Locomotion and

Movement
• Movement – It is one of the
significant feature of living beings.
Examples of movement –
Movement with the help of cilia,
tentacles & flagella

 Locomotion

The movements which result in a change

of place or location those voluntary
movements are called Locomotion.
Examples – Climbing, running, flying,
swimming
Why locomotion is required?
Ans –
Locomotion is required for search of
food,shelter,mate,suitable breeding
grounds, favourable climate conditions
or escapes from enemies/predators

Types of movements
• Cells of human body exhibit three types of
movements –
1. Amoeboid – It is shown by some specialized cells
like macrophages and leucocytes. Its is affected
by Pseudopodia.
2. Ciliary – This type of movement occurs with the
help of cilia in our internal tubular organs which
are lined by ciliated epithelium. Example – in
trachea, in fallopian tube
3. Muscular – This type of movement occurs with
the help of muscles.Locomotion requires a
perfect co-ordinated activity of muscular ,
skeletal and neural systems.

 • Study of muscles – Sarcology

• Origin of muscles – mesoderm except
muscles of iris, ciliary body and
myoepithelial cells.
• Characteristics of muscles – excitability,
contractility and extensibility
• Muscles constitute 40% to 50% of adult body
mass in healthy individuals.

 Types of muscles (based on position/

location)

1. Voluntary muscle or skeletal muscle

2. Visceral muscle or smooth muscle

3. Cardiac muscle










SKELETAL
MUSCLES –

• They are related to the skeletal system hence called as skeletal muscles.
• Transverse lines are found at regular intervals hence these muscles are
known as striped or striated muscles

 Epimysium – It is the
covering of muscles
made up of WFCT
Fasciculi – Many muscle
fibers are combined to
form fasciculi

Perimysium – it is the
covering of Fasciculi

Endomysium – Covering
of single muscle fibre










 • Cylindrical shape
• the plasma membrane of
muscle fibre is called as
sarcolemma or myolemma
(gk - flash sheath)
• cytoplasm is known as
sarcoplasm
• muscle fibre contain
multinucleated sarcoplasm
• nucleus and sarcoplasm are
found in peripheral part and
in the central part parallelly
arranged filaments are
❑ STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE FIBRE present they are called as
myofilaments or myofibrils.



 • Each myofibrils has alternate dark
and light bands on it this type of
appearance is due to the distribution
pattern of two proteins – Actin (thin
filament) and Myosin(thick filament)
• Light band or I-band or Isotropic
band contain Actin.
• Dark band or A-band or Anisotropic
band contain myosin.
• Both Actin and Myosin are arranged
as rod like structures , parallel to
each other
• In the centre of each I-band is an
elastic fibre called Z line is present
• In the centre of each A-band a thin
fibrous membrane is present which is
Myofibrils - called as M line

 • The portion between two successive Z

lines is considered as the structural and
functional unit of contraction and is
called as Sarcomere in voluntary muscle
fibre.
Sarcomere • Sarcomere – 1A band + 2 half I band
• Length of Sarcomere – 2.5 um
• 1 Myosin filament is surrounded by 6
Actin filaments and 1 Actin filament is
surrounded by 3 myosin filaments.

 • Contractile proteins- Actin & Myosin

❑ Actin Protein – Each actin filament is
made up of two F- actins helically wound
to each other. Each F actin is a polymer of
monomeric G(globular) actins.
❑ Myosin Protein – Each myosin is
composed of many monomeric proteins
called Meromyosins. Each meromyosin
has a globular head with a short arm
(HMM) and a tail(LMM). The globular
head is an active ATPase enzyme(enzyme
which uses ATP to produce energy) and
active site for actin.

Structure of Various Proteins

 ❑ Tropomyosin – It is a contractile
protein(fibrous protein) which cover the
active sites of actin in relaxed state.
❑ Troponin – It’s a globular protein which
is attached with one end of the
tropomyosin molecule.
It is made up of 3 subunits –
(a) Troponin I (inhibitory site)
(b) Troponin T (Tropomyosin site)
(c) Troponin C (Calcium binding site)
3. Structural Proteins –
Z- line (Actinin)
M-line (Myomesin)

Regulatory Proteins – Tropomyosin & Troponin



Mechanism of Muscle
Contraction
SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY:
• Given by – A.F. Huxley, H.E. Huxley & J. Hansen
What is neuromuscular junction ?
The junction of neuron and muscle is called as neuromuscular junction.
• Terminal branches of Axons of motor nerve is embedded into sarcolemma.
• Sarcolemma invaginate inside & form a fimbriated structure which is called
Synaptic gutter or subneural cleft.
• The membrane of axon terminal(which contains large number of vesicles and
mitochondria) is known as pre-junctional membrane
• In each vesicle Acetylcholine(neurotransmitter) is present.
• The invaginated sarcolemma is known as post-junctional membrane(contains Ach
receptors)

 Sliding filament theory states that contraction of a muscle fibre takes

place by the sliding of thin filament over thick filaments.

Muscle contraction is initiated by a signal sent by the CNS via a motor

neuron.

Mechanism of The neural signal reaching to the neuromuscular junction releases

Ach from synaptic vesicles to the sub neural cleft. Ach binds with
receptors which are present on the sarcolemma.

muscle
contraction 1 This generates an action potential in sarcolemma.

This spread through the muscle fibre and causes the release of
calcium ions into the sarcoplasm.

Increase in the calcium level leads to the binding of calcium with a

subunit of troponin on actin filaments and there by remove the
masking of active sites for myosin.
 Utilizing the energy from ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head now binds
to the exposed active sites on actin to form a cross bridge or
actomyosin bridge.

This pulls the attached actin filament toward the centre of A band.

Mechanism of The Z line attached to these actins are also pulled inwards thereby
causing a shortening of sarcomere i.e. contraction

muscle
contraction 2 During contraction the I band get reduced and A band remains same.

The myosin releases ADP and P and A new ATP binds and cross bridge
is broken.

The ATP is again hydrolysed by the myosin head and the cycle of cross
bridge formation and breakage is repeated causing further sliding
 The process continues till the calcium ions are
pumped back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum
resulting in the masking of actin filaments.

This causes the return of Z lines back to their

original position i.e. relaxation
Mechanism of
muscle After muscle contraction H-Zone disappears &
length of sarcomere & I band decreases by 20%. The
contraction 3 length of A band remains unchanged.

Role of ATP –

• The rotational movement of myosin head within the groove

• Detachment of myosin head from the actin.

Mechanism of muscle contraction

Video of muscle Contraction
 • What is Myoglobin ?
• The muscle contains a Red coloured oxygen storing pigment
which is called as myoglobin.
Red muscles –
• High myoglobin content
• Rich blood supply
Red Muscles • Contain plenty of mitochondria
• Aerobic muscles
and White White muscles –
• Very low myoglobin content
muscles • Less blood supply
• Contain very few of mitochondria but S.R. amount is high
• Anaerobic muscles

 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RED MUSCLE AND WHITE MUSCLE

Red muscle White muscle

1. Myoglobin content is high so it is 1. Myoglobin content is less so it is
red pale
2. SR is less extensive 2. SR is more extensive
3. Blood vessels are more extensive 3. Blood vessels are less extensive
4. Mitochondria are more in number 4. Mitochondria are less in number
5. Response is slow 5. Response is fast
6. Contraction is less powerful 6. Contraction is more powerful
7. Fatigue occurs slowly 7. Fatigue occurs rapidly
8. Aerobic muscles 8. Anaerobic muscles

 • These are found in visceral organs

so are called as visceral muscles or
smooth muscles.
• Its contraction is not controlled by
will power of animal so it is called
as involuntary muscle.
• Autonomic nerves are connected to
this type of muscle.

INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES

 • It is spindle shaped.
• Cells are connected through gap
junction.
• It contains uninucleated cytoplasm.
Structure of • Contractile fibrils are present in
scattered form in the sarcoplasm.
smooth muscle • Myofilaments(actin and myosin) are not
fibre placed in a highly orderd pattern so
striations are absent.
• Actin is more than myosin.
• Myofibril is functional unit of
contraction

 • SR is not well developed. This

makes the contraction of smooth
muscles strongly dependent on the
ECF calcium.
• Its contraction period is longer ,
due to this reason smooth muscleis
called as Nonfatigue muscle.

Structure of smooth muscle

fibre

 Cardiac muscle
• These are special type of muscles which are present in the heart so
they are known as cardiac muscles.
• On the basis if structure they are striated type of muscle.
• Fibres are branched.
• Many transverse septa are present in the muscle fibre which are
called as intercalated disc(made up of sarcolemma).
• Due to septa fibres are divided into many segments each segment is
uninucleated.
• More mitochondria are found in intercalated disc, provide energy
for muscle contraction.
• Non fatigue type muscle
• Functionally these muscles are involuntary. These muscles are
controlled by pacemaker(SA node, AV node and purkinje fibres.)

THANKS