calculation is that there will be a 4% height difference in true altitude
from indicated altitude for every 10°C difference in air mass temperature, that is for
every 10°C of ISA temperature deviation.

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Temperature Error Calculations continued

Solution:

Barometric error first. The 1013 datum is 20 x 27 = 540 ft above mean sea level.

The ISA deviation is -15°C. The correction temperatue error is:

1 . 5 x 4 % x 20 540 = 1232 ft

or

4 x 20.54 x -15 = 1232 ft 20000 ft indicated above

the 1013 hPa datum
The air is colder than ISA, so the altimeter is over-reading, and the true altitude is:
20540 ft indicated above
the 1033 hPa datum
20 5 4 0 - 1 2 3 2 = 19 308 ft

Notice that the temperature correction has been applied over the fulll height as we were
given a QFF. 1013 hPa
20 hPa x 27 ft = 540 ft
1033 hPa

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The relationship between QNH & QFF

QNH is calculated from station pressure on the assumption that ISA conditions apply.
QFF is the actual sea level pressure. This means that, when the temperature Is different
to ISA, QNH and QFF will differ. The image opposite illustrates the situation for an airfield
above sea level. In this case, if the column of air is colder than ISA, QNH will be less than
QFF (higher) and, if the air is warmer than ISA, QNH will be more than QFF.

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The Relationship Between QNH & QFF

For an aerodrome below mean sea level, as illustrated here, the reverse applies. In air
colder than ISA QNH will be greater than QFF, in warmer air QNH will be less than QFF.

QNH < QFF

QNH = QFF MSL

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Altimetry
Temperature Correction
So why does setting QNH on the ground give you the correct airfield altitude above mean
sea level?
The answer is that the altimeter is calibrated to ISA. If you set QFF you would have to
apply a temperature error correction even to get the correct reading on the ground.
There is a follow-on from this. If the temperature differs from ISA the QNH will only read
the correct altitude on the ground. If you are airborne you may need to apply a
temperature correction to get the true altitude.
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In warm conditions this Is not dangerous because the true altitude will be higher than the
indicated altitude. However, in very cold air, and close to the ground, the temperature
error may b e critical as the true altitude will be /ess than the indicated altitude.
An easy way to remember this Is that when the temperature is LOW the aircraft will b e
LOWER than indicated. It is essential, therefore, to make an altimeter temperature error
correction when calculating minimum descent heights and decision heights in very cold
conditions. The amount to add on to the indicated height or altitude to get the true value,
is usually derived from correction tables, such as In the example which follows...
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Temparature Correction Example

Temp Height or altitude above selected datum in feet

An aircraft is making a precision approach to an aerodrome at 4000 ft amsl at an
OAT of-30°C. The decision altitude (DA) is QNH based at 4200 ft, the decision °C 200 400 600 800 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000
height (DH) is 200 ft above touchdown. Use the table to determine the correct
0 20 20 40 40 60 100 120 180 240 300
indicated altitude of decision height.

Solution:
-10 20 40 60 80 100 160 200 300 400 500

Setting the QNH will cause the altimeter to read correctly on the ground, but not -20 20 60 80 120 140 220 280 420 560 700
200 ft above it. Enter the table at 200 ft and -30° to find a correction of (plus) 4 0 ft.
-30 40 80 100 140 180 280 360 540 720 900
The indicated altitude of decision height will be:
-40 40 80 140 180 220 340 440 660 880 1100
4200 + 40 = 4240 ft.
-50 60 130 160 200 260 400 520 780 1040 1300

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Drift and Altimeter Error

The circulation around an area of low pressure in the northern hemisphere is a nti-
clockwise, and around a high pressure system it is clockwise. This means that a n aircraft
travelling from high pressure to low would experience starboard or right drift, as shown in
the illustration. It is equally correct to reverse the logic and say that, If you have right drift
in the northern hemisphere, low pressure is ahead of you.

Of course, an aircraft flying from a n area of high pressure to low would be experiencing a
barometric error that would cause its true height to decrease. This means that it is true to
say that, in the northern hemisphere that, if you fly a constant indicated altitude and have
starboard drift, your true altitude Is decreasing.

An example of the altimetry calculation required to observe terrain clearance

requirements and derive the minimum useable Flight Level Is as follows:

Example:

You are intending to fly along an airway where the minimum flight level given on the chart
is FL150.

The highest ground you will pass over is 12 000 ft and the MOCA on the chart is shown
as 1 4 000 ft.

The temperature at FL150 is -25°C and the local QNH, measured a t a n airfield where the
elevation is 1 500 ft amsl, is 993 hPa,

What is the lowest usable Flight Level to conform with the published MOCA?

(the solution is on the next page)

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Drift and Altimeter Error Example Question - Solution

Solution: So the ISA temperature atFL150 would be-15°Cand the ISA Deviation is therefore ISA
-10.
The high ground elevation, and therefore the MOCA, are True Altitudes, We must
therefore calculate our true altitude given the conditions. The TEC is therefore

At FL1 50 we have 101 3 set on the altimeter and It shows 15 000 ft. 4 x (Indicated Altitude- Airfield Elevation in Thousands of ft) x ISA Deviation

This is our Pressure Altitude. = 4 x (14.46-1.500 x -10

Start by adjusting the altimeter for a Barometric Correction by winding the pressure = 4x12.96x-10
setting down to the local QNH (993), This will lose us 20 hPa and, at 27 ft per hPa will
= -518.4 (Round upto -519)
result in the altimeter now showing 15 000- 540 = 14 460 ft.
The True Altitude is therefore 14 460-519 = 13 941ft.
The altitude shown with the QNH set is called the Indicated Altitude.
This is below the MOCA and FL150 is therefore not a usable Flight Level. The lowest
Next calculate the Temperature Error Correction (TEC) which we need to apply to the usable Flight Level is FL1 60.
Indicated Altitude to arrive at the True Altitude.

The only temperature given in the example is that it is -25°C at FL150. If no further
information is given, the deviation of the outside air temperature from ISA is considered
to be constant throughout the whole layer.

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Airflow Over High Ground Density Altitude
Airflow over high ground can affect the atmospheric pressure. Just as the airflow over a Density altitude is the altitude In the International Standard Atmosphere at which the air
wing leads to a drop in pressure (the Bernoulli effect), so does airflow over a hill. In this density would be equal to the actual air density at the place of observation; or, in other
area of reduced pressure the altimeter will indicate a higher altitude than it should - it will words, the height when measured in terms of the density of the air rather than the
over read. Additional height margins should therefore be allowed when flying over high distance from the ground. 'Density Altitude” is the pressure altitude adjusted for non-
ground in strong wind conditions. standard temperature.

A summary of altimetry terms and definitions is given in the table at the end of this lesson. To calculate density altitude from pressure altitude we need to know the temperature
deviation from ISA conditions. The difference between pressure altitude and density
altitude is 120 feet per degree of temperature deviation.

Example:

An aircraft is at FL100 and the OAT is -35°C. What is the density altitude?

(the solution is on the next page)

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Density Altitude Example Question - Solution

Solution:
Which is the correct statement?
ISA at FL100 = +15 - (2 x 10) = -5°C
Outside Air Temperature = -35°C
Temperature deviation = -30°C O l n the northern hemisphere an aircraft travelling from low pressure to high would
experience starboard or right drift.

Pressure altitude (FL100) = 10 000 ft

Difference between PA and DA

Density altitude
=

=
120 x -30

6400 ft
= -3600 ft
O l n the northern hemisphere that, if you fly a constant indicated altitude and have
starboard drift, your true altitude is increasing.

This means that the density of the air at a n indicated 10 000 ft (FL100) on this cold day is
the same as the density of the air in a standard atmosphere at 6400 ft. © In the northern hemisphere an aircraft travelling from high pressure to low would
experience starboard or right drift.

You may not have performance data for your aircraft for ISA -30°C conditions but you
should have performance data for ISA conditions. To find out how your aircraft will
perform at FL100 on this cold day look at the data for ISA conditions at your density © In the northern hemisphere that, if you fly a constant indicated altitude and have
port drift, your true altitude is decreasing.
altitude, 6400 feet.
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Altitude Vertical distance above mean sea level (AMSL). QFF QFF is the station pressure adjusted down to MSL using
Elevation Vertical distance of a ground point (e.g an airport) AMSL. the actual station temperature and lapse rate in the

Height calculation.
Vertical distance above a point or level. (Altitude minus
Elevation). If the QFF was set on an altimeter it would read zero
Pressure With a standard pressure (altimeter) setting of 1013.2 hPa when an aircraft landed on the sea.
Altitude set, the altitudes indicated are called pressure altitudes.
Transition Altitude After take-off with QNH set the altitude in the climb
Flight Level (FL) A pressure altitude may also be given in an abbreviated form at which the standard pressure setting must be set.
by knocking off the last two zeroes, this is called a flight level Determined for each airfield at which IFR flight is
(FL). Thus a pressure altitude of 30 000 ft equates to FL300. certified.
True Altitude The result of correcting a pressure altitude for both pressure
Transition Level During a descent this is the Flight Level at which the
(barometric) and temperature deviations from the ISA.
QNH is set before an approach to land is commenced.
Usually the barometric correction is performed first to give
an “Indicated" altitude which is what the altimeter would read Transition Layer The transition level is the lowest flight level available
with the QNH set. The temperature error correction is then for use above the transition altitude. The layer between
applied to the Indicated Altitude to give the True Altitude. the transition altitude and the transition level is called
True Height True Altitude minus the Elevation. the transition layer. According to ICAO Doc 7030 (EUR
Region), from 7 March 2015, the transition level shall
QFE Reading of station pressure adjusted for any difference in
be located at least 300 m (1 000 ft) above the transition
height between the barometer and the field elevation. If
altitude to permit the transition altitude and the transition
QFE is set altimeters should read zero on the ground at the
level to be used concurrently in cruising flight, with
airfield.
vertical separation ensured.
QNH The station pressure (QFE) adjusted down to mean sea
level (MSL) using ISA values for the temperature between
the station and MSL. Altimeters use ISA values for internal
calculations and so an altimeter with QNH set should read
station elevation on the ground at the station.