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Edible films from pectin: Physical-

mechanical and antimicrobial
properties - A review
Roberto Avena
Food Hydrocolloids

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 Food Hydrocolloids xxx (2013) 1e10

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Food Hydrocolloids
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodhyd

Review

Edible films from pectin: Physical-mechanical and antimicrobial

properties - A review
Paula Judith Pérez Espitia a, *, Wen-Xian Du b, Roberto de Jesús Avena-Bustillos b,
Nilda de Fátima Ferreira Soares a, Tara H. McHugh b
a
Food Packaging Laboratory, Food Technology Department, Federal University of Viçosa, Av. P. H. Rolfs s/n, Campus Universitário, Zip code 36570-000,
Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
b
Processed Foods Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 800 Buchanan St., Albany,
CA 94710, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Pectin is one of the main components of the plant cell wall chemically constituted by poly a1e4-
Received 18 March 2013 galacturonic acids. According to its degree of esterification with methanol, pectin can be classified as
Accepted 9 June 2013 high methoxyl pectin or low methoxyl pectin. In food industry, pectin is listed as generally recognized as
safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration and is used as gelling, stabilizing, or thickening agent
Keywords: in food products such as jams, yoghurt drinks, fruity milk drinks, and ice cream. Due to its biodegrad-
Pectin
ability, biocompatibility, edibility, and versatile chemical and physical properties (such as gelation, se-
Biopolymer
lective gas permeability, etc), pectin is a suitable polymeric matrix for the elaboration of edible films
Active packaging
Mechanical resistance
intended as active food packaging. Active packaging is a packaging system which possesses attributes
Structural characterization beyond basic barrier properties that are achieved by adding active ingredients in the packaging material
Antimicrobial activity and/or using functionally active polymers. When the packaging system has antimicrobial activity, the
packaging limits or prevents the microbial growth by extending the lag period and reducing the growth
rate of microorganisms. This review describes the main methods for elaborating pectin edible films,
principal characterization techniques for determining their physical-mechanical properties, and appli-
cations of pectin edible films as antimicrobial food packaging. Finally, legislation and future trends
regarding the use of pectin edible films are also discussed.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2. Pectin as polymeric matrix for elaboration of edible film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.1. Pectin edible film elaboration by casting method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.2. Pectin edible film elaboration by extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.3. Pectin edible film elaboration by spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.4. Pectin edible film elaboration by knife-coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3. Methods for improving the properties of pectin edible films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.1. Plasticizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2. Emulsifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4. Physical-mechanical characterization of pectin edible films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5. Pectin films as antimicrobial food packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6. Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
7. Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
8. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ55 31 38991796.

E-mail addresses: perez.espitia@gmail.com, espitia.paula@gmail.com (P.J.P. Espitia).

0268-005X/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.06.005

Please cite this article in press as: Espitia, P. J. P., et al., Edible films from pectin: Physical-mechanical and antimicrobial properties - A review,
Food Hydrocolloids (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.06.005
2 P.J.P. Espitia et al. / Food Hydrocolloids xxx (2013) 1e10

Source(s) of support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

1. Introduction extraction are apple pomace and citrus peels (Videcoq, Garnier,
Robert, & Bonnin, 2011).
The current global market has experienced an increasing con- Chemically, pectin is poly a1e4-galacturonic acids (Fig. 1a), with
sumer demand for more natural foods meeting the criteria of high varying degree of methylation of carboxylic acid residues and/or
quality and safety. This has lead companies and researchers to amidated polygalacturonic acids (Fig. 1b) (Mishra, Banthia, &
explore different ways to improve their productivity in terms of Majeed, 2012; White, Katona, & Zodda, 1999).
maintaining quality, freshness, and food safety, such as using sus- Methoxylated carboxyl groups are obtained by esterification
tainable materials in food packaging (Mahalik & Nambiar, 2010). with methanol of carboxyl groups of galacturonic acid. On the other
Moreover, edible film research has undergone rapid expansion in hand, amidated carboxyl group are obtained when some of the
the past twenty years, due to increased consumer interest in health, galacturonic acid are converted with ammonia to carboxylic acid
nutrition, food safety, and environmental issues. World production amide.
of plastic resins increased around 25-fold, while less than 5% of all According to the degree of esterification (DE) with methanol,
plastics were recycled, leading to a rapid accumulation of plastics in which is the ratio of esterified galacturonic acid groups to total
the environment (Sutherland et al., 2010). In the United States galacturonic acid groups (Farris, Schaich, Liu, Piergiovanni, & Yam,
alone, the increased plastic production resulted in 31 million tons 2009; Sila et al., 2009), pectin can be classified as high methoxyl
of plastic waste in 2010, representing 12.4% of total Municipal Solid pectin (HMP) or low methoxyl pectin (LMP). HMP has over 50% of
Wastedmore commonly known as trash or garbage (EPA, 2011). their carboxyl groups esterified (DE > 50), while LMP have a
Food wraps account for million tons of waste in landfills every year, DE < 50. Their DE affects gelling properties of pectins. In this way,
putting a serious burden on the environment. As a result, research LMP forms gel in presence of multivalent ions, which acts as a
works related to the use of biopolymers has emerged as an alter- bridge between pairs of carboxyl groups of different pectin chains.
native, due to their biodegradability. Biopolymers have been On the other hand, HMP forms gel in acidic media with the addition
studied regarding their film-forming properties to produce edible of different sugars such as sucrose or glucose (Mishra et al., 2012;
films intended as food packaging (Azeredo et al., 2009). Videcoq et al., 2011).
Structuring biopolymers, such as polysaccharides, proteins, and Different intermolecular interactions are involved in the gela-
lipids have been used for the formulation of edible films. Recent tion of pectins. The gelation of LMP involves electrostatic in-
reviews have focused on edible films based on lipids (Debeaufort & teractions between the cations and the negative charged cavities
Voilley, 2009), protein (Ramos, Fernandes, Silva, Pintado, & Malcata, formed by polymer chains, where the cations are inserted. This is
2011) and on polysaccharides such as chitosan (Dutta, Tripathi, known as the egg box model (Fig. 2) and this process is similar to
Mehrotra, & Dutta, 2009), hemicelluloses (Hansen & Plackett, the gelation of alginates. Moreover, egg-boxes formed between two
2008) and starch (Jiménez, Fabra, Talens, & Chiralt, 2012). More-
over, extensive publications have presented very well and wide
reviews regarding the development and application of edible films
(Cagri, Ustunol, & Ryser, 2004; Campos, Gerschenson, & Flores,
2011; Falguera, Quintero, Jiménez, Muñoz, & Ibarz, 2011;
Gennadios, Hanna, & Kurth, 1997; Guilbert, Gontard, & Cuq, 1995;
Janjarasskul & Krochta, 2010). However, to the best of our knowl-
edge literature related to pectin-based edible films is quite scarce
and there is no review article solely devoted on pectin-based edible
films so far in the literature.
Thus, this review highlights specifically the development of
edible films made from pectin and the characterization of these
films. Antimicrobial activity, their application on food preservation,
and related legislation of pectin edible films are also discussed.
Finally, future trends regarding the use of pectin edible films are
presented.

2. Pectin as polymeric matrix for elaboration of edible film

An edible film is defined as a packaging material, which is a thin

layer of edible material placed on or between food components
(McHugh, 2000). Different structural materials have been used in
edible film elaboration, such as proteins, lipids and polysaccharides.
Polysaccharides include cellulose, chitosan, starch and pectin.
Pectin is one of the main components of the plant cell wall,
contributing to tissue integrity and rigidity and it is considered one Fig. 1. Chemical structure of polygalacturonic acid (a) and representative chemical
of the most complex macromolecules in nature (Jolie, Duvetter, Van structure of pectin showing typical repeating groups (b). With permission from White
Loey, & Hendrickx, 2010). The main industrial sources for pectin et al. (1999).

Please cite this article in press as: Espitia, P. J. P., et al., Edible films from pectin: Physical-mechanical and antimicrobial properties - A review,
Food Hydrocolloids (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.06.005
 P.J.P. Espitia et al. / Food Hydrocolloids xxx (2013) 1e10
Fig. 2. Representation of the “Egg Box” model. Polygalacturonic acid chains are rep-
resented by black lines, calcium ions and carboxyl groups by circles. With permission
from Fraeye et al. (2010).
neighboring chains are stabilized by Van der Waals interactions and
hydrogen bonds in addition to electrostatic interactions (Fraeye,
Duvetter, Doungla, Van Loey, & Hendrickx, 2010).
On the other hand, the gelation of HMP takes place in conditions
where electrostatic repulsions and water activity are reduced, in
the presence of co-solutes at low pH. The cross-linking results from
the formation of polymeric chain aggregates of varying sizes
(Alonso-Mougán, Meijide, Jover, Rodríguez-Nuñez, & Vázquez-Tato,
2002).
In addition, treatment with ammonia generates amidated low
methoxyl pectin (ALMP) (Jug, Kosalec, Maestrelli, & Mura, 2012).
ALMP needs less calcium to gel than the non-amidated LMP, they
are less sensitive to precipitation by high amounts of calcium, and
their gels are thermoreversible (Tho, Arne Sande, & Kleinebudde,
2005). ALMP are more tolerant to pH variations and fluctuation in
calcium levels than conventional pectins, characteristics that made
them useful in colonic delivery systems (Munjeri, Collett, & Fell,
1997; Wakerly, Fell, Attwood, & Parkins, 1997).
Three major pectic polysaccharides have been structurally well-
characterized: homogalacturonan (HGA), rhamnogalacturonan I
Fig. 3. Hairy and smooth regions of pectin. With permission from Yadav et al. (2009).
Please cite this article in press as: Espitia, P. J. P., et al., Edible films from pectin: Physical-mechanical and antimicrobial properties - A review,
Food Hydrocolloids (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.06.005
3
and rhamnogalacturonan II (RG I and RG II) (Willats, McCartney,
Mackie, & Knox, 2001). HGA represents the backbone chain of the
pectin molecule, which contains a-1,4-linked residues of D-gal-
acturonic acid and constitutes the smooth region (Fig. 3). RG I is
located in the highly branched area containing large number of side
chains of a-1,2-linked residues of L-rahmnopyranose whereas the
more complex RG II structure has been identified in the primary cell
wall of some plants, both constitute the hairy region of pectin
(Yadav, Yadav, Yadav, & Yadav, 2009).
Moreover, pectin is an ingredient used in food industry with no
limitation other than current good manufacturing practice, is
considered as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the FDA (FDA,
2013b) and it has been used in food mainly as gelling, stabilizing, or
thickening agent in products such as jams, yoghurt drinks, fruity
milk drinks, and ice cream (Laurent & Boulenguer, 2003). Produc-
tion of edible films from pectin can be accomplished by various
methods such as casting, extrusion, spraying, and knife-coating.
2.1. Pectin edible film elaboration by casting method
Casting method consists basically in spreading a prepared film-
forming solution onto a flat and nonstick surface, followed by
removal of the formed film, previously dried. In general, solvents
used for edible films production include water, ethanol, or a com-
bination of both (Campos et al., 2011), with water being the solvent
primarily used in the elaboration of pectin edible films.
Another important component in the elaboration of pectin-
based edible film is the plasticizer. The plasticizer is generally a
small molecule of low volatility that, when added to polymeric
materials, modifies their three-dimensional organization, de-
creases attractive intermolecular forces, and increases free volume
and chain mobility. These changes in molecular organization
caused by the plasticizer results in increased extensibility,
dispensability, and flexibility of the developed film while at the
same time cohesion and rigidity of the film are decreased
(Kokoszka, Debeaufort, Hambleton, Lenart, & Voilley, 2010). Food-
grade plasticizers include glycerol and sorbitol, with glycerol be-
ing the most popular plasticizer used in film-making techniques,
due to stability and compatibility with hydrophilic biopolymeric
packaging chain (Chillo et al., 2008).
The commercial name of glycerol, glycerin, applies to purified
products containing 95% or more of glycerol. Glycerin has various
grades of uses in the United States and in Europe; however, the
4 P.J.P. Espitia et al. / Food Hydrocolloids xxx (2013) 1e10
desirable grade for food applications and edible film elaboration is
the USP glycerin. The designation USP is an abbreviation of U.S.
Pharmacopeia and means that the glycerin designated meets or
exceeds the standards established in the U.S. Pharmacopeia. USP
glycerin is a clear, almost colorless product of high purity of glycerin
with taste and odor characteristics desirable for pharmaceutical
and food purposes (SDA, 1990). Also, glycerin is considered by the
FDA as a multiple purpose GRAS food substance (FDA, 2013a).
Casting method for pectin-based edible films elaboration can be
sub-classified in two methods: by solution casting process (in
batches) or by a continuous casting method. In both methods a
film-forming solution is prepared by mixing pectin with the sol-
vent, plasticizer and other ingredients. However, both methods
differ in the volume scales at which films are prepared, as well as
drying time necessary to obtain edible films.
The method of casting process is commonly used to elaborate
edible films at laboratory scale. In this method, drying conditions
can vary from 12 min with hot air to 12 h at room temperature (Du,
Avena Bustillos, Hua, & McHugh, 2011). This process is also known
as batch casting.
Moreover, the continuous casting method is mainly used at in-
dustrial scale. Previous work have indicated the use of a Mathis
Labcoater unit (Werner Mathis AG, Zürich, Switzerland) to produce
edible films from pectin and apple puree by using the continuous
casting method (Du et al., 2008a). According to the authors, the
continuous casting unit was set spreading 41 mil (1 mil ¼ 0.001 in.)
thickness apple solution on a Mylar sheet conveyor moving at
0.11 m/min. The casted edible film was first partially dried by an
infrared heater adjusted to 0 and 90% energy emission at the bot-
tom and top, respectively. The convective heating stage was
controlled at 132  C and 1500 m/min air velocity.
The continuous casting method is considerable more practical
due to reductions in drying times, usually takes few minutes, which
enable the rapid formation of films without any microbial
contamination from surrounding ambient (Du et al., 2011).
2.2. Pectin edible film elaboration by extrusion
Extrusion is used for the production of conventional commercial
plastic packaging. This process uses one or two rotating screws
fitted in a barrel in order to progressively increase the pressure and
push forward and mix the ingredients required to manufacture the
commercial polymer through a die where expansion may take
place (Nur Hanani, Beatty, Roos, Morris, & Kerry, 2012). Extrusion is
often preferred to casting as the method of fabricating films
because the throughput of the process is faster and less energy is
required for the removal of water (Fishman, Coffin, Konstance, &
Onwulata, 2000).
The successful application of extrusion depends upon the main
variables that should be controlled during the extrusion process.
These variables include food polymer selection, liquid feed rates,
screw configuration, screw speed, zone temperatures, product
inlet/outlet pressures (and their differentials), as well as die
configuration (Liu, Kerry, & Kerry, 2005).
Although extrusion is a promising approach for the elaboration
of edible films, there are a limited number of studies related to the
use of this technology on pectin edible film elaboration. Probably,
this is due to the behavior and chemical interaction of food in-
gredients during extrusion, which is difficult to understand along
with many processing variables that need to be controlled.
In this way, Fishman et al. (2000) used extrusion for the
development of edible films from pectin/starch blends plasticized
with glycerol. They used a twin screw extruder provided with nine
heating zone. As a result, the authors observed that extruded edible
films have microstructure and thermal dynamic mechanical
Please cite this article in press as: Espitia, P. J. P., et al., Edible films from pectin: Physical-mechanical and antimicrobial properties - A review,
Food Hydrocolloids (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.06.005
properties comparable to those obtained by casting from solutions
containing the same materials. In similar conditions, pectin films
were developed with various combinations of orange albedo and
starch (Fishman, Coffin, Onwulata, & Konstance, 2004). Moreover,
films from pectin, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVOH) and starch blends
were elaborated using two stage extrusion process (Fishman,
Coffin, Onwulata, & Willett, 2006). The first stage extrusion was
done in a twin screw extruder in order to pelletize all film-forming
ingredients. In the second stage, the pelletized ingredients were
extruded both as flat sheet and as blown film using a single screw
extruder, with a screw speed of 20 rpm for the film blowing, and
30 rpm for the sheet extrusion. Results showed that pectin, starch
and PVOH plasticized with glycerol can be successfully extruded in
a two stage process using both a twin screw extruder and a single
screw extruder to form strong extruded sheets with a thickness of
0.4 mm or less, and blown into films with thicknesses of less than
0.15 mm.
In addition, Liu et al. (2005) studied the optimal conditions of
extrusion parameters for the elaboration of edible packaging films
derived from food-based polymers. The experiment was done in a
twin screw extruder with a cylindrical die (Fig. 4), which resulted in
the formation of a hollow continuous casing. The authors indicated
that optimal conditions for pectin films were temperatures at
extruder zone 3 and zone 4 at 125  C and 110  C, respectively. Also,
the feeder speed was optimal at 18.49 g/min, with 50% of glycerol
concentration and screw speed of 225 rpm. These conditions were
determined according to the assessment of film physical-
mechanical properties, such as tensile strength, elongation, punc-
ture resistance, color, Young’s modulus, tear resistance, turbidity
and thickness (Liu et al., 2005).
Further studies used these parameters to develop edible casings
for breakfast pork sausage (Liu, Kerry, & Kerry, 2007). Casings from
pectin and incorporated with 2.5% corn oil and 5% olive oil were
compared with gelatin/sodium alginate blends with same con-
centration of corn oil and olive oil. Sensory analysis of sausages
showed that pectin casings were more preferred than gelatin/so-
dium alginate blend casing for sausage manufacture. This result
was coherent with results of color analysis. However, water losses
from sausages using pectin casings were higher than those using
gelatin/sodium alginate blend casing, probably due to the fact that
gelatin/sodium alginate blend casing have higher ability to trap and
absorb water compared to pectin casings.
In general, edible films do not pretend to replace traditional
packaging materials (Campos et al., 2011). Instead, they are devel-
oped to be used as carrier for additive with specific function over
the contained food, such as anti-browning, antimicrobial agents,
texture enhancers, nutrients, probiotics and flavors, among others,
so they can provide an additional stress factor to be applied for the
maintenance of food quality and preservation.
Fig. 4. Configuration of extrusion die used in the extrusion of pectin films. With
permission from Liu et al. (2005).
 P.J.P. Espitia et al. / Food Hydrocolloids xxx (2013) 1e10
2.3. Pectin edible film elaboration by spraying
Spraying is a wet processing, where polymers are dispersed or
solubilized into a liquid phase, cast and dried (Talja, 2007). In the
spraying process a film forming solution is sprayed onto the
product surface or a support material, such as a non-sticky surface,
on which droplets formed by a sprayer form uniform films. In
spraying, solvent evaporates to some extent after leaving the nozzle
of the sprayer allowing a shorter drying time for film coating.
Recently, Jindal, Kumar, Rana, and Tiwary (2013) extracted
pectin from Bael fruit (Aegle marmelos) and used this method for
the development of pectinechitosan cross-linked films. They used
a spray gun (1 mm nozzle) with the help of peristaltic pump using a
non-sticky surface of a rotating drum with hot air blown at 50  C for
solvent evaporation. The authors observed that film-forming so-
lution of Aegle marmelos pectin (AP) alone did not produce any film,
whereas, the films formed by using chitosan (CH) alone were brittle
and hard. On the other hand, they observed that 30:70, 40:60,
50:50, 60:40 and 70:30 ratios of CH:AP yielded acceptable films,
which were subjected to evaluation of physical-mechanical and
electrical properties.
2.4. Pectin edible film elaboration by knife-coating
Casting is a simple method to produce films, but has the
disadvantage of being a batch procedure only used for the pro-
duction of films in a very small-scale. Knife-coating process is a
continuous industrial film making procedure (Larotonda, 2007).
In this method, knifes spread a precise layer of solution onto a
surface moving under the knife. Micrometer adjustments are pro-
vided to adjust height of the knife above the surface to increase/
decrease the film thickness. This process is known as knife-over-
roll coating (Rossman, 2009).
This method allows an effective control of the thickness and
application speed over a suitable support that can be chosen for
each biopolymer solution used. The important advantage of films
produced by knife coating results from their improved uniformity
due to a strict thickness control, leading to a better property
reproducibility, mainly in the tensile tests. Another advantage of
the films produced by knife coating is that this method uses a de-
vice simple to operate with little maintenance required. Also, there
is an important reduction of drying time from 24 to 48 h, for casting
method, to just 2 h. Thus, knife coating is a good method to produce
films in a large scale.
3. Methods for improving the properties of pectin edible
films
Numerous studies have been carried out to improve the prop-
erties of pectin edible films by incorporating functional ingredients,
such as plasticizers (for improving mechanical properties) or
emulsifiers (for increasing stability and better adhesion), into the
pectin matrix.
3.1. Plasticizers
Plasticizers, such as glycerol, acetylated monoglycerides, poly-
ethylene glycol, and sucrose are often used to modify the me-
chanical properties of the film. Incorporation of these additives
may cause significant changes in the barrier properties of films.
A plasticizer, in most cases, is required for making edible films,
especially for polysaccharide- and protein-based films since the
structure of these is often brittle and stiff due to extensive in-
teractions between polymer molecules (Gennadios, 2004; Krochta,
2002). Plasticizers are added to polymers to reduce brittleness.
Please cite this article in press as: Espitia, P. J. P., et al., Edible films from pectin: Physical-mechanical and antimicrobial properties - A review,
Food Hydrocolloids (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.06.005
5
They decrease intermolecular forces between polymer chains, thus
increasing flexibility and extendibility. Generally, plasticizers act by
entering between polymeric molecular chains, physical-chemically
associating with the polymer, reducing cohesion within the film
network, and effectively extending and softening the film structure
(Arnold, 1968; Banker, 1966; Guilbert & Gontard, 1995). Examples of
food-grade plasticizers incorporated into edible films are polyols
(e.g., glycerol, sorbitol, and polyethylene glycol), sugars (e.g.,
glucose and honey), and lipids (e.g., monoglycerides, phospho-
lipids, and surfactants). Commonly used plasticizers are liquid
organic compounds such as polyols, mono/di/oligosaccharides,
lipids, and lipid derivatives (Padua & Wang, 2002; Reiners, Wall, &
Inglett, 1973).
Glycerol, acetylated monoglycerides, polyethylene glycol, and
sucrose are some of the most common plasticizers incorporated
into the polymeric matrix to decrease glass transition temperature
and increase film flexibility (Guilbert and Gontard, 1995). Plasti-
cizers are usually hygroscopic and attract water molecules. Water
can also function as plasticizer, but it is easily lost due to dehy-
dration in low relative humidity environments (Guilbert and
Gontard, 1995). In addition to improving mechanical properties,
plasticizers also affect the resistance of films to the permeation of
vapors and gases (Sothornvit & Krochta, 2000, 2001), where hy-
drophilic plasticizers usually increase the water vapor permeability
of film. Unfortunately, plasticizers generally also decrease the
ability of films to act as barriers to the transport of moisture, gases,
and aroma compounds (Krochta, 2002).
3.2. Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers are surface-active compounds with both polar and
non-polar molecular structures, which absorb at the water-lipid or
watereair interface reducing surface tension (Krochta, 2002; Lin &
Zhao, 2007). Polysaccharides are polymeric and hydrophilic in na-
ture, thus they possess excellent oxygen, aroma, and lipid barriers
at low relative humidity. However, they are poor moisture barriers
compared to synthetic films such as low-density polyethylene.
On the other hand, lipids are hydrophobic with better moisture-
barrier properties than those of polysaccharides. However, their
non-polymeric nature limits their cohesive film-forming capacity.
As a result polysaccharide-lipid composite films have been devel-
oped, in which the polysaccharide provides the film integrity and
entraps the lipid component, and the lipid component imparts the
moisture-barrier property (Krochta, 1997). Without the presence of
an effective emulsifier the lipid often separates from the poly-
saccharide film.
Composite film can be categorized as bilayer or stable emulsion.
For bilayer composite films, lipid generally forms an additional
layer over the polysaccharide layer, while the lipid in the emulsion
composite films is dispersed and entrapped in the polysaccharide
matrix. Emulsified films improve moisture barrier properties and
can be manufactured in a single step in contrast to a layer-by-layer
process for multilayer films (Hambleton, Fabra, Debeaufort, Dury-
Brun, & Voilley, 2009). Polysaccharides stabilize emulsions by
strongly attaching to the surface of the lipid and significantly pro-
truding into the continuous phase to form a polymeric layer or a
network of appreciable thickness (Callegarin, Quezada Gallo,
Debeaufort, & Voilley, 1997).
To produce polysaccharide-lipid composite films from aqueous
solution, it is often necessary to add an emulsifier to allow
dispersion of the hydrophobic lipid material in the solution to
improve emulsion stability and increase the particle distribution in
emulsion composite edible films (Debeaufort & Voilley, 1995). Se-
lection of emulsifiers for formulation of composite films can be
facilitated using the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance and phase
6 P.J.P. Espitia et al. / Food Hydrocolloids xxx (2013) 1e10
inversion temperature criteria (Hernandez, 1994; McClements,
2005).
The barrier and mechanical properties of the composite films
are affected by the composition and distribution of the hydrophobic
substances in the film matrix (Debeaufort, Martin-Polo, & Voilley,
1993; Kamper & Fennema, 1985). In general, bilayer films are more
effective water vapor barrier than emulsion films due to the exis-
tence of a continuous hydrophobic phase in the matrix, and their
moisture-barrier property can be improved by increasing the de-
gree of lipid saturation and chain length of fatty acids (Hagenmaier
& Shaw, 1990; Kamper & Fennema, 1984a, 1984b). For emulsion
composite films, the type of lipid, location, volume fraction, poly-
morphic phase, and drying conditions significantly impact
moisture-barrier property (Gontard, Duchez, Cuq, & Guilbert, 1994).
4. Physical-mechanical characterization of pectin edible films
Characterization of active packaging involves two processes,
which are the structural analysis of the packaging materials and
measurement of their properties. Structural analysis is carried out
using a variety of microscopic and spectroscopic techniques, while
property characterization is more diverse and depends on the in-
dividual application (Espitia et al., 2012).
Some of the techniques used in the structural analysis of pectin
edible films are scanning electron microscopy (SEM), confocal laser
scanning microscopy (CLSM), wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD)
and small- angle X-ray scattering (SAXS).
Microscopic techniques have been widely used to evaluate
morphological changes in the surface of pectin edible films.
Bierhalz, Da Silva, and Kieckbusch (2012) used SEM to study the
effect of nantamycin in composites of alginate/pectin films for food
packaging applications. These authors observed that control films
presented a homogeneous structure. On the other hand, nanta-
mycin incorporation caused dramatic changes on film surface, with
the presence of nantamycin crystals. This may be due to the low
solubility of natamycin in the film-forming solution, leading to the
formation of a second phase during film drying.
SEM technique has also been used by Giancone et al. (2011), who
studied the effect of surface density on the surface of high methoxyl
pectin edible films. They observed that pectin films presented
heterogeneous structure as a result of pectin clusters; however,
differences in surface density have no effect on film microstructure.
Moreover, Jin, Liu, Zhang, and Hicks (2009) used the CLSM tech-
nique to study the surface of pectin and polylactic acid (PLA)
composite films incorporated with nisin. This technique allows
obtaining high-resolution optical images with depth selectivity.
The key feature of this technique is the ability to acquire three-
dimensional reconstructions of topologically complex objects. Ac-
cording to Jin, Liu, Zhang, et al. (2009) CLSM revealed a relatively
rough morphology of pectin/PLA films. The film rough morphology
was related to nisin activity in composite films, since the access and
sorption of nisin was facilitated by the rough and hydrophilic na-
ture caused by pectin. This indicated that pectin in developed
composite films played an important role in embedding nisin
during the diffusion coating process.
Moreover, X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques, such as WAXD
and SAXS, use the scattered intensity of an X-ray beam on the
sample, revealing information about the crystallographic structure,
chemical composition and physical properties of the material
studied (Koo, 2006). Gohil (2011) studied the crystallographic
structure of low methoxyl pectin and sodium alginate films treated
with CaCl2 using WAXD and SAXS. The authors observed that so-
dium alginate is amorphous while pectin has low crystallinity; thus
crystalline character of blended films increases with pectin content.
Furthermore, treatment with CaCl2 results in the formation of
Please cite this article in press as: Espitia, P. J. P., et al., Edible films from pectin: Physical-mechanical and antimicrobial properties - A review,
Food Hydrocolloids (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.06.005
amorphous tie points due to the interaction of Ca2þ with acidic
groups, which forms a complex with sodium alginate and pectin.
This complex, known as “Egg Box” model results in non-crystalline
physical crosslinks in the molecular network.
In addition to the analysis of structural changes on pectin edible
films, the study of their performance is important as well. The study
of packaging performance, such as mechanical and barrier prop-
erties, and how it is related to the primary functions of food
packaging, including physical integrity have become increasingly
relevant and more frequently studied.
Chambi and Grosso (2011) proposed to mimic biological struc-
tures such as the cell wall of plant tissues as an alternative to obtain
biodegradable films with improved mechanical resistance. Biode-
gradable films were elaborated using methylcellulose, gluco-
mannan, pectin, and gelatin mixture. The mechanical properties of
developed films were determined according to the ASTM D882 and
they observed that the film with the best mechanical performance
(72.63 MPa tensile strength and 9.85% elongation) was obtained
from methylcellulose-glucomannan-pectin at 1:4:1 ratio.
The effect of cellulose nanofibers (CNF) on mechanical resistance
of edible films based on pectin and mango puree have been studied
(Azeredo et al., 2009). This study indicated that CNF were effective in
increasing tensile strength, and its effect on Young’s modulus was
even more noticeable at increasing CNF concentrations, suggesting
the formation of a fibrillar network within the matrix.
In addition, the effect of antimicrobial incorporation on me-
chanical properties of edible films, based on pectin and fruit puree,
has been also studied. Du et al. (2009a) studied the effects of allspice,
cinnamon, and clove bud essential oils on physical properties of
edible films based on apple puree and pectin. They observed that the
incorporation of essential oils caused a significant reduction
(p < 0.05) in tensile strength and elastic modulus of the developed
edible films, and this effect was more pronounced in films con-
taining clove bud oil, which displayed lower tensile strength and
elastic modulus values than films with allspice and cinnamon
essential oils. Moreover, mechanical resistance of edible films made
from apple puree and high methoxyl pectin incorporated with apple
skin polyphenols was studied (Du, Olsen, Avena-Bustillos, Friedman,
& McHugh, 2011). According to the authors, the tensile strength and
percent elongation of developed films did not significantly change
when apple skin polyphenol concentration increased from 0% to 3%.
However, incorporation of apple skin polyphenols caused a signifi-
cant increase (p < 0.05) in tensile strength, elastic modulus, and
elongation of the resulting apple films when the concentration of
apple skin polyphenols increased from 4.5% to 6%.
Other emerging characterization technique, such as thermog-
ravimetry, has been used. Thermogravimetry allows knowing the
thermal resistance of packaging materials, due to the determination
of weight variation of studied material (loss or gain) as a function of
temperature and/or time, while the sample is subjected to a
controlled temperature increase. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
enables to know the temperature range at which the packaging
material starts to decompose. In this way, Giancone et al. (2011)
studied the thermal stability of high methoxyl pectin edible films
with different surface densities by means of TGA. TGA curves of
developed films presented twoestep behavior: the first step, be-
tween 30  C and 150  C, due to water loss; the second step was above
250  C, caused by thermal degradation of samples. Regarding to the
difference in surface density, no effect was observed (p > 0.05),
indicating no difference in the structure of evaluated samples.
5. Pectin films as antimicrobial food packaging
In general, one of the most important aspects of edible films is
their ability to carry and release a variety of active compounds,
 P.J.P. Espitia et al. / Food Hydrocolloids xxx (2013) 1e10
including antioxidants, flavorings, antibrowning and antimicrobial
compounds, among others (Falguera et al., 2011). Most active
compounds incorporated in pectin edible films are antimicrobials.
Pectin edible films have been incorporated with several antimi-
crobial substances in order to obtain antimicrobial active packaging
that contributes to extend product shelf life and reduce the risk of
pathogen growth on food surfaces. Antimicrobial active packaging
is a type of packaging that alters conditions surrounding the food to
maintain product quality by the controlled diffusion of one or more
antimicrobial agents from the packaging material to the product
(Cagri et al., 2004). The main advantage of antimicrobial edible
films is that they target post-processing foodborne pathogens or
spoilage microorganisms on food surfaces by the diffusion of the
antimicrobial into the food product without increasing excessively
the global concentration of the additive in the food (Campos et al.,
2011).
Antimicrobial compounds incorporated into pectin edible films
are from natural sources. Selected antimicrobials are generally
recognized as safe (GRAS) compounds which satisfy consumer
demands for healthy foods and free of chemical additives. Anti-
microbials with these characteristics include bacteriocins, essential
oils and polyphenols.
Bacteriocins are an interesting alternative to the use of tradi-
tional chemical preservatives for the control of foodborne patho-
gens or spoilage bacteria. Bacteriocins are antimicrobial peptides,
ribosomally synthesized by bacteria and have the ability to kill
closely related bacteria. However, the bacterium that secretes the
peptide is immune to the produced bacteriocin (Cleveland,
Montville, Nes, & Chikindas, 2001). Nisin is the most studied
bacteriocin, currently considered as the only bacteriocin licensed as
GRAS food additive and is commercially used as natural preserva-
tive (Acuña, Morero, & Bellomio, 2011). Nisin is also widely
accepted as a food preservative in the European Community where
it is classified as a safe preservative for food contact, coded as E 234
(FSA, 2010), as well as in Brazil where the use of nisin is permitted
by Brazilian law as a natural preservative for biological products
(ANVISA, 1996).
The antimicrobial activity of pectin edible films incorporated
with nisin and its combination with treatment of ionizing radi-
ation was used to control Listeria monocytogenes on a ready-to-
eat (RTE) turkey meat (Jin, Liu, Sommers, Boyd, & Zhang, 2009).
Results showed that treatment of pectin films with nisin and
without irradiation reduced L. monocytogenes by 1.76 log CFU/
cm2. Moreover, the combination of irradiation with pectin film
containing nisin resulted in a 3.95 log CFU/cm2 reduction at
1 kGy and a 5.35 log CFU/cm2 reduction at 2 kGy; indicating a
synergistic effect on Listeria viability on the surface of RTE turkey
meat.
Moreover, pectin-PLA composite films incorporated with nisin
were tested against L. monocytogenes (Jin, Liu, Zhang, et al., 2009).
Developed composite films were tested in three different media,
brain heart infusion (BHI) broth, orange juice and liquid egg white.
Results showed that L. monocytogenes was reduced by 2.1, 4.5 and
3.7 log CFU/mL in BHI broth, liquid egg white and orange juice,
respectively by composite films containing nisin.
Furthermore, pectin edible films have been used as carriers of
plant essential oils. Essential oils are natural flavoring substances
with GRAS status (López, Sánchez, Batlle, & Nerín, 2007). Their
biological effects, including antibacterial and antifungal activity, as
well as pharmaceutical and therapeutic potentials, have been well
documented (Bakkali, Averbeck, Averbeck, & Idaomar, 2008; Burt,
2004; Edris, 2007).
Edible films based on pectin and apple puree were incorporated
with oregano, cinnamon or lemongrass essential oils (Rojas-Graü
et al., 2006). Developed edible films presented antimicrobial
Please cite this article in press as: Espitia, P. J. P., et al., Edible films from pectin: Physical-mechanical and antimicrobial properties - A review,
Food Hydrocolloids (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.06.005
7
activity against Escherichia coli, with oregano edible film being the
most effective against tested microorganism. Moreover, the anti-
microbial activity was the highest for edible films with oregano,
intermediary for the films with lemongrass oil and the lowest for
the films with cinnamon oil. Similarly, Du et al. (2009b) tested the
antimicrobial activity of three different essential oils incorporated
in edible films. They incorporated allspice, garlic or oregano
essential oils in edible films based on pectin and tomato puree and
tested their antimicrobial activity against E. coli, Salmonella enterica
and L. monocytogenes. The results indicated that developed edible
films presented antimicrobial activity against tested pathogens.
Likewise, edible film incorporated with oregano essential oil pre-
sented higher antimicrobial activity when compared to edible film
with allspice, which was followed by the film incorporated with
garlic essential oil.
In addition, pure main components of essential oils, such as
carvacrol which is the major constituent of oregano and thyme
essential oils, or cinnamaldehyde, the major constituent of cinna-
mon essential oil, have been used as antimicrobials in active
packaging made from pectin films. Edible films based on pectin and
tomato puree incorporated with carvacrol presented antimicrobial
activity against E. coli O157:H7. Also, the content of carvacrol was
stable at 5 and 25  C over a period of 98 days while incorporated in
the edible films (Du et al., 2008b).
In addition, the antimicrobial activity of developed pectin edible
films incorporated with essential oils and their main constituents
have been tested in simulation of real packaging conditions by their
application on food matrixes. Cinnamaldehyde or carvacrol was
incorporated in edible films based on pectin and apple puree at
0.5%, 1.5%, and 3% (w/w) and their antimicrobial activity was tested
on chicken breasts and ham stored at either 23 or 4  C for 72 h
(Ravishankar, Zhu, Olsen, McHugh, & Friedman, 2009). Results
showed that edible films containing carvacrol exhibited stronger
activity against S. enterica and E. coli on chicken breast surface at
4  C than those edible films with cinnamaldehyde. Similarly, edible
films with carvacrol showed higher reductions of E. coli O157:H7
compared to cinnamaldehyde at 23  C, while the reduction of
Salmonella enteritidis was similar for both carvacrol and cinna-
maldehyde at the same temperature. Moreover, films with carva-
crol exhibited stronger activity against L. monocytogenes on ham
than cinnamaldehyde.
In addition, carvacrol or cinnamaldehyde incorporated in apple-
pectin edible films has shown antimicrobial activity against
Campylobacter jejuni, one of the leading causes of bacterial diar-
rheal illness worldwide, on chicken breast (Mild et al., 2011). Ac-
cording to the authors, incorporation of both carvacrol and
cinnamaldehyde in edible films showed bactericidal activity against
C. jejuni when tested on chicken, with the cinnamaldehyde edible
film being most effective against this foodborne pathogen. Mild
et al. (2011) indicated that differences in antimicrobial activity
between cinnamaldehyde and carvacrol may be due to the fact that
both antimicrobials operate by different mechanisms. Carvacrol is
reported to disrupt bacterial cell membranes by non-covalent in-
teractions, whereas cinnamaldehyde reacts chemically with the
membrane surfaces resulting in cell death.
Moreover, edible films based on pectin and apple, carrot or hi-
biscus were incorporated with carvacrol or cinnamaldehyde and
their antimicrobial activity was tested against L. monocytogenes on
contaminated ham and bologna (Ravishankar et al., 2012). Results
showed that films with carvacrol exhibited better antimicrobial
activity against L. monocytogenes than films with cinnamaldehyde,
with developed films being more effective on ham than on bologna.
Moreover, the use of apple-pectin edible film resulted in a higher
inactivation of this pathogen when compared to carrot or hibiscus-
pectin films.
8 P.J.P. Espitia et al. / Food Hydrocolloids xxx (2013) 1e10
In addition to antimicrobial activity test, the effect of pectin
edible films incorporated with volatile compounds has been tested
on the sensory properties of packaged food. The effect of cinna-
maldehyde or carvacrol incorporated in apple or tomato-pectin
based edible films on baked chicken was assessed by sensory
analysis of paired preference test (Du et al., 2012). Results indicated
that adding 0.5% (w/w) carvacrol in tomato-pectin edible film
formulation did not affect the preference of chicken. However,
increased concentration of carvacrol (0.75% w/w) in tomato-pectin
films reduced drastically their preference choice. Moreover, the
addition of 0.5% (w/w) and 0.75% (w/w) carvacrol into apple-pectin
edible film reduced the preference of baked chicken when
compared to the control. Furthermore, baked chicken packaged
with apple-pectin films containing 0.5% cinnamaldehyde was
equally preferred over chicken in control apple-pectin films.
Increasing concentration of cinnamaldehyde (0.75e1% w/w) in
edible films resulted in low preference for the baked chicken. When
comparing the effect of both antimicrobial in sensory preference of
baked chicken, results showed that chicken packaged with apple-
pectin films with 0.75% (w/w) cinnamaldehyde was less preferred
than using the same film at same concentration of carvacrol. In
contrast, baked chicken wrapped with tomato films containing
0.75% (w/w) carvacrol was more preferred (Du et al., 2012).
6. Legislation
Edible films, including all of its components must be safe to eat
or must have the GRAS status (Rossman, 2009). Moreover, edible
films when incorporated with antimicrobials are considered as
active food packaging. Active food contact materials means mate-
rials that are intended to extend the shelf-life, maintain or improve
the condition of packaged food. They are designed to act as carriers
for control and release of active compounds from the packaging
material to the food (Arvanitoyannis, Choreftaki, & Tserkezou,
2005).
Edible films can be classified as food products, food ingredients,
food additives, food contact substances or food packaging mate-
rials, thus their elaboration should follow all required regulations
pertinent to food ingredients, since they are an integral part of the
edible portion of food products (Martín-Belloso, Rojas-Graü, &
Soliva-Fortuny, 2009). Moreover, besides the GRAS status of all
ingredients used, production of pectin edible films should be done
in food processing facilities following with good manufacturing
practice (GMP).
In addition, the development of edible films based on pectin and
other biodegradable polymers is encourage by “green-packaging”
initiatives such as the US EPA (US Environmental Protection
Agency) suggested plan to reduce the initial amount of packaging.
The suggestion consisted on designing packaging systems that
could reduce the amount of environmental toxic materials used in
packaging and make them easier to reuse or compost. The Agency
also suggested using packaging that could reduce the amount of
damage or spoilage to food products which eventually could
improve the quality and extend the shelf life of packaged foods
(Falguera et al., 2011).
7. Future trends
Pectin edible films incorporated with natural antimicrobials
have potential application in food preservation as active packaging
materials. The combination of pectin with other biopolymers such
as gelatin and starch has been commonly used for the development
of edible films.
On the other hand, dietary intake of berry fruits has been
demonstrated to positively impact human health. In addition,
Please cite this article in press as: Espitia, P. J. P., et al., Edible films from pectin: Physical-mechanical and antimicrobial properties - A review,
Food Hydrocolloids (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.06.005
consumer awareness of health benefits associated with consump-
tion of fruits and vegetables has led to the study of fruit and
vegetable purees as part of the edible film-forming materials.
Previous works reported the use of fruit puree, such as apple and
mango together with pectin in edible films. Recently, Schreckinger,
Lotton, Lila, and Mejia (2010) indicated that tropical fruits such as
berries from South America, including açaí (Euterpe oleracea),
chilean wineberry (Aristotelia chilensis), wild crepemyrtle or acerola
(Malpighia emarginata), strawberry myrtle (Ugni molinae), among
others, possess a rich and diversified composition of bioactive
compounds with health-promoting properties. Thus, in the next
few years this research could expand to use these tropical fruits as
part of film-forming ingredients in order to combine their biolog-
ical activities as well as the color and flavor provided by their
pigments and volatile compounds with the mechanical and barrier
properties from the film-forming components.
Moreover, researches related to the application of nanotech-
nology to pectin edible film are scarce. Azeredo et al. (2009)
reported the use of cellulose nanofibers as potential nano-
reinforcements in edible films based on pectin and mango puree.
This limitation is probably due to the current gap for completely
understanding the toxicological effects of nanoparticles in hu-
man system after ingestion, which allows for determining the
overall impact on consumers. However, when more toxicological
studies are published in the coming years, the application of
nanotechnology may lead research toward the incorporation of
nanoscale materials in pectin edible films and study their po-
tential synergistic effects on films antimicrobial activity as well
as their contribution to the improvement of physical-mechanical
properties of edible film.
8. Conclusions
Consumer demand for minimally processed foods and products
free of additive has led to the development of new packaging ma-
terials. Pectin edible films are an environmental friendly alternative
to petroleum-based polymers due to its low cost, availability,
biodegradability, and its feasibility to produce films alone or in
combination with other polymeric matrixes. When incorporated
with natural bioactive compounds, pectin edible films showed
antimicrobial properties against foodborne pathogens. However,
more studies need to be done in order to optimize concentration of
antimicrobials to obtain materials with appropriate antimicrobial
activity and desired physical-mechanical performance.
Source(s) of support
Doctoral scholarship from Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de
Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES).
Acknowledgments
Financial support for this research was provided by a doctoral
scholarship from Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de
Nível Superior (CAPES) through PEC-PG agreement.
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