Understanding the Self 1

Understanding the Self 2

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 Understanding the Self 3

Chapter 3: The Anthropological Perspective of the Self

“We are nothing but bricks from our cultural molds.”

– Bangambiki Habyarimana

Suggested Time Allotment: 4.5 Hours

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. identify the characteristics of culture and the ways to evaluate culture;
2. discuss the significance of social norms and the role it plays in shaping people’s
behaviors; and
3. identify the challenges of culture and its implications in the real setting.

Introduction

Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity. It studies human condition in terms

of biological and cultural aspects. One of the major branches of anthropology is cultural
anthropology. Cultural anthropology is the study of human cultures specifically, about
people’s beliefs, values, practices, traditions, languages, activities, and other domains. This
field primarily examines how people create and share a common cultural system and how
this system, in effect, shape them.
 Understanding the Self 4

A. Discussion

Edward Burnett Tylor

 Culture
 The English anthropologist Edward B. Tylor was considered as
the founder of cultural anthropology. He published his book the
Primitive Culture in 1871 where he theorized the progressive
development of primitive cultures to more civilized and modern
ones. He was then credited for coining the term animism in which
all things (i.e. objects, places, and creatures) possess distinct
spiritual essence or, are alive. He also came up with his definition
of culture: Edward B. Taylor
“...that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society.”

 Due to Tylor’s contributions, the concept of culture has been given much attention in the
field of anthropology. Culture is defined as the way of life. It shapes how people think,
act, and feel. Culture is a social heritage into which a person is born. Hence, man is called
a “culture bearing animal”. Culture encompasses everything that is socially learned and
shared by the members of the community. People acquire knowledge, beliefs, values,
traditions, customs, gestures, language, norms, the meanings of objects and social
interactions, and among others. These intangible aspects of culture are transmitted to the
succeeding generations. People in turn redesign the culture they acquired and introduce
changes to it which then become part of the social heritage of the next generations.

 It is crucial, however, that we develop sociological imagination, espoused by Charles

Wright Mills, where we must analyze the impact of culture to our lives. Henslin (2015)
claimed that culture touches almost every aspect of who and what we are. And because
of that, we already have been accustomed and oriented with our culture (also known as
the “culture within us”) that seldom do we question our assumptions about it. Thus, our
culture remains imperceptible to us (except in unusual situations). We almost always
follow our culture without question. Accordingly, this implies that we must examine our
cultural assumptions and recognize how culture affects our lives.

 Material and Nonmaterial Culture

 There are two interrelated aspects of human culture – the material and nonmaterial
culture. The main differences between the two are presented in the next page.
 Understanding the Self 5

Material Culture Nonmaterial Culture

It refers to the physical objects, resources,
and those things that are created by
humans. These tangible things often
distinguish a group of people and define
their culture.
Examples of material culture include art,
books, furniture, clothing, hairstyles,
jewelries, utensils, tools, weapons,
machines, automobiles, goods and
products, buildings, homes, cities, offices,
schools, churches, synagogues, temples,
mosques, and others.
All of the aformentioned examples are
tangible aspects of culture that help to
define the behaviors and perceptions of its
members.
For instance, the young adults in
Yanomamo society in the Amazon must
know how to build weapons and hunt. In
contrast, American students must know
how to use digital devices to survive in
college and business.
It refers to the intangible or abstract ideas
that people have about their culture. It is
also called as symbolic culture. It refers
to people’s ways of thinking and doing.
Non‐material culture encompasses
beliefs, values, morals, religion,
traditions, customs, norms, rules, mores,
folkways, sanctions, language, gestures,
organizations, social institutions.
When analyzing non‐material culture,
sociologists often refer to various
processes that a culture uses to shape the
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of its
members. Four of the most important
aspects are symbols, language, values,
and norms.
For example, the nonmaterial cultural
concept of religion entails a set of ideas
and beliefs about God, worship, morals,
and ethics. These aspects determine how
members behave and respond to religious
events and issues.

 Characteristics of Culture
 The following are the six (6) basic characteristics of culture which are evident across all
cultures.
1. Culture is learned
• Culture is not biologically inherited but it is acquired. Culture is socially learned
by individuals living in a group or society. But much of learning culture is done
unconsciously. We learn through observing, socializing, and adopting cultures
from our families, peers, school, religion, mass media, and other social institutions.
Yet there are two major processes involved to acquire culture, to wit:

Enculturation Acculturation
 Understanding the Self 6

Enculturation
• It is the process of learning your own
culture. People acquire knowledge,
skills, attitudes, values, language,
traditions, norms, and among others
to enable them to become functioning
members of society. Enculturation is
considered as the process of first-
culture learning.
• The process of enculturation involves
two major aspects - informal (child
training) and formal (education). The
former is carried out by the family
and peers. While the latter is
performed by school and religion.
Acculturation
• It is learning the appropriate behavior
of one's host culture. In simple terms,
it is the process of learning another
culture. Acculturation is described as
the process of second-culture
learning.
• The process of acculturation involves
balancing two cultures while
adapting the prevailing culture where
the individual is in. S/he immerses
him/herself into the new and more
prevalent culture but still holds onto
his/her orginial culture.

2. Culture is shared
• Collective meanings, understandings, and practices are generated when people
share their culture among members of society. People will think and act the same
way because they grew up having the same culture with others. Accordingly, it
enables them to act in socially appropriate manner as well as predict how others
will behave or respond. But despite the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean
that culture is homogenous among individual members. This is because culture
varies individually – meaning, individual members of the group do not all have the
exact same version of their culture. The paragraph below illustrates the complexity
of culture:

There are some things that every person in a culture shares, like a language for
example. And then there are things that some people or some subgroups of people share,
like a certain religion. And then there are things that are individual, that are done by
just one person or maybe a few people. So, culture is shared, but it’s also complicated.

• Adding to this cultural intricacy, there are also subcultures and countercultures
which are different from the mainstream culture.

Subcultures
• These are a group of people within a culture
that have some kind of unique beliefs or
behaviors, but still share things in common with
the mainstream culture. In short, subcultures
are subsets of the mainstream culture.
 Understanding the Self 7

Pluralistic Societies
• Some societies consist many subcultural groups.
These are called pluralistic societies. An
example of this is Canada. The subcultures of
this country can be of different religions,
different ethnicities, and different social classes,
to name a few.

Countercultures
• These are a group of people that deliberately
take on beliefs and behaviors that are the
opposite of the mainstream culture. An
example of this is the punk culture. Members
have bright colored hairs, tattoos, piercings, and
are nonconformist and anti-consumerist.

3. Culture is symbolic
• Culture encompasses a collection of symbolic knowledge that members of society
share. People learn their cultural beliefs and behaviors through symbols. A symbol
is something that stands for something else. However, symbols are arbitrary and
vary across cultures. A symbol does not inherently mean something not unless
when people decide what meaning they would attach on that symbol. Symbols
will only have meaning when people agree on their use.

• For instance, wedding rings symbolize marriage and likewise the traffic lights
where red indicates ‘stop’ and green means ‘go’. Language, money, and art are
also examples of symbols. But language is the most important symbolic element
of culture because it enables culture to spread from one generation to the next.

4. Culture is integrated
• Culture is a complex system that consists of many parts that are interconnected to
each other. This is known as holism where the various parts of culture are
 Understanding the Self 8

• interrelated. Examples of cultural parts include family, education, marriage,

religion, government, economics, technology, medicine, and language. Each part
can affect the others. That is, when one part of the cultural system changes, other
parts also change because everything is interconnected. For instance, in the
previous era, women were homemakers and mothers. But as societies evolve and
progress, women joined the labor force. This change affected some parts of the
culture like family and marriage as well as education where daycare centers were
made available for children to assist working mothers.

5. Culture is adaptive
• Adaptation means how living organisms adjust with their environment. It usually
involves two processes - biological and cultural adaptation. Biological adaptation
consists biological changes that occur over time. For instance, humans have
biologically adapted with their environment - that is, people who live near the
equator tend to have darker complexion as opposed to those who live away from
the equator tend to have lighter skin color. Darker complexion safeguards people
from getting higher amounts of ultraviolet radiation.

• On the other hand, cultural adaption is where culture helps people to adapt in
their environment. For instance, people have to utilize fur coats and sweaters to be
able to survive in cold climates. Culture provided us with insights on how to create
shelters, make clothing, and build fires, so we can be able to adapt and live in cold
temperature areas. Culture helps people adapt in changing environments.
However, some aspects of culture are maladaptive which pose some risks or
threats to people's lives. For example, industries and factories pollute air quality
and thus, affect humans and many living creatures to survive.

• It is also important to note that cultural adaptation is relative. This means to say
that what is adaptive in one culture may not be adaptive in another culture. For
example, people working in advanced societies must be literate, competent, and
have received proper education. But these things are somehow worthless to people
who live in remote areas somewhere in the world, whose livelihood only involved
herding animals.

6. Culture is dynamic

• Cultures are not static but they

change over time as a result of
cultural interactions and exchanges.
Since cultures are integrated, other
parts of the entire cultural system will
also adjust if one component in the
system changes. In other words, all
cultures adapt in the changing
environments. There are many factors
that affect cultural change, to wit:
 Understanding the Self 9

Cultural Diffusion
• Different cultures have already been in contact with other cultures throughout
history. People have always had some contact with other groups enabling the
exchange of ideas and symbols. During these exchanges, people learned from one
another and adopted those which they considered desirable. This process is called
cultural diffusion where people spread ideas, things, and/or behaviors between
cultures. People are most open to changes in their material culture or technology.

• For instance, the traditional outlook of many sub-Saharan African cultures of

beautiful women are those who have larger body size as opposed to thin women
who are less physically attractive. But now, the Western culture of thin women
being more beautiful and attractive has spread across the African cultures.
Accordingly, some African women now adopt this Western notion thus they make
an effort to lose weight.

• It is important to note that cultural diffusion goes in both directions, or it is not a

one-way process. People from different societies participate in the cultural
exchange process. However, they do not share every single aspect of their culture
but only some parts of it. Cultural change is made when a new cultural element is
adopted and modified by people in their own terms.

Cultural Lag
•William Ogburn coined the term cultural lag. He argued that
not all parts of culture change at the same pace. Material culture
typically changes first while the nonmaterial culture lags behind.
For example, a group's nonmaterial culture lags behind
technological innovations specifically, on the use of in vitro
fertilization and stem cells, and the use of technology for
medical diagnosis and treatment. This indicates the cultural gap
between the technical development of society (material culture)
and the moral and legal institutions (nonmaterial culture).

Cultural Leveling
•Different cultures around the world became much more
intertwined and interdependent because of globalization. In the
words of Marshall McLuhan, he described it as a global village FURTHER READINGS:
where time and space becomes increasingly irrelevant. Human Culture
Globalization significantly augmented cultural transmission, https://bit.ly/2T2ml5o
particularly the Western culture, through international trade and
business, travel and tourism, media and internet, and migration. Chapter 2 – Culture (pp. 38-64)
As a result, cultural leveling became evident across different https://bit.ly/3pqfCOL
societies. Cultural leveling is the process where cultures become
Characteristics of Culture
increasingly similar to one another. For example, Japan has not
only adopted capitalism but also the Western forms of music https://bit.ly/34Qbf66
and fashion. With this, it has transformed their culture with a Enculturation and Acculturation
mix of Western and Eastern cultures. https://bit.ly/2Rxk95s
 Understanding the Self 10

George Peter Murdock

 Cultural Universals
 The American anthropologist George Peter Murdock posited the
concept of cultural universals which encompasses the general
customs and practices that exist in all societies. Cultural
universals are the learned behavioral patterns that are collectively
shared by people. People share these universal traits no matter
where they live in the world. Murdock classified cultural
George Murdock
universals into four categories:

Customary
Appearance Activities Social Institutions
Practices
•Body ornaments •Dancing •Family •Cooking
•Hairstyles •Sports •Education •Gift giving
•Games •Religion •Hospitality
•Interactions •Economy •Folklore

 Examples of human cultural traits include the following.

1. Communicating with a verbal language consisting of a limited set of sounds and grammatical
rules for constructing sentences
2. Using age and gender to classify people (e.g. teenager, senior citizen, woman, man)
3. Classifying people based on marriage and descent relationships and having kinship terms to
refer to them (e.g. wife, mother, uncle, cousin)
4. raising children in some sort of family setting
5. having a sexual division of labor (e.g., men's work versus women's work)
6. having a concept of privacy
7. having rules to regulate sexual behavior
8. distinguishing between good and bad behavior
9. having some sort of body ornamentation
10. making jokes and playing games
11. having art
12. having some sort of leadership roles for the implementation of community decisions

 Cultural Particulars
 Although these cultural universals are present in all societies, the extent to which these
general traits are expressed vary from one society to another. In other words, not all
cultural universals are carried out the same way as what other societies do. Different
societies have developed their own specific ways to express these universals. This is what
is called as cultural particulars. For example, all societies engage in child-rearing
practices. In United States, it is primarily the mother who is expected to take care of the
children whereas in New Guinea, however, it is the father who takes the duty. Another
example would be the deaf subcultures who use sign language, instead of the verbal
language, to communicate with others. Sign languages have grammatical rules too just
the same as the verbal language.
 Understanding the Self 11

William Graham Sumner

 Cultural Norms
 The American sociologist William Graham Sumner published the
Folkways: A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners,
Customs, Mores, and Morals in 1906. Sumner was often considered
as one of the founding fathers of American sociology. He was one of
the pioneering modern sociologists who examined sociology using
a scientific inquiry approach and empirical facts. His contributions
William Sumner
initiated the establishment of sociology as a scientific discipline.

 In his book, Sumner created a framework to distinguish the different types of norms.
Social norms consist of wide-ranging implicit and explicit prescriptions that dictate
people’s behaviors in particular situations. These are usually established social
expectations and rules which guide people what to think and believe, how to behave, and
how to interact with others. People learn social norms through their daily interactions
with people and institutions (i.e. family, peers, teachers, media) and in various settings.

 Norms also vary widely across cultural groups. For example, Americans maintain proper
eye contact when communicating with others. In contrast, Asians may avoid doing direct
eye contact when conversing as a sign of respect and courtesy. Moreover, norms can often
change over time. It can be based on subculture and setting. For instance, what is
perceived to be a desirable behavior among a group of friends may be undesirable
behavior in the workplace. Below are the four (4) main types of social norms.

FURTHER READINGS:
Cultural Norms
https://bit.ly/3iqdiWp
Social Norms
https://bit.ly/3pzzq2k
Folkways, Mores, Taboos, and Laws
https://bit.ly/3wXxAuu

Folkways
• Folkways, sometimes known as conventions or customs, are social norms that
emerged out of casual interactions, repetitions, and routines. Folkways are most
often practiced in an unconscious manner, but are fairly useful to regulate people’s
 Understanding the Self 12

• behaviors. Folkways are standards of behaviors that are socially approved but it
lacks moral significance. Thus, when folkways are violated, there are rarely serious
repercussions or sanctions of defiance.

• Examples of folkways include: (a) waiting in line when people have to wait for
their turn to pay for their groceries, or receive items or services; (b) raising one's
hand to take turns to speak during the class discussion; (c) wearing appropriate
dress suited for an occasion; (d) practicing 'civil inattention' to ignore people
politely in public places.

Folkways
• A particular example of violating a folkway in
American societies is belching loudly after eating a
meal at someone else's home. This violation of table
manners may not be subjected with a serious
sanction, however, it is considered as a rude behavior.
Conversely, in China and Taiwan, burping after
eating a meal indicates that people liked and enjoyed
the food well. This example manifests the idea that
culture is relative - that is, not all aspects of the
culture may be true to all. To be concise, folkways
make a distinction between polite and rude
behaviors. This reinforces social pressure and
conformity to behave in socially accepted ways.

Mores
• Mores are norms of morality. Mores are stricter than folkways because it
determines what is moral and ethical and establishes the difference between what
is right and wrong. People hold strong convictions on mores. Thus, mores have
greater coercive power to shape people’s beliefs, values, behaviors, and interactions
compared to folkways. Typically, when mores are violated, it generates social
disapproval and ostracism. Religious doctrines are common forms of mores that
control social behaviors.

• Breaking mores include attending the church naked, and cohabitation or living
together prior to marriage. The latter example is commonly evident among
 Understanding the Self 13

• Filipino couples who are ostracized by the public, including their families and
religious congregations, because of their immoral decision and action. Couples
might be punished by scolding them, threatening them of their eternal judgment
after death, and/or shunning them away from their homes and the church. These
negative consequences are meant to signify that their behaviors are unacceptable,
undesirable, and immoral. Bearing these repercussions in mind create fear among
individuals, which is designed to regulate their behaviors.

Taboos
• A taboo is a social or cultural banning of an action or behavior. It is a very strong
negative norm where a particular society or culture absolutely forbids them.
Taboos are strongly derided by societies despite that these behaviors might not be
illegal or may be punished. People are very unlikely to do the act, but are likely to
judge those who violate taboo. Defying certain behaviors considered as taboo
result to extreme disgust or expulsion from the group or society. The violator is
considered unfit to live in that society.

• Taboos might be taught explicitly or it may be learned based on the values of a

particular culture or society. Every culture has certain behaviors that are regarded
as taboo. Common themes of taboo include food, dress, bodily functions, and
courtship which are sometimes based on religious beliefs. In addition, certain
taboos are translated into law in some societies, but most of it are generally social
prohibitions.

• Taboos vary from one culture to another. What is sometimes regarded as a norm
in one culture may be considered as a taboo to another culture. For instance, eating
pork is a taboo in Muslim culture because pigs are considered unclean. Some
anthropologists have contended that there are few behaviors which are considered
as universal taboos. In most extreme cases, these include incest, cannibalism, and
murder.
 Understanding the Self 14

Laws
• Laws are the “formal body of rules enacted by the state and backed by the power
of the state”. It is formally inscribed by the state and are carried out by law
enforcement authorities and government agencies. Those people who enforce laws
have been given the legal right by the state to regulate people’s actions for the
benefit of the society, in general. Laws are created to contain crimes and
discourage malevolent behaviors that would typically harm or injure others. If laws
are violated, the state authority would impose a sanction which could range from
a light penalty like paying a fine, to a more severe punishment like imprisonment.

Social Control
• People must conform to social norms in order for the
culture to exist and function. Norms must be
internalized and transmitted to members of societies
to produce conformity. Otherwise, defying social
norms necessitate the use of social control or social
sanction mechanisms such as ostracism, penalties,
punishments, and imprisonment. However, many
societies tolerate some deviation of social norms
though, like some aspects of folkways.

Evaluation of Culture
 Ethnocentrism
 Ethnocentrism was coined by William Graham Sumner in his book Folkways in 1906. It
is based on the assumption that one’s own culture is superior to all other cultures. It views
one’s own culture as the best and the only appropriate way to behave and adapt. Small
amounts of ethnocentrism are evident in all societies. There are two effects of
ethnocentrism which can be beneficial and detrimental, to wit:

Ethnocentrism

Positive Ethnocentrism Negative Ethnocentrism

It provides a positive function by It is characterized by a person’s

fostering group solidarity and loyalty. It
helps to create a sense of cultural pride
and it establishes cohesive groups.
Examples of this include flag, national
anthem, songs, school, among others.
In a positive note, ethnocentrism
enables people to be content and
fulfilled with their own cultures.
unwillingness to be tolerant with other
cultures and sees one’s culture as
superior over the others. Accordingly,
negative ethnocentrism can lead to
derogatory stereotyping, conflict,
hostility, war, cultural destruction such
as genocide and colonization, and the
blockage of cultural adaptation.
 Understanding the Self 15

 Cultural Relativism
 The German anthropologist Franz Boas, was also known as the
father of modern anthropology, developed the concept of cultural
relativism. Cultural relativism is the practice of judging the
behaviors and customs of any culture based on its own standards.
Cultures from different societies must be understood in the context
of their own beliefs, values, and standards, rather than viewing it
from the lens of one’s own culture. Practicing cultural relativism
requires being impartial, open-minded, and tolerant to consider Franz Boas
and/or adapt distinct or new cultures.

 However, the problem of cultural relativism is that it may be used to exempt certain
practices that violate basic human rights such as those cultures who practice cannibalism
or female genital mutilation in countries of Ethiopia and Sudan. Thus, these practices still
leave questions and doubts to many, whether to accept these customs as part of a group’s
cultural traditions. This further indicates that generally embracing everything about a
particular culture is not always possible.

 Xenocentrism
 Xenocentrism was coined by American sociologists Donald P. Kent and Robert G.
Burnight in 1951 sourced from their published article, “Group Centrism in Complex
Societies”. Xenocentrism is the opposite of ethnocentrism. It refers to a person’s preference
of other cultures than one’s own. This is so because the person believes that other cultures
are superior than one’s own culture. In view of that, the one’s own culture is perceived as
inferior. For instance, an exchange student who went abroad and later goes back to
his/her home country may find it difficult to associate with the values of his/her own
culture considering he/she has experienced a more decent and better way of living.

Challenges of Culture
 Cultural Degradation
 Cultural degradation is caused by too much exposure of media in
various forms. In social media and television, for example,
influence people’s beliefs, language, traditions, and even their
personalities. Judging beauty, for instance, has a set of standards
that should be manifested by a person. Such include that the face
must be beautiful and flawless, hair must be silky, skin complexion
must be fair and unblemished, and body must be toned and slim.
These criteria are being broadcasted in various media outlets.
Consequently, this transforms people’s beliefs how beauty should
be defined. It affects their personal body image and self-esteem.
People would lack a sense of pride of their own cultural identities.
 Understanding the Self 16

 Cultural Genocide
 A more horrible form of cultural degradation is cultural genocide
or ethnocide. According to Treglia (2016), cultural genocide is
“the attempted destruction of a group's culture, religion, and
identity. It is a coercive act imposed by a dominant group upon a
weaker or minority group.” It aims to eradicate and destroy
cultural artifacts (e.g. books, artworks, structures) and suppress
cultural activities that do not adhere to the dominant culture.
Cultural genocide may be committed due to suppression of
indigenous cultures, religious motives, imperialism and
colonialism. Generally, it is associated with forced religious
conversion and with forced assimilation policies which involve
banning cultural expressions.

 Cultural Assimilation
 Cultural assimilation is the process by which people from
different cultural and ethnic backgrounds are absorbed into the
dominant culture of society. It is the process of taking the traits of
the dominant culture to such extent that the assimilating group
becomes socially identical with other members of society. Cultural
assimilation is also the most extreme form of acculturation. It
occurs when the dominant culture overshadows the inferior or
minority culture, which can eventually misplace the latter’s
cultural identities. Cultural assimilation can be undertaken
voluntarily or by force, but it is rare for a minority group to
completely replace their former cultural practices.

> Forced assimilation is the process of compelling the minority group to assimilate the
dominant culture. It was usually common during the European colonial empires in
the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries to compel indigenous people and other societies to
assimilate colonial practices and policies. However, the downside of this caused an
enduring negative consequences of the recipient culture.

> Voluntary assimilation is usually provoked by a social pressure from the dominant
culture. For example, during the Spanish inquisition in the late 14th and 15th centuries,
many Muslims and Jews countered the religious perecution by willingly converting
themselves to Roman Catholicism. Despite this, they secretly have maintained to
practice their original religions
 Understanding the Self 17

B. Assessment

Instruction: Answer the following questions comprehensively.

1. Is it relevant that you obtain cultural awareness and understanding about your culture and
other cultures too? Explain your answer.

2. Is cultural relativism always feasible in evaluating cultures? Justify your stance and provide
an example.

Scoring Guide: Refer to the point system below to know how your answers will be graded.

1-2. Each item is equivalent to ten (10) points. Below is the rubric.

Points Descriptor Description

10 Excellent Demonstrates complete understanding of the problem.
8 Very Good Demonstrates considerable understanding of the problem.
6 Good Demonstrates partial understanding of the problem.
4 Fair Demonstrates little understanding of the problem.
2 Poor Demonstrates no understanding of the problem.

 The preceding assessment section has a total of 20 points.

 Understanding the Self 18

C. References

 “Acculturation”. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acculturation

 “Chapter 3: A framework for the individual”. (2016). Retrieved from
https://slideplayer.com/slide/10324231
 “Chapter 8: The characteristics of culture”. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://nideffer.net/classes/GCT_RPI_S14/readings/Chap8CharacteristicsofCulture.htm
 “Characteristics of culture”. (2020). Retrieved from https://anthropology4u.com
/characteristics-of-culture/
 “Cultural genocide”. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Cultural_genocide
 “Cultural norms”. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-
guides/sociology/culture-and-societies/cultural-norms
 “Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism”. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-sociology/chapter/ethnocentrism-and-xenocent
ricism/
 “Material and non-material culture”. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/sociology/culture-and-societies/material-and-n
onmaterial-culture
 “Nonmaterial culture: Definition, components & examples”. (2015). Retrieved from
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