BHU 2110 Geography of East Africa

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING
AGE 203
GEOGRAPHY OF EAST AFRICA
DR. DOROTHY N. MUTISYA

&
MR. DAVID A.M. OSEBE
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
©May 2005
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TABLE OF CONTENT PAGE
PART ONE: HISTORICAL BASIS AND PHYSICAL REALM OF

EAST AFRICA
1.0 LESSON ONE: HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY AND PEOPLES OF

EAST AFRICA---------------------------------------------------------------------------04
2.0 LESSON TWO: THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EAST AFRICA---------15
3.0 LESSON THREE: THE CLIMATES OF EAST AFRICA------------------------26
4.0 LESSON FOUR: EAST AFRICA VEGETATION AND SOILS------------------34
5.0 LESSON FIVE: EAST AFRICA RANGELANDS-----------------------------------49
PART TWO: THE HUMAN REALM OF EAST AFRICA
6.0 LESSON SIX: POPULATION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION-----------------------62
7.0 LESSON SEVEN: URBANIZATION IN EAST AFRICA ------------------------- 80
8.0 LESSON EIGHT: EAST AFRICA AGRICULTURE--------------------------------- 93
9.0 LESSON NINE: TOURISM INDUSTRY----------------------------------------------111
10.0 LESSON TEN: TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION ---------------------- 121
11.0 LESSON ELEVEN: INDUSTRIES AND TRADE ---------------------------------131
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PART ONE:
POLITICAL BASIS AND PHYSICAL REALM OF EAST

AFRICA
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1.0 LESSON ONE: HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY AND PEOPLES OF EAST
AFRICA
1.1 Introduction
In this lesson, the strong Arab influence on the Coast and Islands of East Africa, the
growth of Swahili race of people and the constant intermixing and movement of the
African tribes of the interior are discussed. Also considered is the development of
Kenya-Uganda Railway Line, which brought economic development. The lesson is
concluded with the description of major racial groupings in East Africa.
1.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
(a) Outline historical trade of East Africa.
(b) Describe the contributions of Arabs along the coasts of East Africa.
(c) Explain the movements of major tribes and races that led to the present
distribution of population in East Africa.
(d) Explain the role of Kenya-Uganda Railway.
(e) Describe the major racial groupings in East Africa.
1.3 Historical Geography of East Africa

The countries that are now called Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda were little known
beyond the coasts of the Indian Ocean until fairly recent times. European influence in
East Africa is mainly attributed to the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. However, the
chief influences on East Africa’s early history were from countries such as Egypt,
Mesopotamia, India and Arabia. These nations in their quest for trade in gold, precious
stones and slaves, and aided by favorable trade monsoon winds established early
contact with the coasts of East Africa.
The ancient Egyptians whose colonies stretched as far as southern Somalia, often sent
expeditions farther south in search of new sources of wealth. Over 3000 years ago, one
such expedition returned to Egypt with cargoes of ivory, gold dust, ebony, ostrich
feathers and leopard skins (Pritchard 1977). Overland routes were organized for trade
with Ethiopia and probably reached the northern fringes of Kenya. At the same time,
merchants from southern Arabia and from Mesopotamia were also carrying on a
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flourishing trade with these coasts. Most of their activities are recorded on engraved
ancient Arabian buildings and many of the old tombstones on Pemba Island that are
decorated with a curious horn symbol, which was also the symbol of power in the
ancient Babylon. Phoenician records dating back to 200 years B.C. also refer to a
growing trade with East Africa, especially for the red sap of local trees that was used in
the dyes and for the export of iron daggers and lances much prized by the tribes of these
coasts. Dravidian merchants from southern India were also using the convenient
monsoon winds to trade all along the coasts, going back home to tell tales of vast
interior of towering mountains and great lakes.
1.3.1 Arabs Invasion

By the first century A.D. Arabic settlements had been established along the East
African coast, with a thriving trade beginning to grow. The Arabs, Persians and Indians
intermarried with the local African tribes and there began to develop a new race of
people called the Waswahili. The Arab influence increased steadily resulting in the
establishment of small kingdoms and principalities along the East African coast, which
the Arabs referred to as the Land of Zeng or Zinji. According to the Arab geographers,
Zinji was a large land with many islands, forests of ebony, sandalwood and bamboo,
and much bush country, whose journey from north to south took two months overland.
In 60 B.C. slaves were the most important commercial articles of this region. Under the
Arabs the trade was well organized with large slave markets at Kilwa, Mombassa,
Malindi, Mogadishu, and Mozambique. Caravan routes ran from these ports as far as
the borders of Uganda and Zaire. The merchants often met local tribes, who described
high range of white-topped mountains such as Mt. Kenya and Kilimanjaro as the
mountains of the moon.
Besides trade, Arabs minted copper coins, encouraged weaving, wood and ivory
carving, and the manufacture of pottery. The busy commercial activity along the coasts
meant prosperity and growth for the ports and towns. Mombassa, for example, grew
very rapidly because of its excellent harbour and fertile hinterland. By the 12th century,
it had very strong defences and rich iron mines, and in 1355 it had plenty of bananas,
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citrons, and other fruits, and the staple food of the inhabitants was mainly fish and
bananas. Kilwa in Tanzania had become a well-built city on the Coast, with 300
mosques, beautiful palaces and powerful fortifications. Malindi too was a rich and
prosperous town. There were many other towns along the Coast, which later fell into
ruin and decay, for example, Gedi just south of Malindi.
The major contributions of the Arabs can therefore be summarized as introduction

Islamic region, cash crops, slave trade, some form of land tenure system, and
urbanization along the eastern Africa that started as fishing village.
1.3.2 The Portuguese

In 1498, 500 years after the founding of the Zinji Empire, a Portuguese navigator,
Vasco da Gama rounded the southern tip of Africa on his quest to find a new route to
India. On reaching Mombassa, he found the people there hostile, and proceeded but to
anchor at Malindi on his outward and return journeys, with the erection of a monument
that still stands. He found a highly developed civilization on the coast and saw many
splendid merchant vessels loaded with rich cargoes. Vasco da Gama’s expedition
opened the new route for other Portuguese to set sail. The intent of the sailors was to
colonize the region, and indeed in a period of about ten years, most of the Coast had
been subdued. They traded in goods such as cotton, silk, gold, ivory, wax, skins, hides
and tortoise shells.
A 16th century account of Mombassa tells of its many-storeyed houses, much gold,
silver and ivory, amber, Persian and Indian cloths, African grain, rice, honey, butter,
poultry and herds of fat sheep and cattle. Mombassa trade had expanded not only within
the countries bordering the Indian Ocean, but also with distant countries such as China,
whose coins and pottery have been found at various places along the coast of East
Africa. The Portuguese hold on the Coast was not a strong one, and by early 18th
century it had almost disappeared except in Mozambique. They left behind a few
buildings such as Mombassa’s Fort Jesus, one or two words in the Kiswahili language,
and some new fruits like pineapples.
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1.3.3 Other Europeans
Many more vessels from England, France, Holland, and other European countries were
now using the routes to India and the Far East. East Africa became region where major
racial groups clashed and intermingled with one another, with the Bantu of south and
central Africa, the Negroes from the west and north, and the Hamites of the northeast.
The Bantus pressed northwards until, at about the line of the Equator, with the advances
being checked by the Negroid and Hamitic groups. Many of the Bantus such as the
Akikuyu and Akamba settling on and around the slopes of Mt. Kenya, while Hamitic
groups like the Masaai finding themselves cut off from the main flow of their own
people.
The incursions of the Arab traders looking for slaves added to the confusion, forcing
many tribes to flee to safer places. At its peak, the great slave market at Zanzibar was
handling about 15, 000 slaves a year, and it is estimated that this was only a small
percentage of the numbers who died while traveling overland or in the slave ships. This
trade reduced the African population considerably. Many European nations also joined
in the trade to supply cheap labor for the plantations in the new world. Although the
British stopped the slave trade in 1807, other European countries still carried on.
After the departure of the Portuguese, the coast was split by internal wars, and it was
only at the beginning of the 19th century that a centralized a government was formed
under the House of Oman. Zanzibar city was founded, commerce and industry
encouraged, ships were built, and agriculture especially cloves and date palms was
fostered. By 1850’s, cloves had expanded on the islands that it had become the third
largest export article. The slave, ivory, and spice trades flourished and Zanzibar became
very rich, especially after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
1.3.4 Colonization of East Africa

It was at this time that great explorers like Speke, Burton, Livingstone and others were
probing into the geographical secrets of the vast continent of Africa, and the sudden
interest of European powers in the possibilities of colonies began to grow. It was in
1848 that Rebmann; a German became the first known European to see the snowy peak
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of Kilimanjaro, followed by Dr. Krapf who also saw Mt. Kenya. Thereafter, numerous
expeditions were set up to explore the interior of East Africa. For example, Richard
Burton and John Hannington Speke penetrated inland from Kilwa to find Lake Nyasa
and Lake Tanganyika. Burton returned but Speke carried on to discover lake Victoria,
the source of River Nile. Many explorers and geographers followed and gradually the
map of East Africa was completed.
Change begun to take place in the order of many things. The Sultan of Zanzibar by
virtue of his strong commercial interests with the interior claimed all the land of East
Africa under Arab rule. In 1884, however, due to the influence of Dr. Carl Peters with
certain tribes in Tanganyika forced the Sultan to surrender the land to the Germans and
Tanganyika became a German colony. An international commission in 1886 ruled that
the Sultan’s sovereignty extend only over a 10-mile-wide strip along the coast and to
the Islands of Pemba, Zanzibar and Mafia.
The British and Germans then divided East Africa according to their ‘spheres of
interest,’ and ran a straight boundary line from the coast to Kilimanjaro and from there
to the southern shores of Lake Victoria. The development of the British territory was
placed in the hands of the Imperial British East Africa Company. Lord Lugard, a
representative of this Company later entered into trade negotiations with the king of
Baganda tribe and succeeded in bringing most of Uganda under the Company’s
influence. Eventually the British Government declared Uganda a protectorate, followed
by Kenya in 1895. On other hand, the Germans ruled Tanganyika, but after the First
World War of 1914-1918, they were forced to surrender Tanganyika, which became a
Trust Territory under British administration.
1.3.5 The Kenya-Uganda Railway

In order to open the trade with the interior of East Africa countries such as Uganda, the
British Government announced its intentions in 1895 to build a railway line from
Mombassa, a project that became known as the Lunatic Line, by those in opposition to
the scheme. In 1896, a workforce of thousands of Indian semi-skilled workers began
the project despite the opposition. From the very start the scheme was faced with
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numerous difficulties: scarce water on the dry interior plateaus, diseases killing cattle
and importation of food from India, and sickness killing many of the workers. At
Tsavo, two man-eating lions killed several of the workers before they were shot dead.
The disastrous drought of 1898 caused a severe famine, but by may 1899; the line had
reached Athi River, just south of the present site of Nairobi city, where a base camp
was set up before the next push to the Rift Valley. Between 1899 and 1901 the section
down the steep eastern escarpment of the Rift Valley and up the western face was
completed after a lot of difficulty. On 20th December 1901 the line finally reached
Kisumu on the shores of Lake Victoria, nearly 600 miles from Mombassa. The
development of the Railway line was a huge cost to the British Government, but
without it there could have been no real economic development of Kenya or Uganda.
For example, the growth of many towns, industries, agriculture and trade owes a great
deal to the construction of this vital artery.
1.3.6 Post-Independent East Africa

After independence, most of the Europeans went back to their countries of origin while
some opted to remain behind as farmers or businessmen. There is also a good number
of Asians in East Africa. Although a big number of them returned to their home
countries after independence, and today there are quite a number of Asians in East
Africa, most of who are businessmen and industrialists.
Attainment of political independence by the East African states resulted also into the
following problems:
Restriction of mobility that reduced trade among the countries.
International competition increased as each country started looking for markets
outside the region.
Regional disparities in socioeconomic development were accelerated, with
Tanzania becoming a socialist state, Kenya a capitalist, and Uganda embracing both
socialist and capitalist policies.
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These policies have led to different rates of development that are being realized in the
three states.
1.4 The Peoples of East Africa

The peoples of East Africa can be identified by their great social and cultural diversity
referred to as “tribe,” which is synonymous with ethnic group. According to Gulliver
(1972) it is very difficult to give a clear definition of a tribe because this ethnic group is
accounted for or identified by a range of factors such as name, language, and more or
less exclusive territory. However, four broad racial groupings can be identified in East
Africa: the Africans, the Asians, the Arabs and the Europeans.
1.4.1 The Africans

They belong to approximately 220 different tribes, each with its own language or
dialect (Pritchard 1962). These tribes are not all the same racial type, but belong to
several racial groupings differing from one another in skin color, nose shape,
appearance of hair and other characteristics. However, there has been much
intermarriage between the races and tribes.
The earliest known people of a country are referred to as indigenous or natives.

According to Pritchard (1992) they are generally recognized by their ‘undeveloped
culture,’ limited language and the fact that they are usually to be found in remote areas
where they have survived the movements and intermingling of the other tribes. The
Dorobo, for example, have survived by retreating into the Kenya Highlands and the
Northern Frontier.
Africans, being the indigenous, form the largest population and fall into three main
linguistic groups namely: the Bantu, the Nilotes and the Cushites (Table 1.1). The
Bantu is the dominant grouping in East Africa, although the word really applies to a
language group rather than a racial group. The Bantu-speaking peoples came to East
Africa from the Niger-Cameroon-Congo region and are the majority in Tanzania and
Kenya. The most important of the tribes of this division are the Akikuyu, the Akamba,
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Embu, Meru and Kisii of Kenya; the Toro, Kiga, Ganda, and Soga of Uganda; the
Chagga, Nyamwezi, Haya, Sukuma and Nyakyusa of Tanzania.
Table 1.1. The Indigenous People of East Africa

Country Linguistic Ethnic Community
Groups
Kenya Bantu Abaluyia, Kuria, Kisii, Suba, Meru, Embu, Kikuyu,
Kamba, Taita, Taveta, Miji Kenda, Pokomo, Digo.
Nilotes i. River Nile-Lake Victoria Nilotes: Luo
ii. The Plains Nilotes: Maasai, Samburu,
Turkana, Iteso, and the Njemps
iii. The Highlands Nilotes: Nandi, Kipsigis,
Tugen, Marakwet, Keiyo and Sabaot
Cushites Orma, Redille, Gabbra and Boran

Tanzania Bantu Chagga, Hehe, Nyamwezi, Ngoni, Gogo, Yao, Meru,
Sumbwa.
ii. The Plains Nilotes: Maasai
Cushites Somali, Buringi,, Hawa, Mbugu and Aramarik
Uganda Bantu Banyoro, Batoro, Baganda, Basonga
Cushites No major groups
Morgan W.T.W. ed. (1972)
The Nilotes, mainly represented by the Acholi and Luo, are a mixture of Negro and
Hamite, although the Negroid element dominates. They are a tall and thin race with
curly hair, and have rounder and fuller features of the Negro. The Nilotes are said to
have originated from Southern Sudan near the Ethiopia border and form a significant
proportion of Ugandan and Kenyan population.
Other linguistic groupings include the Cushites, Semites, Hamites and Nilo-hamites.
The Cushites originated from Arabia about 3000 BC. They are know to have crossed
to Ethiopia via the red Sea from where they migrated into various parts of Eastern
Africa including Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania. The Semites, represented by Nubians
of Kenya and Uganda, form one of the minor Lingusitic groups found in East Africa.
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In north and east Kenya, there are Hamitic tribes recognized by their tall stature and
dark wavy hair, with much thinner noses and thin lips. Their skins are from light to
dark brown. The purest Hamites are the Boran and the Galla, while the Somalis have
similar characteristics. Finally, there is the Nilo-Hamites who, however, have a more
dominant Hamitic strain, although the proportion of Negroid and the Hamitic
characteristics varies. They are a pastoral people and their way of life is closely
connected with animal husbandry. Their skin color varies between very dark as in the
Suk, Karamajong, and Turkana tribes, to the reddish brown of the Masaai.
1.4.2 Asians
Although the earliest Asians (Indian) traders came to East Africa in the 17th century, the
great influx began only at the turn of the twentieth century during the construction of
the railways into the interior. After the lines had been completed there were about
30000 Asians settled in Kenya alone. Most of these Asians are engaged in commerce,
various skilled trades and industries.
The Asians are mainly found in towns where they have retained their social character
and customs. Although they belong to one race, there is a wide variety of customs,
religions and languages to be found among the Asian communities. The main religious
groups include Sikh, Hindu, Moslem and Ismaili, and the languages spoken are Hindi,
Gujarati, Urdu and Punjabi.
There are also a large number of Goans from the former Portuguese colony of Goa on
the western coast of India. They are Catholics and show a pronounced Western
influence owing to their strong Portuguese connections. Among the other Asians are the
Arabs, although there is a great difference in customs.
1.4.3 Europeans
Although small in numbers, they have had a decided influence on the economic
development of East Africa. Most Europeans are of British descent, but nearly all the
countries of Europe are represented, especially Germany, Italy, and Greece.
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The Europeans fall into two main groups: first, are those who settled and have large
farms with beautiful houses, and are in their fourth, or fifth generation. Secondly, there
is a large body of officials, missionaries, and commercial representatives that are
serving the interests of East Africa on behalf of their Governments. The European
influence is widespread on the cooler, pleasant highlands where European-type of crops
grow, and the coastal region of East Africa.
The Europeans established social institutions of common services such as East Africa
High Commission that affected communication and Transport. The results of these
services encouraged free mobility, intra East African trade because agricultural and
industrial policies were formulated in a manner to affect equal all the three countries. It
also led to easy flow of capital because there was one type of currency. Other
influences include growth of the three capital cities in Nairobi, Kampala and Dar-es-
lam and flourishing of religion, with the entire Coast and the Interior becoming
predominantly Islamic and Christianity, respectively. Religion played an important role
through formal education. Occupation by imperialists such as Italians, Germans,
British, etc., which curtailed further cohesion by World Wars 1 and 11 and creation of
urban centers by colonial administration that soon became regional centers for rapid
economic and political development.
1.5 Conclusions and Summary

Although the original home is considered to be in the countries that constitute East
Africa, little was known beyond the coasts of the Indian Ocean, except until fairly
recent times.
There were no East Africa countries prior to the European conquest. There was also
no balance in ethnic spatial mobility from either East or West, or North, or South in
the region.
The major contributions of the Arabs can be summarized as the introduction of
Islamic religion, cash crops, slave trade, some form of land tenure system, and
urbanization along the eastern Africa that started as fishing village.
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The Europeans’ influence, however, did culminate into the introduction of
agricultural economy, establishment of social institutions, Christianity and formal
education.
The Kenya-Uganda Railway Line opened the East Africa interior for trade and
rapid economic development, resulting in the growth of many towns, industries and
agriculture.
Four broad racial groupings; that is, the Africans, Asians, Arabs and Europeans can
be identified in East Africa.
1.6 Review Questions

(a) Outline ‘The History of East Africa Trade.’
(b) With the aid of suitable illustration, explain the general movement of the
races and tribes that led to the present distribution in East Africa.
(c) In what ways do you think, the Kenya-Uganda railway line benefited East
Africa?
(d) What were the contributions by the Arabs along the coasts of East Africa?
(e) With special reference to racial characteristics and way of life, explain the
diversity of people in East Africa.
1.7 Further Reading

Church, R.J.H; Clarke, J.I; Clarke, P.J.H. and Henderson, H.J.R. (1979): Africa and
the Islands, Longman: London.
Grahame, W. and J. Odero (1986): Geography of Kenya and the East African
Region, MacMillan: Nairobi.
Pritchard, J.M. (1977): A Geography of East Africa, Evans Bothers ltd: London.
Pritchard, J.M. (1962): A Geography of East Africa: Including Zanzibar and
Pemba; J.M. Dent and Sons ltd.
Suggate, L.S. (1956): Africa, George G. Harrap & Company Ltd.
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2.0 LESSON TWO: THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EAST AFRICA
2.1 Introduction
In Lesson One, the past Geography of East Africa has been covered. In the Lesson it
has been demonstrated that the Kingdom of Zeng or Zinj stretched from northern
Mozambique to southern Somalia. In this lesson and subsequent lessons, however, shall
mainly be concerned with territories which at one time were together known as British
East Africa: Tanganyika, Kenya, Uganda and the islands near the coast: Zanzibar and
Pemba. It specifically deals with size, location, rocks, relief and physical divisions of
East Africa.

By the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to:
(a) Describe the size and location of East Africa.
(b) Describe the main physiographic divisions of East Africa.
(c) Discuss the various theories regarding the East Africa Rift Valley formation.
(d) Describe the three major types of rock in East Africa, and show how they are
related to the surface relief features.
2.3 Location and Size of East Africa

East Africa is part of the great shield of Africa that covers some Central and North
Africa. The countries comprising East Africa are Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. These
countries were all at one time under the British rule. East Africa is a very large area
stretching about 1800 kilometers from latitude 4º N to just south of latitude 10º S, and
1120 kilometers from longitude 30º E to 40º E. East Africa covers a total area of nearly
1, 040, 000 square kilometers, which is small when compared with some of the largest
countries such USA, Russia and India, among others in the world.
2.4(a) Rocks and Surface Relief

East Africa has a wide variety of rocks and surface relief as any of the larger countries
of the world. This geology is essential in providing a clear picture of the physical
geography of East Africa. Although the geology of the region is complicated, three
main types of rocks can be recognized:
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2.4.1 The Basement System. As the name suggests, the system forms the basis of the
rock structure of East Africa. They are the oldest rocks of Africa, over 70 million years
old and are extremely hard with the original form having been metamorphosed by
pressure and heat. These are similar rocks that form the basis of many large continents,
particularly Australia and South America. Sedimentary rocks and lava cover most of
this basement system, but where volcanic and sedimentary caps have been worn away,
the basement rocks are exposed. However, the basement rocks are harder and more
resistant to the forces of erosion such as heat, wind and water, and thus often leading to
the formation of isolated steep-sided mountains called inselbergs (Figure 2.0),
sometimes similar in shape to volcanic mountains in East Africa. They are exposed in
many parts of East Africa, particularly on the lower plateaus of central Kenya and
Tanganyika.
Figure 2.0 Inselbergs (J.M. Prichard 1973)
2.4.2 Sedimentary Rocks. These rocks are younger than the basement system, and cover
large areas of the basement system, especially in eastern Kenya (Pritchard 1962). They
have been formed by deposits of sediments in large lakes that have since disappeared,
or in areas that were submerged under the sea in the past and have since risen. The
sedimentary rocks that include sand, silt, or thick layers on the beds of the ocean and
lakes and having been subjected to intense pressure by the weight of more sedimentary
rocks laid on top of them. They have therefore hardened to form rocks such as
limestone, sandstone and shale.
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2.4.3 Volcanic Rocks. These are the youngest of the East Africa’s rocks that resulted
from the vast outpourings or eruptions of molten lava. The hotter and more fluid
alkaline lava covered greater parts of the basement system and sedimentary series with
great thickness of volcanic rocks. This was more pronounced in central Kenya and
Tanganyika where faulting of the surface rocks had been most severe.
However, in other areas such as Mt. Kilimanjaro (5550 m), Mt. Kenya (4870 m) and
Mt. Elgon (4050 m) the acidic lava cooled fairly quickly on reaching the surface and
combined with ash and dust which built up volcanic cones of great heights. This
activity is estimated to have occurred over the past 70 million years in East Africa, but
the present period has been witnessing dormant volcanoes. However, in the 1960 there
were several shocks due to volcanic activity and sometimes felt from time to time in
many parts of East Africa and their environs. An important feature of volcanic rocks is
that when they break down under erosion often forms rich red soil.
2.4(b) Diversified Landforms

Achaean system, which constitutes large expanse of granite, magnites, and gneiss,
among other rocks especially in Central Tanzania influences the geology of East Africa.
They are also found in the lake Victoria Basin, Northern and Western Uganda, and
Western parts of Ethiopia. These rocks are known to have crystalline granites and have
been heavily metamorphosed due to weathering processes to produce soils that have
been spread over a wide area of East Africa. Tectonic forces and erosion cycles have
also contributed a lot to East African landform features: with the former resulting in the
formation of Central Rift Valley. Other landform features that have been formed as a
result of tectonic forces and earth movements include fold, fault and Block Mountains,
lava plateaus, plains and raised beaches along margin of Eastern Coast of Africa.
2.5 East Africa Physical Divisions

2.5.1 Introduction
Much of the East Africa consists of plateaus with large expanse of level land often
referred to as plains, usually between 860 m and 1450 m in height. In some areas,
volcanic peaks raise the levels to 3000 m or more. Although there is a wide variety of
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relief features, one can recognize several fairy well-defined physical divisions in East
Africa as shown in Figure 2.1.
2.5.2 The Coasts and Coastal Plain

Off the coast of East Africa, usually at about 0.8 to 1.2 kilometers out to sea, the waves
of Indian Ocean break on a long line of coral reefs. Coral polyps, small sea animals that
extract calcium from seawater have built up protective shells, thus forming these reefs.
After the animals die the hard shells are left and millions of them build up on the bed of
the shallow warm sea off the coast. The polyps thrive only in clear shallow water, and
occasional breaks occur where rivers empty their muddy sediments into the ocean.
Sometimes the reefs enclose calm stretches of shallow water or lagoons that are a
common feature along the East African Coast.
Immediately behind these coasts, the coastal plain is low and marshy and then
gradually rising into the interior without exceeding 180 m. These plains are narrowest
(32 to 40 kilometers) at around Pemba and widest in northern Kenya and southern
Somalia and in the Rufiji River Region (160 kilometers). Most of the coast is formed of
sedimentary rocks and river deposits.
In the far past, the coast was raised, and is fairly straight except where local sinking of
land has formed one or two good harbours, for example, at Mombassa, Tanga and the
coasts of Pemba and Zanzibar. Elsewhere such as at Malindi and other parts of the
coast of East Africa do not provide good harbors because they are no well-developed
rivers like the Congo and Niger of west and central Africa. The rivers usually end in
narrow creeks, too shallow for any but the smallest of vessels.
2.5.2.1 Potential Resources

Physical relief and climatic variables have influenced the resources in the Coastal Plain.
Among the resources are:
(i) Those that promote tourism, for example, the Coastal Margin, which has an
extensive zone for sporting activities.
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(ii) The corals have created suitable habitable conditions for a wide range of animals,
for example, promotion of fishing and sporting activities.
(iii) The existence of rivers brings in valuable food that is important for the fish to
thrive on along the Coast.
(iv) The Coastal Plain has sand soils that have been suitable for a wide range of tree
crops such as cashew-nuts, cotton, sisal, and cloves.
Figure 2.1: East Africa Physical Division
(v) The sand beaches for the tourism industry, among other important socioeconomic
and environmental activities.
(vi) There is existence of pockets of tropical and mangrove forests, which provide
building poles, and source of fuel, among many other uses.
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(vii) The Coastal Region population is a resource when considered against the
evolution of cultural milieu, which enable them to interact with different ethic
groups that produce crafts, and architecture that are important to the tourism
industry.
(viii) Emergence of markets and skills that promote livelihood activities in the region.
However, there are quite a number of factors limiting the full development of the
resources in this region:
(1) Climate. As one moves inland the amount of rainfall decreases, hence intensifying
the problem of water for livestock, crops and domestic usage.
(2) Presence of tsetse flies making it difficult to raise livestock in the region.
2.5.3 The “Nyika” and North Kenya Plateau

The plateaus are part of the basement system overlaid by thick layers of sedimentary
rocks in the east with occasional hills and mountains forming smaller, and higher
plateaus, and isolated inselbergs, for example, the Taita Hills west of Voi in Kenya
rising up to 2000 m. The Nyika plateaus vary in height from 180 m in the east to a
general height of 1450 m in the west. They are narrowest in central and northern Kenya
about 160 kilometers and broadest in central and northern Tanganyika.
This region is a series of plateaus forming broad steps to the interior. Each of these
plateaus and steps represents an old surface of erosion and deposition; a change from
one plateau surface to another is usually quite abrupt. This is a feature that caused a lot
of trouble to the Kenya-Uganda railway builders.
2.5.3.1 Resource Potentials

Several inselbergs, sedimentary plateaus, and a few isolated blocks are known to be
rich in minerals, for example, gold and silver in Tanzania. The region is dominated with
grassland type of vegetation that enables wildlife to thrive: hence encouraging the
development of tourism industry. Irrigation is an important activity since many rivers
dissect this region. Supply of wood for domestic energy also come from this region.
20
Riverline forests provide wood for furniture. Further, agriculture industry consisting of
sisal, and cotton, especially in Tanzania dominates this region.
2.5.4 Mountainous Regions and Highland Masses

According to Pritchard (1962), The Highlands are a broad backbone, running down the
middle of East Africa. This region is a plateau of old rocks that have been complicated
by great earth movements such as faulting, tilting and volcanic activity.
The general height of this region is over 1450 m with a broad area in central Kenya
rising over 3000 m. This backbone becomes lower and less distinct in central and
southern Tanganyika, but rises in the extreme south in a wall of mountains some of
which, for example, the Udzungwa and Kipengere ranges rise over 2000 m.
The highlands form a huge watershed dividing the long eastward-flowing permanent
rivers such as the Tana and Galana in Kenya, and the Pangani and Wami of
Tanganyika. These are permanent rivers always with water even during the driest
seasons since their source is from the wettest region in the whole of East Africa.
The great trough of the Rift Valley of East Africa divides the central region of these
highlands. Owing to extreme age and brittleness of the rocks in this region, the strains
of the earth’s crust have resulted in widespread fractures, cracks, and faults.
On the extreme western borders of East Africa are the western Highlands. This region
has features similar to those found in the Central Highland region. The highest
mountains here are the Ruwenzoris, the mountains of the moon rising in parts to 4800
m and generally thought to be part of an ancient crystalline block forced upwards by
pressure from east to west. Volcanic activity occurred in places forming high peaks as
in the Mufumbiro range to the south.
The western Highlands of the Rift Valley lie in Congo territory and form a long rampart
of mountains, which fall steeply to the Congo Basin. They are also an abrupt watershed
dividing the drainage of East Africa from the tributary streams and rivers of the Congo.
21
2.5.4.1 Potential Resources
The area is characterized by volcanic activities and is found on both sides of the Rift
Valley. These highlands are located in Central Kenya, South Western Uganda, Kigezi,
West Nile Plateau, Southern Tanzania, North Eastern Tanzania and Central Western of
the Rift Valley. Most of these highlands are watersheds. They have extensive forest
reserves, except southwestern Uganda that has been heavily settled. The forests are
both indigenous and exotic species.
The mountainous regions with snow-capped tops are great tourist attractions. The
highlands are important in farming activities because of suitable soils and climatic
conditions that have been created by relief features. They also have high population
densities.
2.5.5 The Rift Valley

The Rift Valley has two long parallel cracks averaging 100 kilometers apart. It
appeared approximately one million years ago. The section between this fault lines
sank, probably because the underlying softer rocks were unable to support their
tremendous weight. At the same time lava forced its way through the weaker sections
of the rocks, especially along the many fissures and faults. Later cracking and erosion
of the sharp edges produced the angle of slope seen today. Another theory is that the
scarp sides of the valley might have been forced upwards by tensions in the crust
causing large blocks of rocks to rise slowly. This probably again occurred at the same
time as the sinking of the central sections.
Besides, the north-south longitudinal faults, there are many smaller east-west,
latitudinal faults that break the sides of the valley into fault-blocks. Lake Eyasi in
northern Tanganyika provides a good example of these miniature rift valleys.
The East Africa Rift valley is approximately 6400 kilometers long, forming a deep scar
on the earth surface beginning near the port of Beira on the Mozambique coast and
extending northwards where its course is marked by Lake Nyasa. From here, it divides
22
into two branches: the first one running through central Tanganyika and Kenya, and the
second one is a western arm marked by Lake Tanganyika, Kivu, Edward and Albert,
which gradually fades out 240 kilometers north of Lake Albert.
The eastern Rift Valley is not well marked in Tanganyika, the escarpment sides being
fairly low and greatly eroded. In Kenya, however, the course of the valley is very clear,
marked by a series of small lakes occupying fault basins beginning with Lake Magadi
in the south, then Lake Naivasha, Elmentaita, Nakuru, Hannington, Baringo, and
Turkana in the north. The valley’s sides drop sharply from 1800 m to 1200 m
sometimes rising up to 3000 m to the ridges of the Aberdares and Mau fault-blocks.
On the extreme borders of East Africa is the western arm of the Great Rift Valley. This
region has features similar to those in the eastern arm of East Africa Rift Valley, that is,
a deep trough caused by faulting and bordered by volcanic and block highlands.
The Highland region is therefore a very complex area comprising ancient plateau
blocks uplifted and worn down and further compounded by faulting and volcanic
activity.
2.5.6 The Lake Region

This is generally a broad region whose surface is more like a very shallow saucer
rimmed by mountains on all sides. Lakes Victoria and Kyoga occupy it in the north,
and covering most of western Tanganyika in the south. The average height of this
region, which is largely made up of basement rocks is 1200 m.
The drainage of this region is very irregular since there are few steep slopes. Lake
Victoria covers some 70000 square kilometers and it is the third largest lake in the
world, but it is very shallow: its maximum depth being less than 90 m. The shores of
this lake are irregular in shape and often very marshy and as well as Lake Kyoga in the
north, suggest that there has been a slight tilting of the plateau surface in this region
during periods of earth movement. According to Pritchard, Lake Kyoga might have
flowed more definitely towards the west but the large block plateau from which it
23
drained was tilted slightly towards the east, reducing the steepness of the slope towards
the west. Some of Lake Kyoga’s waters drained backwards along its valleys, causing
flooding, marshes and poor drainage, while the general flow towards the west became
more sluggish and uncertain.
2.5.5.1 Resource Potentials

It is a region with heavy rainfall, with a few areas that receive less than 750mm. The
basin is important because of its water resources that are used for fishing, and water for
domestic and industrial use. The area has high potential for agricultural development. It
has good volcanic soils and adequate rainfall for agriculture. The Lakeshore margins
provide suitable area for irrigation.
2.6 Significance of Physical Features

Distribution of plains, highlands and associated block valleys give the three East
African Countries similar environmental set-up. This is basically important in that the
natural resources of the three countries are similar although not of the same quantities.
Wildlife, agricultural potentials, rivers and others support this observation except in
minerals where Tanzania is known to have an upper hand.
During the pre-colonial period similar resources enabled the population groups
within the East Africa to be widespread over the entire region. When the colonial
administration took control of the region they encouraged regional specialization, with
emphasis on coffee, sisal, and tea in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya, respectively.
However, with the attainment of post-political independence, followed the duplication
of activities in the three countries.
2.7 Summary
This lesson has dealt with the three main types of rocks: the basement, sedimentary and
volcanic rocks found in East Africa. It describes the Coasts and Coastal Plains,
Plateaus, Highlands, the Great Rift Valley and the Lake region. The lesson is concluded
with the significance of physical divisions that have given rise to similar environmental
set-up in the three East Africa countries. The environmental set-up, in turn, has yielded
to same natural resources in the countries.
24
(a) Draw a sketch map of East Africa and mark on it the main physiographic
divisions.
(b) With appropriate illustrations, write an essay on the various theories regarding
the East Africa Rift Valley formation.
(c) Describe the three major types of rock in East Africa, and show how they are
related to the surface relief features.
2.9 Further Reading

Region, Macmillan: Nairobi.
25
3.0 LESSON THREE: THE CLIMATES OF EAST AFRICA
3.1 Introduction
In Lesson two, the physical divisions of East Africa have been described. The impact of
these divisions as well as the great length and breadth on the climate are examined in
this lesson. Also examined is the ITCZ and associated trade winds. The final
description in the lesson is the influence of physical relief, the great expanse of
landmass, and aspect as a basis for climatic zones in East Africa.

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
(a) Draw a map showing the major climatic zones of East Africa.
(b) Explain the development of northeast and southeast trade winds with
particular reference to their effects on the climate of East Africa.
(c) Describe the climatic regions of East Africa.
3.3 Introduction to East Africa Weather and Climate

The weather and climate of East Africa are mainly controlled by temperature and
rainfall amounts. However, due to its tropical location, the temperatures are not too
low, except on the high mountainous regions such as Mt. Kenya and Mt. Kilimanjaro
where temperatures go below 0º Centigrade. The mean temperature is high in low-lying
areas, with the average diurnal range high especially in the highlands due to the
influence of the following factors:
The location of East Africa along the Equator, which is the shortest distance between
the sun and earth surface permits the insolation, that is, the incoming sun rays to reach
the surface with minimum absorption and scattering. Therefore, the amount of
insolation received raises the temperature that is relatively high in the East Africa
region. As already shown in Lesson TWO, Highlands occupy a considerable size of the
three East African countries. Consequently, the temperatures are heavily modified
according to the altitude as described below:
26
Between 0 and 1500 meters altitude: The climate is tropical and average
temperature range is 21ºC-27Cº;
Between 1500 and 2000 meters altitude: The temperature falls, and it ranges
from 21ºC-16ºC, leading to the formation of sub-tropical climate.
Between 2000 and 4900 meters altitude: At this altitude the temperature
declines leading to cool temperate climate.
4900 meters and above: Here the temperature gives way to cold temperate
climate figures of 0ºC or thereabout at the snowline.
Rainfall and clouds influence temperature because: (i) clouds reflect incoming
insolation, and (ii) there is a decline in temperature during rainy seasons because much
of the insolation is used to convert water into steam. The main influence of the
differences between water and landmasses in East Africa is the formation of land and
sea breezes along the Coastal region and the Great inland Lakes such as Lake Victoria.
Another factor is aspect, which means the compass direction in which sloping land
faces. This climatic variable is not so important in East Africa as contrasted with
locations that are far away from the Equator such as the Alps of Switzerland.
Finally, winds influence temperature by being warmer or cooler depending on the

direction they flow. The major influence is felt along the Coastal areas where breezes
by the sea cool the coastline during the day.
The great length and breadth of East Africa have significant influence on the climates.
The climates range from the hot, moist, and sultry conditions of the coast where
temperatures are high throughout the year and rainfall totals are also fairly high, to the
cool and wet regions of the highlands, and from the dry and hot regions of the Nyika
plateau to the hot and wet conditions of the Lake region. The winds that also affect East
Africa respond to variations in pressure in regions well beyond the borders of the
territories. These pressure systems vary in position since they are dependent on the
sun’s apparent movement between the Tropics.
27
In East Africa, winds called the North Easterlies and South Easterlies are drawn into the
Equatorial belt of low atmospheric pressure. Here, the overhead sun heats the surface
leading to hot air currents to rise up and thus creating a belt of low pressure. The air
masses from north and south flow into this belt, where they meet and rise up. This area
of convergence is known as The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and is
described as the scene of heavy daily convection rainfall, and thunderstorms (Grahame
and Odera 1986).
Figures 3.1 show the June and December ITCZ in East Africa. The zone moves north
and south depending on the exact location of the sun. The winds converging in the
ITCZ, normally flow on to the Highlands and if water-laden, they form orographic
rainfall on the slopes of the East Africa Highlands. Since the ITCZ swings with the
seasonal north and south, the type of rainfall they bring is also seasonal.
Figures 3.1 The Trade Winds and the Position of the ITCZ in Africa in (a) June
and (b) December
(Source: Waters and Odera 1986)
In normal circumstances the wind patterns in East Africa produce two types of climate:
(a) Where the rain-belts caused by the two sets of winds converging at or around the
Equator, form an equatorial type of climate with rainfall practically all the year,
28
leading to two heavier rainfall periods when the sun is overhead in the months of March
and September. If the topography of East Africa were absolutely flat the temperatures
would be high throughout the region.
(b) To the north and south of the equatorial belt would be region affected alternately by
dry and moist winds, producing a long dry spell for part of the year and a long wet
period for the rest of the year, leading to the formation of a true tropical climate.
However, the following factors upset this ideal climatic pattern of East Africa. First, the
great variations in height cause corresponding variations in temperatures. Secondly, the
northeast trades; northerly winds over most of East Africa bring dry conditions, which
affect most of Kenya and northern Tanganyika when this wind is flowing. On the other
hand, due to the angle of the coast, these winds bring only a moderate amount of rain to
places like Mombassa.
The Southeast Trades, by the time they reach East Africa begin to veer and become
more variable winds before they cross the Equator to become the southwest monsoon
wind. They also compete with the southwesterly air currents, which are also attracted
northwards by the low pressure in Aden and North Africa. These winds bring little
moisture to Tanzania since they cross no large water surfaces. They do, however, cross
Lake Victoria becoming moisture-laden, causing rain on the northern shores of the
Lake. Thus places receive their maximum rainfall in April and May when the winds are
at their greatest influence.
It is important to note that the total amount of rain falling throughout the year has little
significance for the East African farmer. The farmer is more concerned with the time at
which the rains arrive, the period over which they will continue to fall and the
reliability of the rainfall from year to year. Large areas of East Africa have a very
unreliable rainfall with little chance of receiving more than 500 mm in a year. This
limits the variety and amount of crops that can be grown, whereas in regions like the
coast, where rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year, the variety and number
of crops are increased.
29
3.4 Climatic Regions
With the foregoing outline of the main influences using figure 3.2 as a basis, it is
possible to discuss the regional climate of east Africa:
3.4.1 Region 1: Coast Tropical Climate

Here there is no dry season, although the rainfall is low for a tropical region.
Mombassa, along the coast of East Africa receives the highest total, averaging 1200
mm since it lies at a point where the N.E and S.W. Trade winds meet. To the north and
south of Mombassa rainfall amounts decrease, for example, Lamu, Malindi and Dar es
Salaam have 930 mm, 1034 mm and 1085 mm, respectively. The rainfall pattern is,
however, roughly the same all along the coast, with a marked increase in the month of
May (usually approaching 356 mm in Mombassa) known as the Long Rains, and a
much smaller maximum in the month of October also referred to as Short Rains with
averages of 25 to 50 mm per month during the rest of the year. Humidity and
temperature are high, usually about 80% and 27ºC, respectively. The rains have a
slight cooling effect, often reducing the temperatures to 21ºC but on some occasions the
temperatures are known to rise up to 32ºC.
3.4.2 Region11: Desert, Semi-Desert and Dry Tropical Climate

This covers a considerable amount of territory in northern and eastern Kenya and
central Tanganyika. The rainfall is generally less than 500 mm a year (Figure 3.2). The
northern parts of Kenya are almost pure desert, for example, Lowdar gets only 145 mm
in average year. The skies are nearly always clear, the days hot, the nights often cold
and the air is dry. The center and south of this region has more rainfall, for instance,
Voi and Dodoma have 510 mm and 284 mm, respectively.
3.4.3 Region 111: Tropical Climate

This type of climate is found over most of Tanzania except the coast and the dry region
of type 11. It is characterized by the long rainy season when the Northeast trades are
blowing. These winds have a greater influence in Tanzania since on crossing the
Equator, become northwesterly winds and pick moisture on crossing the lakes. By May
and June, however, these winds give way to the dry southwest winds that bring the long
30
rainless period from May to October. Rainfall totals vary between 760 mm and 890 mm
a year. Mbeya, for example, receives 884 mm, of which 820 mm falls between
November and April. Temperatures are moderate due to the height, and averaging
between 14.4ºC and 20ºC, with low humidity of 58% to 65%.
Figure 3.2 Climatic Regions of East Africa
3.4.4 Region 1V: The Lake Equatorial Climate

This type of climate is found in a broad zone surrounding Lake Victoria, although there
is some modification due to altitude. Rainfall is somewhat heavy, with wide variations
ranging between 1140 mm and 2000 mm a year. The rainfall is evenly distributed
31
throughout the year, with maximum in April and May. There is no real dry season and
the humidity is high, usually about 70%.
3.4.5 Region V: Modified Equatorial Climate

The regions to the west and north of Lake Victoria have a fairly high rainfall except in
the extreme northern parts. This is due to the large areas of water surfaces such as Lake
Kyoga and its marshy environs, and to the moisture absorbed when winds are crossing
these regions. Rainfall is heavy from April to October around Lake Kyoga, and the rest
of the year is comparatively dry due to the northerly winds. Temperatures are high,
usually over 21ºC, and here as in Region 1V, there is much convectional rain and
thunderstorms.
3.4.6 Region V1: The Highland Sub-Tropical Climate

This is a greatly modified type of tropical climate due to height, surface relief and the
wind system. Although the general rainfall and temperature patterns are roughly the
same, there are wide variations in the local climate in this region. This region has the
long and short rains occurring in April and October, but the amount received depends
on the position of the station. For example, Nakuru on the floor of the Rift Valley gets
an average rainfall of 875 mm, while Meru on the northeast slopes of Mt. Kenya
receives 1328 mm. Nyeri on the southwest slopes and only 80 kilometers from Meru
gets only 744 mm.
Day temperatures are usually cool, especially during the rainy periods, and vary
between 15.5ºC and 21ºC. The nights are sometimes chilly, with temperatures dropping
below 7.2ºC, especially on the higher parts.
3.5 Summary
In this lesson, it has been explained that physical divisions as well as the great length
and breadth affect the climate of East Africa. It has also been explained why the ITCZ
is a scene of heavy daily convectional rainfall and thunderstorms. The lesson is
concluded with the description of six climatic zones of East Africa.
32
(a) With the aid of sketch figures, explain the development of the northeast and
southeast trade winds, and their effect on the climate of East Africa.
(b) Draw a sketch map of East Africa and on it mark the major climatic divisions.
(c) Briefly describe the climatic regions of East Africa.
3.7 Further Reading

Region, Macmillan: Nairobi.
33
4.0 LESSON FOUR: EAST AFRICA VEGETATION AND SOILS
4.1 Introduction
In lesson three, we discussed about the East Africa climate. In this lesson, the type and
distribution are accounted for mainly by climate, especially rainfall amounts and
reliability. A transect of vegetation types from the coast of Indian Ocean to the
boundary between Western Uganda and eastern Zaire is provided in the lesson. Also
discussed are the vegetation types and soil determining factors in East Africa.

By the end of learning this lesson, you should be able to:
(a) Describe the types of vegetation between the coast and western end of
East Africa.
(b) Explain the major the major vegetation types of East Africa.
(c) Explain the factors determining the soil types in East Africa.
4.3 A Transect of East Africa Vegetation

Vegetation found in East Africa is of a wide variety. It is determined primarily by water
availability with arid bush-land at one extreme end and closed rainforest at the other.
Except where interference by fire or grazing gives a sharp boundary, the terrestrial
vegetation changes gradually from one type to another along a gradient of increasing
water availability, and sharp discontinuities are exceptional.
The vegetation at the East Africa seacoast is confined to a narrow strip at sea level with
an annual rainfall of about 1000 mm. The area is subjected to winds from the Indian
Ocean, is densely settled and characterized by coral vegetation and coconut palms.
There is a rich covering of seaweeds and marine angiosperms on the shores, and
gardens are gay with brightly colored trees and shrubs. Mangrove swamps are a
common feature of many parts of the coastline.
34
After the coast, the vegetation changes first to evergreen bush-land and then to dry open
country, which may be too dry for human settlement and inhabited largely by nomadic
pastoralists. Scattered trees and shrubs, many of them thorny or succulent are
interspersed with wide stretches of red soil, and it is here that some of Kenya’s largest
game reserves are located. Along the riverbeds, flat-topped Acacia trees as well as the
palms and baobab are not uncommon.
This kind of scenario ends when approaching the City of Nairobi, giving way to
densely populated highlands where cultivated crops such as coffee, tea, maize, bananas
and plantations of Eucalyptus, among others have replaced the remnants of original
forests. Further west, an extensive area of arable crops occupy the area descending to
the broad flat floor of the Rift Valley. Plantations of cypress (Cupressus
lusitanica/pinus patula) and pine, have replaced much of the original cedar of the
higher slopes, while the lower part is covered by dense bush in which the camphor bush
predominates. In the valley floor, wooded grassland with Acokanthera, Euphorbia
candelabra and various species of Acacia including the fever tree (Acacia
xanthophloea) are abundant.
In the floor of the Rift is a series of beautiful lakes surrounded by papyrus and Acacia
woodlands. Climbing out of the Rift Valley to about 2600 m is the upland forest zone
dominated by Juniperus procera and Podocarpus as well as Ocotea usambarensis
(camphor wood) and associated species. Much of the bamboo (Arundinaria alpina) that
used to grow at higher altitudes has been cleared to pave way for farms or plantations
of wattle trees, tea, sugar and maize, among others.
On entering Uganda, which receives adequate rainfall for crop production on over 75%
of its surface, the change in vegetation is immediately noticeable. Large areas of grass
and papyrus swamp become a feature of the valleys. This is interspersed with wooded
grassland, mixed with Acacia and broad-leaved trees. On approaching Jinja, which is
high with well-distributed rainfall and fertile soils and formerly covered with forest, are
some remnants, especially in the Mabira forest between Jinja and Kampala. It has been
broken by intensive cultivation interspersed with forest patches, swamps, elephant
35
grasses and plantations of eucalyptus. The ubiquitous banana dominates the landscape,
together with coffee, mango trees, sweet potatoes, sugar cane and some cotton.
A clear pattern of vegetation emerges and continues for some 240 km westward (Lind
1974). It is associated with the regular topography of flat-topped hills about 1200 m
high with swamp-filled valleys in between, which resulted from the dissection by rivers
of an ancient peneplain. The hilltops are covered with short grass or sometimes by
forest where soil patches remain. Among the patches stand tall and bare poles of the
trees branching at the top and yielding a closed canopy, beneath is leafy evergreen
undergrowth with a tangle of creepers and woody lianas that are dominant.
Further west, is a region of lower rainfall (750-950 mm), the Buganda pattern giving
way to rounded grassy hills with scattered trees and woodland. Acacia trees are
common as are Euphorbia candelabrum in the drier parts. Among the more showy trees
are the Uganda flame (Spathodea campanulata), Erythrina abyssinica, and Markhamia
platycayx that bear bright red flowers. On descending to Western Rift Valley from the
snow-capped Ruwenzori mountains are thorny and succulent vegetation.
A similar transect in Tanzania, beginning at Dar-Salaam passes through many miles of

bush-land with forest confined largely to the mountains. But Tanzania has a type of
woodland almost unknown in the other territories. This open woodland is known as
miombo, which is dominated by deciduous compound leaved trees belonging to the
Leguminosae, which in December and January burst into leaf with a beautiful flush of
flame-colored foliage followed by the flowering of Brachystegia, Julbernardia and
other species. With the arrival of the long dry period, most of the trees shed their leaves
and the country is covered with a monotonous appearance. On the lower ground, are
patches of damp grassland with few trees known as mbugas.
36
4.4 East Africa Vegetation Types
The main types of East Africa vegetation can be described as follows:
4.4.1 Forests
The East African forests present such a wide variety in relation to such factors of the
environment as altitude, rainfall and soil. According to Hamilton (1970) the East Africa
forest changes gradually with increasing altitude, and this is true whether one is
considering floristic composition, the height of trees, the occurrence of buttresses, the
leaf-type, leaf size or the percentage of trees with thorns. All these characteristics are
commonly used to identify major forest categories such as lowland and upland. Many
writers have set different boundaries between lowland and upland forests. Greenway
(1943) sets the boundary between lowland and upland forests at 1350 m above sea
level; however, Trapnell (1960) and Langdale-Brown (1960a) have settled for 2000 m;
and Hedberg (1951) puts the boundary between 1700 m and 2300 m.
These differences of opinion between the lowland and upland forest boundary reflect
the fact that the boundary is an arbitrary one and is not based on a well-marked
discontinuity in the distribution of the forest species. There is however, a distinct
impression of an abrupt change around 2000 m created by the discontinuity of the
forest cover, and hence the widely accepted use of Trapnell and Langdale-Brown
system of classifying vegetation that has settled for approximately 2000 m.
It is nonetheless clear that one or several species become dominant over certain parts of
the altitudinal range, and this has made it possible to recognize vegetation zones within
the forest. One of the best-marked zones on the windward side of any mountain is the
bamboo thicket or woodland, which occurs mainly between 2400 m and 3000 m (Lind
1974).
A feature that adds to the usefulness of the division into lowland and upland forests is
the fact that many communities of the upland forests are common to all the three
countries in East Africa. For example, the structure and composition of Juniperus
37
forest, bamboo thicket, and Hagenia-Rapanea woodland are essentially the same in
Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
Within the upland forest belt that extends upwards to between 3000 m and 3300 m
there is a broad altitudinal differentiation into three zones. Thus, the lower part of the
belt, from 1500-2400 m consists of broadleaved evergreen hardwoods and some
conifers. In the middle part of the belt bamboo thicket is often dominant, and in the
highest part there is woodland with much Hagenia and Rapanea.
Within these vegetation zones, the distribution of vegetation types is closely determined
by the availability of water. The direction of moisture-laden winds creates wetter and
drier faces on the mountains. On the Virungas, the Ruwenzori, and Mt Elgon, the west
side is distinctly wetter than the east. On the Aberdares, Mt Meru and Mt Kenya, the
south side is wetter than the north, and on Mt Kilimanjaro, the southeast side is wetter
than the northwest. The arrangement of these vegetation types is shown in Figure 4.1,
which is applicable to a mountain in Kenya or Tanzania. However, the arrangement in
Uganda differs slightly because of the absence of Ocotea-Podocarpus forest in the
wetter parts of the upland forest belt. Ocotea usambarensis does occur, but rarely in
western Uganda and it is recorded in eastern Zaire (Robyns 1948).
Just as the forest types in each zone are controlled by availability of water, so too is the
distribution of species within each of the forest types. The influence of topography and
physical characteristics of the soil is very marked, since they both control the
availability of water.
In general, the forests consist of trees of columnar habit, often reaching a height of 50
m or more, with crowns touching and intermingling to form a continuous deep canopy
of complex structure. Lianas or woody vines are a characteristic component, often
interlaced in the canopy. Epiphytes such as bryophytes, ferns and orchids are common
characteristics of the wetter forests. Most of the trees are evergreen. The forest floor is
usually incompletely covered with herbs, shrubs and grasses that are broad-leafed.
38
Figure 4.1 Generalized altitude and moisture relationships of the Montane Forest
Vegetation of Uganda
(Source: Langdale-Brown et al. 1964, pp.3)
4.4.2 Woodlands and Wooded Grasslands

Woodlands refer to stands of trees; usually more branched than columnar, often
reaching a height of about 18 m with crowns that do not form a complex deep canopy.
Usually the trees are leafless for some part of the year. Scattered evergreen shrubs may
be present but are not conspicuous. Epiphytes with the exception of lichens are rare.
Grasses and herbs dominate the woodland floor.
The occurrence of woodland in Uganda and western Kenya coincides on the whole with
fairly high, evenly distributed rainfall and further increase in available rainfall leads to
forest. In Tanzania, however, woodland is widespread and it occurs under relatively
39
low annual rainfall coupled with a long and harsh dry season, which weakens the grass
cover, apparently leaving most of the available rainfall to be taken up by the trees.
The Brachystegia-Julbernardia or miombo woodland is one of the most extensive

vegetation types in Africa apart from the forests of Democratic Republic of Congo.
Curiously, its principal trees scarcely extend into Kenya and Uganda. In these two
countries, it is Acacia-Themeda and Combretaceous wooded grasslands that cover large
areas. The greatest development of the former woodland type is the broad belt, which
encircles the Kenya Highlands, 1200-1500 m and contains some of Kenya’s best
ranching country. Whereas the latter type is confined in Uganda and western Kenya,
however, with increases in effective rainfall combretaceous wooded grassland rather
than the Acacia-Themeda type is favored.
The wooded grasslands and woodlands contain a variety of woody genera most of
which are fire tolerant to some extent. They are designated combretaceous because of
the common occurrence and sometimes abundance of two genera of the combretaceae,
Combretum and Terminalia. Most Combretum species are stoutly branched trees
reaching a height of about 12 m.
4.4.3 Bush-land
This is an assemblage of woody plants, mostly of shrub habit having a height of less
than 6 m with occasional emergent plants and a cover of not more than 20 percent. An
emergent is a tree or bush growing to a considerably greater height than the
surrounding vegetation.
Bush-land is widespread especially in Kenya and Tanzania where it forms a good deal
of the country including the game parks. The appearance of the bush-land depends
largely on the species that comprise the woody vegetation and on the presence or
absence of perennial grasses. One good example is well illustrated by much of the
vegetation in the Tsavo and Amboseli National Parks, which also cover large areas of
Central and Lake Provinces of Tanzania including much of the Maasai country. The
ground cover is made up mainly of woody plants of shrubby habit, many of them
40
succulent or thorny and with small deciduous leaves but often quite leafless. Prominent
among these are species of the genus Commiphora of which forty-six are found in
Kenya alone.
Among the woody vegetation, the ground is covered with annual grasses and ephemeral
herbs. These come up after the rains and are followed by heavy grazing, so that for
much of the year the ground is bare among the shrubs. In the rainy season, there is a
surprisingly beautiful variety of flowering plants including such genera as Chlophytum,
Anthericum, Hypoxis, Rhamphicarpa and Cycnium, the last sometimes called the paper
flower because its white or pink blossoms look like paper scattered on the ground.
Ipomoea species of the family Convolvulaceae, both creeping and erect forms, often
provide splashes of white, yellow or purple against the dry banks.
4.4.4 Grassland
In East Africa true grassland is rare. Nowhere can one find landscape like the North
America prairies or the Russian steppes. According to Jackson (1964) climatic climax
grassland is confined to desert areas with prolonged drought and low erratic rainfall
where a treeless grass sward is dominated by species of Aristida and other genera of the
Stipeae and Chlorideae.
Most grassland under other conditions has scattered trees and shrubs and falls into two
categories, derived or secondary grassland and edaphic grassland. The former is formed
from woodland as a result of burning or grazing, both of which reduce the cover of
woody trees and shrubs. The latter owes its characteristics composition to features of
the soil.
The nearest approach to extensive climax grasslands in East Africa are the semi-desert
grasslands which cover large areas of Kenya, extending to Somalia, and occur to a
small extent in northeastern Uganda. Otherwise much of the grassland of East Africa is
only maintained in that condition by regular burning and by the grazing of wild or
domestic animals. Without these, the grassland would revert to thicket, woodland or
41
forest, except in places where the soil is seasonally waterlogged. It occurs mainly at
low and medium altitudes sometimes reaching up to the edge of the upland forest.
Good examples of derived grassland are found in some of the national parks such as in
Queen Elizabeth, where lacustrine and volcanic soils are fertile but limited in
productivity by inadequate rainfall, which varies from 600 mm on the floor of the Rift
at Mweya to 1000 mm at Katwe. The grasslands of Serengeti National Park in
Tanzania represent the nearest thing in East Africa, outside the arid areas to true
grassland. In the wet season, when new grass and surface water are available this and
other grassy areas are visited by huge herds of wild animals. Doubtless with lower
grazing pressure these grasslands would return to woodlands.
Themeda triandra and Pennisetum clandestinum are other type of grassland found at a
rather higher altitude, which is derived from upland forest and reaches right up to its
edge. This type of grassland covers large parts of central Kenya and highest areas of
the west of the Rift Valley. In Uganda, highly productive P. clandestinum grassland
predominates in limited areas between 1600 m and 2500 m in south Kigezi and in
Bugishu.
Prominent among the edaphic grasslands are those of permanent and seasonal swamps.
They are usually dominated by tall, tufted species such as Miscanthidium violaceum,
Loudetia phagmitoides and Echinochloa pyramidalis. In Uganda, the grassland is found
around the shores of Lake Victoria and lake Nabugabo. In other parts of East Africa,
the grassland is located along the major lakes and streams.
4.4.5 Barren Land

This is a naturally almost devoid of vegetation; in other words, semi-desert and desert,
where the vegetation is so thinly scattered that the landscape is dominated at all seasons
by the color of the soil.
4.5 Vegetation Zones of East Africa

The East Africa vegetation can be classified into five main zones as shown in Figure
4.2 and these zones are:
42
4.5.1 Lowland Equatorial Vegetation Zone, Around Lake Victoria
The main natural vegetation that once grew over this zone, below 1500 meters above
sea level was rainforest, dominated by very tall heavy hardwood trees such as
mahogany. These forests have a thick undergrowth of tree ferns, creepers and countless
other small plants. This zone is evergreen throughout the year not because all the trees
are evergreen but because many of them shed their leaves at different times of the year.
The equatorial vegetation is found in some other areas of East Africa with over 1100
mm of rainfall. However, as rainfall declines, the natural forest gives way to open
woodland and tall grasses, and in drier areas, savanna grassland predominates. Much of
this forest vegetation has been cleared to pave way for agriculture. However, in
swampy shores of Lake Kyoga, the vegetation has been modified due to the influence
of edaphic conditions, with papyrus grass being the dominant vegetation in the
waterlogged soils.
4.5.2 The Sub-Tropical Vegetation

Although a stride the Equator, this zone does not share the same vegetation
characteristics as the lowland equatorial zones because of the influence of altitude and
rain-bearing winds. The vegetation forms vary with altitude, slope angles, valleys and
exposure to wind-laden moisture. Savanna vegetation dominates above 1500 meters
and gives way to forest at 1800 meters. This merges into thick bamboo forest until at
3500 meters, where heath and moorland plants such as alpine flowers, lobelia,
groundsel, grasses and shrubs are adapted to cold, and windy climatic conditions. Snow
and ice cover the highest point of the mountains as shown in Figure 4.1, with vegetation
zones slightly higher on the leeward side (Waters and Odera 1886).
4.5.3 The Tropical Savanna Vegetation

Much of this zone has open savanna woodland called miombo, with many types of
grasses, shrubs and trees such as acacias and baobabs adapted to withstand the long
drought. While in the wet season, the tall flat-topped trees give shelter to woodland rich
in leaf and flower, in the dry season; all the leaves and flowers are lost with much of the
43
animal life. This zone is tsetse fly infested, making cattle farming impossible over large
areas in this thin populated zone.
Figure 4.2 Vegetation Zones Resulting from Changes in Temperature and

Rainfall on Mt Kenya
4.5.4 The Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetation Zone

Vegetation in this zone is limited, and varies from bush-land and thicket, where rainfall
is above 350 mm per annum to dry stunted thorny shrubs and acacias elsewhere.
4.5.5 The Tropical Vegetation

Vegetation in this warm wet coast belt is rich with coconut woodland, bush and tall
grassland. There is also dense true equatorial forest, which occurs in pockets along the
coast from Lindi to Malindi and on coastal hills. Mangrove swamps line river valleys
and inlets along main coral coast.
4.6 East Africa Soils

4.6.1 Introduction
Soils reflect the influence of climate, parent material, topography, time and living
organisms mainly vegetation (Brady 1974). The strong influence of climate, especially
rainfall is seen in the broad regional soil units of East Africa (Morgan 1973) (Figure
4.3). The specific nature of local soil types as reflected in their depth, horizonation,
44
texture, color, fertility, previous land use etc., results from the degree to which parent
material, topography and time combine to interact with and modify the effects of
climate on soil development. Thus, the regional soil units (Figure 4.3), which share
same climate and vegetation but which differ in terms of topography, underlying parent
material or geological age have resulted into different soil types of East Africa (Lind
and Morrison 1974).
4.6.2 Factors Determining Soil Types in East Africa

According to Anderson (1963) no one physical factor can be attributed to have a direct
influence on soil development in East Africa as a whole, but each factor gives
encouraging results in some region and fails in others. Thus regions with similar
climates have similar soils only when their topography, drainage, surface geology, and
past history of land use have much in common. Usually, land units dominated by a
particular kind of topography and/or parent material are smaller in area than a regional
climate. Therefore soil units tend to be relatively small and thus have a more localized
effect on the nature and distribution of vegetation. This is especially true in drier areas
where rainfall and leaching, the major operational climatic factors are less influential in
East Africa.
(a) Climate
Climate is the most portent determinant of soil type, especially in the wetter areas of
East Africa. Thus, those regions with an average annual precipitation of 1500 to 2000
mm or more, nearly always have red soils or latosols (Ellis 1952). The latosols are
known to have developed from diverse and dissimilar materials such as granites,
basalts, sandstones, limestone, shale, schist, dolerites and pegmatites. They occur on
step mountain slopes and on gently undulating surfaces.
45
Figure 4.3 Regional Soil Units for East Africa
(Source: D’Hoore in Morgan 1973)
46
The highly leached red earth overlying the rock is the end product of weathering under
generous rainfall and free through drainage, and it is considered to be a climatic type in
East Africa. In East Africa, however, there are red soils occurring outside the limits of
what may be regarded as the climatic domain of such leached soils. This is
demonstrated in the semi-arid conditions, for example, over much of the Maasai plains
that appear to provide the necessary leaching conditions for their development, and yet
they are only the relics of earlier wetter conditions, but in the fairly recent past when
they became drier. Thus carrying the impression of the former conditions.
(b) Parent material

Parent material is a factor of increasing significance in determining soil type as one
passes from wetter to drier regions. For example, sandstone may consist of up to 99%
silica, whereas a pure limestone such as the East Africa Coastal corals has much as
56% of its weight as calcium carbonate. However, at lower rainfalls, soil parent
material becomes an increasingly important influence on soil texture. Parent materials
high in quartz develop into sandy soils. Those low in quartz such as lavas develop into
clayey soils (Lind and Morrison 1974).
(c) Topography
Milne (1935) described the importance of topography in giving rise to compound soil
units that are in close spatial association. Even in those areas of East Africa where
rainfall exceeds 1500 mm/annum and climate is the overriding factor determining soil
characteristics, the abundant latosols/red soils tend to differentiate locally into
topographically related catenas (Lind and Morrison 1974). Milne described catenas as
chains (in Latin) of crests, hollows and slopes, which indicate that the grouped soils are
linked by their topographic relationship. The crests and slopes carry well-drained red
loams; the hollows are swampy and have black or grey clays; and murram soils occur
towards the foot of the slope. Soil profiles a long a traverse from the crest to a point in a
hollow differ significantly, and cannot be included in any grouping that depends on
morphological similarity. The catenas are widespread throughout southern Tanzania
and large parts of Uganda where relatively high rainfall have created extensive areas of
47
very old, highly weathered, highly leached sands and sandy loam soils of low fertility
(Pratt and Gwynne 1977).
4.5 Summary
This lesson has described the vegetation transect in Kenya and Uganda between the
Indian Coast and eastern Zaire, which varies according to the influences of climatic
zones. However, a similar transect in Tanzania is somewhat different because the
miombo, open woodland dominates the entire central region. Types of vegetation such
as forests, woodlands and wooded grasslands, bushland, grassland and barren land
dominate the East Africa vegetation scene. Five major vegetation zones are also
discussed. The lesson is concluded with some factors that determine the soil types of
East Africa.

(a) Describe the vegetation zones in the order of altitude on the Highlands of
East Africa.
(b) What are the factors determining the major soil types in East Africa?
(c) Outline the major vegetation zones of East Africa.
4.7 Activity
In your local area:
(i) Identify the natural vegetation.
(ii) What types of vegetation are characteristic?
4.8 Further Reading

Region, Nairobi: Macmillan.
Lind, E.M. and M.E.S. Morrison (1974): East African Vegetation, London: Longman.
48
5.0 LESSON FIVE: RANGELANDS
5.1 Introduction
This lesson touches on the environment as the basic determinant of the nature and
productivity of rangeland ecosystems. Describes the physical environmental factors,
which include climate, topography and soil that determine the potential of a rangeland
to support certain types and levels of land use. Within the limits set by this potential,
the influence of fire and biological environmental factors such as grazing, tree cutting,
and shifting cultivation results in different types of vegetation and levels of productivity
are also discussed. Wildlife as a valuable rangeland resource is also covered. However,
over the past several decades this resource has been greatly diminished due to
overexploitation and habitat loss.

(a) Define rangelands
(b) Describe the status of rangeland vegetation.
(c) Describe the utilization of rangelands.
5.3 Definition and Location of Rangelands

Rangelands are uncultivated lands that support grazing and browsing animals. In other
words, they can be defined as all areas providing habitat for wild or domestic animals
(Lind and Morrison 1974). They cover the greater part of East Africa including a wide
variety of arid and semi-arid lands, where other land uses such as agriculture are not
economically feasible but also include areas that have in the past or the future may be
used for the cultivation or forestry. Also included are some higher rainfall areas where
for some cultural reasons livestock production dominates despite the potential of the
land to support agriculture. For instance, traditional cattle keeping is still carried out by
Maasai pastoralists in Transmara District in southwestern Kenya and the Ngorongoro
Highlands in north-central Tanzania, under rainfall ranging from 800-1600 mm/year
49
(Thurow 1995). Further rangelands include fallowed fields and wooded areas, which
provide browse or grazing as well as land used by wildlife but from which livestock are
excluded by disease or lack of water. Thus, although most rangelands are arid or semi-
arid and predominantly grass (Figure 5.1), in this lesson at least some sub-humid and
humid zones, and in areas with predominantly woody vegetation or which support
shifting cultivation are considered.
5.4 Status of Rangeland Vegetation

The nature of rangeland vegetation is strongly affected by man’s activities. This is
probably most apparent in the relative amount of woody vis-à-vis herbaceous plants.
The rangelands of East Africa typically contain significant components of both woody
and herbaceous vegetation. Except where rainfall is very low or soil-water conditions
are unfavorable to trees and shrubs such as in the eastern parts of the Serengeti plains of
Tanzania, the natural succession of vegetation is towards woody vegetation (Pratt and
Gwynne 1977). The major constraints to woody vegetation completely dominating the
rangelands are burning and clearing in East Africa. Overgrazing, on the other hand,
often tends to foster bush encroachment.
5.4.1 Fire
Fire including that set by man is a natural component of the rangeland ecosystem.
Where there is sufficient fuel in the form of dry grass, fires keep the vegetation open by
suppressing trees and shrubs and favoring the growth of grasses. In the wetter
rangelands, the balance between woody and grassy vegetation is very unstable: if not
burnt, rangeland vegetation becomes increasingly woody. Thus overall, burning has the
greatest impact on woody vegetation in those areas where the growth of grass, which
produces the dry season fuel for fires, is greatest. Grass fires and therefore the impact of
burning are less frequent in arid rangelands because there is often insufficient dry grass
to serve as fuel. Burning those rangelands without adequate fuel loads is apt to weaken
grasses rather control woody growth (Tainton and Walker 1993).
50
Figure 5.1 Land Climatically Suited only as Rangelands
Climatic Potential Rangelands

(Source: Morgan 1973)
51
Grass fires encourage the growth of species that are adapted to burning. Some are
protected from the fire’s heat by thick barks. Others have such as Acacia spp., have
dormant buds beneath the soil that sprout after the tree is burnt. Miombo vegetation in
southern Tanzania is well adapted to grass fires. Many miombo trees have a very large
underground woody biomass (up to nine times that of the canopy), which is capable of
sending up persistent sprouts after being burnt. Therefore, frequent burning causes little
loss of vigor to these woody plant species. Other miombo tree species require cracking
seeds by the fire in order to germinate.
Timing and frequency of burning strongly affect the impact of grass fires on rangeland
vegetation. Most burning is at the end of dry season when conditions are suited to it.
The absence of burning is associated with higher tree densities, higher numbers of fire
sensitive trees, fewer grasses, and an active ecological succession towards forest.
However, cool and early season burning results in fewer but proportionally more fire
tolerant trees, a more open canopy and more grasses, whereas hot and late season
burning creates an open grass savanna with only a few scattered fire tolerant trees. Most
miombo species are adapted to an early and cool burn regime, an important
management tool. Caution is, however, given that burning too early in the dry season
should be avoided because of its potentially harmful effects on the soil and grass cover.
Frequency of burning is also important. Pratt and Gwynne (1977) showed that shrub
encroachment is usually best controlled by grass fires that occur once every 3-6 years;
seedlings of woody plants must be burnt while they are still vulnerable to fire.
Grasslands almost everywhere in eastern Kenya if not burnt at least every five years,
revert to bush-land or thicket (FAO 1972). More frequent burns are needed to open up
denser bush-lands and some species such as Acacia brevispica are best burnt biennially
while others require a sequence of three annual fires.
Burning also influences the cover, composition and productivity of grassland. For
instance, the perennial grass Themeda triandra dominates fire climax grasslands in
northern Tanzania and southern Kenya. In the absence of fires, it is gradually replaced
by other grasses or by woody vegetation, whereas in some areas, if too frequently burnt,
52
it is replaced by the even more fire tolerant Heteropogon contrortus (Bogdan 1977).
Pennisetum purpureum in Uganda and some more palatable Hyparrhenia species are
other grasses that are maintained by frequent fires (Langlands 1967).
Burning during the growing season directly harms many grass species. Continued
burning reduces infiltration rates, increase sediment production, reduce perennial grass
cover, and increase the amount of annual grasses, forbs and bare soil (Cheruiyot 1984).
Burning too long before the next rains, especially in miombo vegetation where dry
season may be 7-8 months in duration, exposes the soil to the elements and results in
increased risk of erosion. However, burning just prior to the rains, least affects soils and
enhances forage quality of grasses.
Overall, fire has been a major factor in shaping the relatively open productive fire
tolerant grass in wetter rangelands of East Africa. The pastoralists maintain grassy areas
for grazing and remove the accumulated dead herbaceous material, which has lost its
nutritive value, reduce woody cover that might be used by predators, and to kill ticks
have used it.
5.4.2 Tree Cutting

Tree cutting, if heavy and persistent enough, changes physiognomic and compositional
nature of the vegetation. Langdale-Brown et al (1964) observed that except for the
driest areas, burning, cutting and cultivation are required to arrest succession back to
climax of vegetation in East Africa.
On the other hand, tree cutting can be detrimental to rangeland productivity. This is
evident in southern Somalia where the overexploitation of Acacia bussei for the
production of charcoal greatly diminished local forage and honey production. The
removal trees for charcoal increased erosion in the mountains of eastern Somalia and
destabilized sand dunes in central Somalia.
5.4.3 Grazing/Browsing
53
According to Herlocker (1999) the rangeland vegetation of East Africa is generally well
adapted to defoliation by grazing and browsing. This is probably due to its long
association with herbivores.
The degree of grazing strongly affects the structure, composition, quality and
productivity of rangeland vegetation. For instance, Heady (1966) noted the differences
within Themeda triandra grassland that result from different intensities of grazing. Un-
grazed perennial grassland accumulates dead material, less nutritious grasses and
woody plants unless periodically defoliated many grasses lose vigor and die early,
thereby becoming less effective competitors against woody plants. On the other hand,
light to moderate levels of grazing actually maximize both primary and secondary
production and encourage perennial grassland at the expense of woody vegetation
(Gwynne 1977).
However, overgrazing reduces ground cover, plant height, forage quality and
productivity; changes are induced in the dominant growth form of herbaceous plants:
tall perennial bunch grass species give way to shorter rhizomatous and stoloniferous
perennial grasses, which are replaced by annual grass and forbs species. Eventually
woody vegetation may become abundant.
The impact of grazing on rangeland vegetation depends on (a) the type of herbivore, (b)
the number of animals utilizing an area, and (c) the distribution of use in time and
space.
The Type of Herbivore

Greenway et al (1969) have given an account of some ecological problems that must be
understood if the most efficient use is to be made of the land either for forestry,
livestock or game animals. For example, it has been demonstrated that wild ungulates
have evolved in the rangeland habitat over many millions of years and their physiology
and graze feeding habits are highly adapted to the rigors and uncertainties of that
environment. Figure 5.2 illustrates the grazing habits of animals in Tarangire Game
reserve in Tanzania and the independence of plant and animal communities. The wild
54
animals spread their grazing over a wide variety of vegetable material in contrast to
domestic cattle, which are confined to grass sward and not physiologically adapted to
the dry season.
The dietary preferences of the livestock and game animals are therefore complementary
rather than competitive as they favor different feed resources within the same area of
rangeland and have adapted differently to seasonal changes in amount and quality of
forage.
55
Figure 5.2 Food Preferences of Animals in the Tarangire Game
Reserve (Source: Lamprey 1963)
Number of Animals
Excessive numbers of grazing will eventually reduce ground cover, increase the amount
of less palatable species and reduce productivity and carrying capacity. This is
especially relevant to continued or long term overstocking.
Distribution of Use
The impact of grazing on rangeland vegetation also reflects how it is distributed in
terms of space or time. For example, a given number of herbivores will affect the
vegetation less when distributed over a wide area than when concentrated into a small
area. Similarly, grazing is apt to have a greater negative impact when the vegetation of
an area is grazed continuously than when it is grazed only periodically and, therefore
given an opportunity to rest and maintain its vigor. Private ranchers apply distribution
of use in space and time through various types of rotational grazing systems in which
56
livestock are moved at intervals from paddock to paddock in such a way that they are
ensured an optimal supply of forage while allowing grazed paddocks a certain amount
of time to recover.
Traditional nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists on communal rangelands also

distribute their grazing by movements between pasture (Niamir 1990). The Turkana of
northwestern Kenya and Ngorongoro Maasai in northern Tanzania are good examples.
Commonly, this is a regular occurrence done seasonally through use of wet and dry
season grazing areas.
5.5 Rangelands Utilization

5.5.1 Wildlife. Wildlife is a valuable rangeland resource. It has long been known for its
abundance, uniqueness and diversity in East Africa (Gichohi et al 1996). The region
does contain within the savannahs of northern Tanzania, the world’s largest
concentration of large mammals. However, wildlife is not evenly distributed throughout
the region but instead vary in abundance, composition and productivity according to
their local environment.
East Africa’s high faunal biodiversity reflects the existence of a large number of species
of mammals and other vertebrates. This in turn reflects a diversity of habitats, created
by different combinations of elevation, rainfall, geology, soil and surface and ground
water. Tanzania is among the top 25 endemic rich countries of the world in terms of
higher vertebrate species, whereas Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda are individually
among the world’s leaders in terms of species richness and endemism of mammal
species (Groombridge 1992). A further example of the region’s biodiversity is that the
Serengeti national Park in northern Tanzania has the highest percentage (24%) of
breeding populations of antelope species in Africa (ibid).
(a) Wildlife as a resource

West (1995) lists four principal reasons for the preservation of biodiversity: moral,
aesthetic, and the provision of goods and provision of services.
57
(i) Moral: The belief that human beings have an obligation to protect fellow creatures
whether they have any intrinsic value or not.
(ii) Aesthetic: Presently, wildlife in East Africa have a major aesthetic value to the
tourists who want to see and appreciate wild game species, especially when done in
their natural environment.
(iii)Provision of Goods: Wildlife provides a variety of goods such as hides, skins,
ivory and meat (Williamson and Payne 1978). At least in the past, wild game
animals supported subsistence hunting economies. However, the contribution of
game meat to the supply of animal protein in the diet in the East Africa region is
relatively low.
(iv) Provision of Services: This refers to life support services provided by the natural
ecosystem such as the disposal of wastes and recycling of nutrients. In this case, the
contribution of wildlife is more indirect. For instance, Walker (1979) noted that game
bird populations exert control on the number of harvester termites, which could
otherwise eat enormous amounts of grass; that scratching of the soil by game birds
favors the germination of grass seeds and that scavengers and small predators control
rodents and help prevent the spread of diseases by removing carcasses and sick
animals.
(c) Tourism
The recreational/aesthetic importance of wildlife may be its single greatest economic
value. Wildlife-based tourism is a central plank in the economies of Kenya, Tanzania
and Uganda (Myers 1972). For instance, national parks are the mainstay of Kenya’s
tourism industry, which is the second largest earner of foreign exchange next to
agriculture. Wildlife-based tourism has also benefited some local economies such as
the Narok County Council, which earned 90% of its income from the Maasai Game
Reserve in Kenya (Berger 1993).
(d) Game Cropping for meat

This is another economic use of wildlife. It can be carried out in conjunction with
livestock raising or in locations where economically viable livestock production is not
possible as in areas that are waterless, disease ridden and/or of low productivity.
Williamson and Payne (1978) have demonstrated that game cropping is more
58
productive than livestock production where the latter’s stocking is less than 1
livestock unit/12 ha. Game cropping is carried out on a few private ranches in Kenya,
Tanzania and Uganda. This activity is based on the fact that wild game and livestock
managed on the same area provide the highest possible biomass/unit area, especially
if the game species have different feeding habits and preferences from, that of
livestock.
However, commercial game cropping faces a number of constraints including:
Difficult and wasteful cropping methods that results in high costs of slaughtering
and processing.
Marketing problems resulting from expensive meat, expensive transport from
cropping areas to markets and veterinary restrictions and export constraints
caused by the presence of epizootic diseases and parasites in cropping areas.
Game acting as a reservoir for epizootic diseases and parasites that are
transferable to livestock, and
National economic policies, infrastructure and tradition, which heavily favour
livestock over wildlife.
(e) Safari or Trophy Hunting
As with tourism, safari hunting is a high value use of wildlife that does not depend
directly on total animal biomass. In Zimbabwe, for example, where increasing
elephant populations are damaging economically valuable trees in state forests, it was
found that the economic returns from trophy hunting for elephant not only exceeded
those from timber sales but also held the potential of reducing damage to timber
species and encouraging canopy recruitment for future timber exploitation. Similar
examples are not available in East Africa because trophy hunting is illegal. This is
because poaching has been more difficult to control than in southern Africa.
5.6 Summary
The principal environmental factors acting on rangelands are climate, soils, burning,
grazing and tree cutting. Different timings, intensities and frequencies of the latter
59
factors significantly influence vegetation structure, composition, quality and
productivity.
The natural succession toward woody vegetation on most rangelands in East Africa is
constrained by burning and clearing but often assisted by overgrazing. Burning has the
most impact in the wetter rangelands where an abundance of grass results in lots of dry
season fuel. Overall, fire is a potentially valuable rangeland management tool. The
rangeland vegetation is generally well adapted to grazing and browsing. Grazing impact
depends upon (a) type of animal, (b) the number of animals using an area, and (c)
distribution of use in time and space.
Wildlife is a valuable rangeland resource. They are good for moral, aesthetic, and
production of goods and services. The principal economic uses of wildlife are tourism,
safari/trophy hunting, and game cropping.

(a) Define a rangeland.
(b) Draw a map of East Africa, showing the areas considered as rangelands.
(c) Describe the vegetation status of East Africa rangelands.
(d) What are the uses of East Africa rangelands?
5.8 Further Reading

Herlocker, D. (1999): Rangeland Ecology and Resource Development in Eastern
Africa, Nairobi: GTZ.
Lind, E.M. and M.E.S. Morrison (1974): East African Vegetation, London: Longman.
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PART TWO:
THE HUMAN REALM OF EAST AFRICA
61
6.0 LESSON SIX: POPULATION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION
6.1 Introduction
In this lesson factors accounting for the distribution of East Africa population are
discussed. Population size, nature of and the key factors contributing to population
change are examined. The structure of the population is discussed with special
emphasis placed on its effect on economic development of the region. The socio-
economic and environmental problems emanating from the large East Africa population
are also highlighted.
6.2 learning Objectives

By the end of this topic the learner should be able to:
• Describe the factors determining population distribution in East
Africa
• Discuss population change and population structure
• Evaluate the effects of population pressure in East Africa
6.3 Population Size and Distribution

Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda occupy a total of 569 million km2, 884 million km2, and
197 million km2 respectively. By the year 2002, Tanzania with a population of 35.18
million people was the most populous of the three East Africa countries, followed by
Kenya and Uganda (Table 1.2).
East Africa’s population is not only large but also unevenly distributed. Some places
are densely populated while others are sparsely populated. For example, the Kigezi area
in Uganda; Central Kenya and Moshi-Arusha region in Tanzania are densely populated
while others such as Central Tanzania; Northern Uganda and North Eastern Kenya are
thinly populated.
__________________________________________________________________
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Table 6.1 Population Size (in millions) of the three East Africa Countries between
1980 and 1999
YEAR KENYA UGANDA TANZANIA

1980 16.63 12.81 18.58
1990 23.55 16.33 25.47
1999 29.41 21.48 32.92
Source: World Bank 2001:6
Activity 6.0
i. Draw a line graph showing population growth in East Africa
ii. Comment on population growth in East Africa.
_____________________________________________________________________
Uganda has a more evenly distributed population than Kenya and Tanzania. She is also
the most densely populated in the region with an average of 100 persons per km 2.
However, some areas such as the lakeshore region, the area lying between Jinja and
Kampala, and on the slopes of Mt Elgon have a density of over 500 persons/Km2 are
more densely populated than other parts of the country. For instance, Karamoja District
in the north with about 30 persons/Km2 is one of the most sparsely populated regions in
Uganda.
Kenya has an average population of 53 persons per km2. However, due the uneven
distribution of resources some places are actually more densely populated than others.
For instance, the lakeshore region; Kenya highlands and some isolated areas along the
Indian Ocean have over 500 persons/Km2, while large parts of Eastern and North-
eastern are sparsely populated with less than 50 persons/km2.
On average Tanzania has population density of 39 persons/km2. But like Kenya and
Uganda, her population is also unevenly distributed. The most densely populated parts
of the country include Zanzibar and Pemba islands which have over 500 persons per
Km2. Other densely populated areas are the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Lakeshore
region, Mt Meru and the Ulunguru Mountains. But large parts of the country especially
the Central region are to a large extent sparsely populated.
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6.4 Factors Influencing Population Distribution
Physical as well as human-related factors account for the spatial differences in
population density
6.4.1 Physical factors

The major physical factors determining the distribution of population in East Africa
include climate, soils, topography, mineral deposits and pests and diseases (Table 6.2).
(a) Climate
The key climatic parameters influencing the distribution of population in East Africa
are rainfall and temperature. Areas characterized by high (>1000mm), reliable and
predictable rainfall; and moderate temperatures (15-20oc) are densely populated. Such
places have a high agricultural potential and therefore support large populations. Areas
with moderate to high rainfall (750 – 1000mm), which are also characterised by warm
to cool temperatures (20-25oc), are moderately populated; while those receiving less
than 700mm with high temperatures (>25oc) are sparsely populated. The latter, which is
commonly referred to as arid to semi arid areas or marginal lands have a low potential
and are mainly occupied by pastoralists. However, due to high population pressure and
subsequent land shortage in the high potential zones, the marginal areas are today
recipients of large numbers of migrants from the overcrowded areas. Unfortunately the
rising number of immigrants is contributing immensely to land degradation problems in
these fragile areas.
(b) Relief/Topography
Mountainous areas, especially at altitudes above 2100 meters have low and sparse
population. At such altitudes, low temperature and inadequate oxygen make life
generally impossible. Moreover, apart from limiting agricultural land, the steep slopes
of the mountains constitute a constraint on the movement of people and the
development of a modern transport network. The mountainous regions of East Africa
are therefore sparsely populated.
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Table 6.2 Factors influencing population distribution in East Africa
Type of Densely Populated (>500 Moderately Sparsely

Population/ persons per km2) Populated (100 Populated (<
factors of e.g. - 300 persons 100 persons
Distribution Kenya- Kisii, Vihiga, per km2) per km2)
Kericho, Nyeri, Kiambu
Uganda-Kigezi, Ankole,
Bugishu, Bunyoro
Tanzania- Arusha,
Kilimanjaro, mbeya, Kigoma,
Itigi
Climate >1000mm; >750 – < 750mm
(i) Rainfall 15 – 20 0c 1000mm > 250c
(ii) Temperatures 20 – 250c
Relief 1300 – 2100 m a.s.l 900 – 1300m < 900 m a.s.l.

a.s.l > 2100m a.s.l.
Soil Soils rich in organic matter Moderate to Low organic
(alluvial, loamy, volcanic) high organic content
matter (sandy soils
and back
cotton soils
Diseases Few e.g. highland Malaria Few Tsetse fly
Mosquitoes
Hilly places with gentle slopes, especially those lying between 1300 m and 2100 m, and
some lowlands are some of the densely populated regions in East Africa. These places
have moderate and comfortable temperatures, receive effective rainfall, have mature
and fertile soils and are easily accessible. As such they have a high agricultural
potential. However, rugged and steep slopes, which are usually characterised by poorly
developed and infertile soils, and hence a low agricultural potential do not attract large
populations.
Unlike in the temperate world, aspect (the compass direction in which sloping land
faces) does not exert any significant influence in the distribution of population in East
Africa. This is because in East Africa the sun is almost vertically overhead throughout
the year. However leeward sides of mountains, which normally receive low and
unreliable rainfall (< 350mm) and have poor soils and generally a weak agricultural
65
base, typically have low and sparse populations. There is more of livestock farming in
these areas than crop farming.
(c) Soils
East African populations are to a large extent agriculture-based, and tend to
concentrate in places with fertile soils. Areas of volcanic, alluvial or loamy soils are
more fertile than regions with sandy or clay soils. The former are not only deep, well
aerated, and easy to work but also contain high organic content and as such attract huge
populations. They are considered favourable and conducive environments for diverse
agricultural activities. The reverse is true of areas with sandy soils such as the Arid and
semi arid areas (ASALs) of North Eastern Kenya and Karamoja District of Uganda,
which are to a largely characterized by low and sparse populations. Sandy soils
although well aerated are coarse in texture and as such have a low water retention
capacity. They are therefore not conducive for crop production (with the exception of a
few crops such as dates and palm trees). Clay soils (eg Athi plains Kenya) are also not
very attractive to human settlements because they are poorly drained and are usually
water logged most of the time, heavy and hence too expensive to cultivate.
(d) Minerals
East Africa lacks important mineral deposits. However the few that are available play a
crucial part in the distribution of population in the region. Places with mineral deposits
have dense and nucleated populations. For instance, the availability of diamond and
copper mining in Mwandui Tanzania and Kilembe Uganda, respectively, explains the
presence of large and dense population in areas that would otherwise have low
populations. What do you think the effect of TITANIUM will be in Kwale District,
Kenya?
(e) Pests and Diseases

East Africa has a favourable environment for human settlement and agriculture.
Unfortunately this environment is also conducive to a variety of pests (mainly tsetse fly
and the mosquito) and associated diseases (trypanosomiasis and malaria), which affect
a substantial part of East Africa. The tsetse fly thrives in places below 1600m and those
66
receiving over 400mm of rainfall such as the Miombo woodland in Tanzania.
Mosquitoes survive in places below 1500m with stagnant water, poor drainage and
rainfall of over 400mm. At the moment Malaria, which is transmitted by mosquitoes, is
a killer disease in Kenya, after HIV-AIDS. Populations are thus sparse in areas
conducive to pests and diseases.
However, man is deterministic in nature and is working hard to eradicate pests and
diseases from the earth’s surface. Through improvements in science and technology,
pesticides, insecticides and medicine to combat pests and diseases have been found. For
instance, the Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) and KETRI, among others are
working tirelessly in the search for Malaria and HIV-AIDS cure.
Unlike in the past when malaria was restricted to lowland areas, of late there are
increasing cases of malaria in highland areas. For instance, there has been a rapid
increase in the number of people affected by highland malaria in Kericho and Kisii in
Kenya.
6.4.2 Socio-economic Factors

In recent times, certain sites on the earth’s surface have gained socio-economic
advantages over others because of the functions they perform as administrative
headquarters, ports and industrial towns or cities. These areas form some of the most
highly and densely populated areas of the world today. They are less extensive than the
densely populated agricultural or rural areas and are centres of in-migration.
(a) Population Change

Population changes can be as a result of natural change and or migration. The balance
between births and deaths determines natural population change. When the number of
births in a given region exceeds the number of deaths, a natural increase in population
occurs. When the number of deaths exceeds the number of births, a natural decrease in
population results. Thus, the difference between the number of births and deaths is
referred to as a natural population change.
67
Natural population change is the key factor contributing to East Africa’s population
growth. Before the 1960s population in East Africa grew rather slowly largely because
both birth rates and death rates were high. High death rates resulted from frequent wars,
famines and epidemics of such diseases as cholera etc. However after the 1970s, there
was a notable decline in mortality rates resulting from:
Extensive vaccination campaigns against epidemic diseases like measles, small pox
and polio.
Expansion of medical facilities and services especially in the rural areas.
Improved standards of living with regard to food, housing and sanitation.
Improved primary health care and community based rural health projects, which
receive strong support from the Governments. These aim at reducing infant and
child mortality caused by diarrhoeal diseases, malaria, preventable and
communicable diseases and malnutrition. Community based traditional birth
attendants are being trained to provide maternal and child health services and
nutritional education within their respective communities.
These improvements in medical facilities, hygiene and nutrition have resulted in a

significant drop in death rates from 40 persons per every 1,000 in the early 1960s to
less than 20 persons per every 1,000 in 2002 (Table 6.3).
Table 6.3 Birth, Death Rates and Life Expectancy in East Africa
Birth rates Death rate Rate of Life Life expectancy

per 1,000 per 1,000 natural expectancy (female)
pop pop increase (male)
Kenya 34 14 2.0 47 49
Uganda 48 18 3.0 42 44
Tanzania 40 13 2.7 51 53
Source: World population Data Sheet (2002)
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There has also been a major decline in birth rates from over 50 persons per every 1,000
in the early 1960s to 34, 48 and 40 persons in every 1,000 in Kenya, Uganda and
Tanzania respectively in 2002. Reasons advanced for declining birth rates include:
increased use of contraceptives, general acceptance of family planning, reduction in
illiteracy levels and increased cost of living.
Before the 1960, high birth rates were prevalent; a fact attributed to soaring fertility
rates, which resulted from:
1. Early start and late continuation of reproductive life (18 – 45 years).

2. Decline in the incidence of childlessness of women between 15 and 49 years
due to improved nutrition and health conditions
3. Low level of use of contraceptives
4. Rising level of adolescent fertility
5. Preference for a boy child to a girl child
(b) Population Migration

What do you understand by the term population migration? It is the physical movement
of people from one place to another. It takes many forms and can be classified in at
least three different ways including the following:
Voluntary and involuntary movements

Temporary and permanent movements.
External and internal movements
Let us now examine the differences between these different types of migration.
Internal migration: these are movements confined within a single country and do not
affect national population size of the countries in which they occur. They however can
have a significant impact on spatial distribution of populations especially in the cases
where too many people migrate from one area to another. Through out East Africa,
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ASALs, which have been known to support low populations, are today recipients of
large numbers of immigrants from the overcrowded high potential areas.
Internal migration, which could be of a long-term or short-term nature, includes the

following:
Rural-urban migration
Rural –rural migration
Urban-rural migration
Urban-urban migration.
(i) Rural-Urban Migration: Although East Africa like the rest of Africa is the least
urbanised, present rates of urban growth are among the highest in the world. Rural-
urban migration has contributed immensely to the process of urbanisation in the region.
It is a process representing an important demographic response to a new economic and
spatial order. It is also a process by which the rural and urban areas interact.
Rural-urban migration is a function of availability of economic opportunities in urban

areas and lack of the same in the rural. Lack of agricultural land, food insecurity,
underemployment or unemployment, low wages and dislike of hard rural conditions are
some of the underlying factors (push factors) enhancing rural-urban migration. The
attractions of urban life, the hope for better employment opportunities, better education
facilities and better standards of living are on the other hand, pull factors that attract
rural populations to urban areas. The introduction and penetration of the capitalist mode
of production based on a high degree of product specialisation and quite a sophisticated
division of labour has required wageworkers to concentrate in fixed locations (urban
centres). Among the many external stimuli to social and economic change in the rural
areas, the selective movement of household members from the rural to urban areas,
which are the centres of cash income, is among the most potent. Unemployment and
underemployment and the low wages offered in the rural areas are important factors
explaining the movement of rural population to urban areas. Migrants hope to find
employment and better wages in urban areas. The increasing cases of rural-urban
70
migration have aggravated the unemployment problem in the urban sector. A large
number of migrants have not been able to find employment.
(ii) Urban–Rural Migration: This type of migration consists of people who have
failed to find employment in the urban areas or those who have retired, been retrenched
or sacked. It also includes people who are dissatisfied with the noisy, congested, dirty
and dangerous urban areas.
(iii) Urban-Urban Migration: In some cases people migrate from one urban centre to
another. These are usually people on transfer or those who want to try their lack
elsewhere.
(iv) Rural-Rural Migration: Migrants falling under this category include mainly
agriculturists who migrate in search of agricultural land or land for settlement. Usually
the movement is from the densely populated and high potential areas towards the
sparsely populated areas. For example, in Kenya many migrants of this nature migrate
from the densely settled Central province to the less populated areas of the country.
External migration also known as international migration concerns the physical

movement of people from one country to another. These movements stem from
economic and social push and pull factors including: employment opportunities;
marriage; tourism; refugees and pilgrims. International migrations are of prime
demographic significance as they affect the rate of population change in both the
country of origin and that of destination. They influence the age structure, sex
structures and economic composition at both ends.
Due to its diversity in physical, social and cultural conditions, East Africa has become
the destination of large numbers of immigrants from the rest of the world. Large
numbers of immigrants comprise of tourists and expatriates whose visits are short term
and voluntary. Also, a large number of refugees are flocking Kenya, Uganda and
Tanzania countries from the countries neighbouring. For instance, Kenya is currently
hosting thousands of refugees from Somalia, Uganda, Ethiopia and Sudan while war
71
victims from Burundi and Rwanda have sought refuge in Tanzania. Refugees are
usually an economic burden on the recipient countries. Providing them with basic
socio-economic amenities is a considerable strain on economies that are already
performing extremely poorly.
6.5 Population Structure
Studying the population change of a region is not enough as its focus is on whether
population is increasing, decreasing, or not changing at all. It is also important to study
the population structure so as to understand the composition as well. What then is
population structure? Population structure is analysed in terms of age and sex groupings
of a population and is normally represented in the form of a population pyramid.
6.5.1 Age structure: This is the age composition of a population. It is influenced by

fertility, mortality and migration variables. Ordinarily a population is divided into three
broad categories including: the young and children (< 15year olds), middle aged (16 –
64 year olds) and the aged (> 64 year olds). The under-15 years olds, comprising of
young people and children, is largely non-productive. This group consists of
dependants who are either school going children and teenagers or non-school going
children. Unlike in the developed countries, this age group is pre-dominant in East
Africa (Table 6.4), a fact attributed high to birth rates and lack of longevity. The
middle-aged group is composed of the working, reproductive and productive
population. It supports the under 20s and over 60s population groups. The over 60s
form the third age group. Majority of the people falling in this category are
decreasingly productive as retirement age falls. Unlike in the developed world only a
small percentage of East Africa population survives to enjoy old age. This reflects a
decrease in life expectancy resulting from increasing levels of poverty and in particular
lack of finances to meet the escalating cost of medication.
6.5.2 Sex composition: Is the ratio of male to female in a population. It is an

established fact that the number of male births exceeds female births even though the
reasons are not well known. As a result, there is usually an excess of males in the early
age groups of a population. But it is also a known fact that in nearly all countries
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worldwide there is usually a higher mortality for males than for females and this
appears true throughout the normal life span. This is also true of East Africa where the
number of females is slightly higher than that of females after age five.
Table 6.4 Age structure of East Africa Countries-2002
Country / Age Percentage of Population in different age brackets

Bracket < 15 16 – 64 > 65
Kenya 44 53 3
Uganda 51 47 2
Tanzania 45 52 3
Source: World Population Data Sheet (2002)
A population structure of a country is best illustrated through the use of a population or

age-sex pyramid. The vertical axis is graduated in groups of years and the horizontal
axis represents percentages of males (left) and females (right) in each group (activity
6.2).
Activity 6.2
Using the age/female-male population figures for the year 2002, draw
age-sex pyramids for Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. What conclusion do
you draw from these pyramids?
6.6 Problems Associated with a Large Population

As noted elsewhere in this module, East Africa’s population has continued to show an
upward trend resulting to an eminent imbalance between human beings and the
available resources. Rapidly increasing populations have continually exerted pressure
on physical and social resources and have resulted in problems of varying magnitudes.
Some of these are highlighted and discussed here.
73
6.6.1 Resource degradation: Continually increasing population in East Africa is
already exerting enormous pressure on the available resources and making their
sustainable use almost impossible. Some of the affected resources include:
(a) Agricultural land: Increasing populations have forced people to abandon their
traditional farming systems that involved leaving land on fallow such as shifting
cultivation. Instead land is cultivated year in year out without a rest and usually without
the use of manure and/or fertilizers. Infertile soils are known to be quite vulnerable to
erosion and soil erosion has been reported in many areas where agriculture is practised.
Soil erosion results in nutrient loss and consequently a drop in crop yields. Increasing
cases and levels of poverty have aggravated the problem of soil infertility, as many
farmers are unable to use farm inputs to intensify their farm operations. Reduced soil
fertility and land degradation in general have compounded the food insecurity problem
in the region.
Silt transported down stream clogs irrigations channels and dams. For example the
Masinga dam which is the main source of Hydro-electric Power in Kenya is silting at
an alarming rate due to poor land use in the upper Tana River catchment. Continued
siltation in the dam will have devastating and costly effects in the country.
In some cases excess populations migrate to marginal lands introducing improper

farming methods in the already unstable and fragile ecosystems; hence land degradation
followed by desertification.
(b) Forests: More people than ever before are encroaching into forested areas in search
of land for settlement and cultivation as well as forestry products. For instance, the
Sabaoti of Uganda and Kenyan in the Kenya-Uganda frontier have encroached on Mt
Elgon clearing forests at a worrying rate. Generally, forest destruction has had
devastating effects in East Africa. It has resulted in:
Loss of biodiversity: Forests are home to fauna and flora. There are countless
birds, insects, reptiles and mammals, which live and feed in forests; and a variety of
74
tree species. A typical patch of 10km2 of rainforest e.g. in Kakamega forest in Western
Kenya, may contain as many as 1,500 species of flowering plants, 750 species of tree,
400 species of birds, 150 varieties of butterflies, 100 different reptiles, and 60 types of
amphibians. When such a patch is destroyed, all the fauna and flora is as well destroyed
as they are left homeless. Destruction of forests and other animal habitats has resulted
in serious human-wildlife conflicts. In their effort to survive, animals encroach on
human property leading to loss of life and property. Numerous cases of elephants and
buffalos etc. destroying crops, killing and or maiming people in the Mt. Kenya area
have been reported.
Loss of nutrients: Deforestation reduces the amount of leave fall in the affected
areas (figure 1.1). Leave fall is a great source of humus in the soil. A reduction in leave
fall means less humus in the soil, a problem aggravated by high levels of leaching in the
tropics. Soil with a low organic content (humus) cannot support a luxuriant tree cover
and consequently the quantity and quality of trees in the forested areas is drastically
reduced.
Accelerated soil erosion: Tree canopy protects soils from heavy rains; roots bind
the soil together while leave fall augment organic content of the soil. Without the
protective tree cover, there will be less interception and infiltration, and as such surface
runoff and soil erosion will increase. Soil erosion increases the extent and frequency of
flooding, reduces agricultural productivity, and increases siltation of irrigation channels
and dams.
Increased carbon dioxide: We know trees use carbon dioxide (C02) in the
photosynthesis process and are actually referred to as carbon sinks. Cutting trees
therefore increases C02 in the atmosphere aggravating the problem of global warming.
On the other hand, trees are a good source of oxygen. For instance, recent
investigations have suggested that over one third of the worlds oxygen supply comes
75
Figure 6.1 The nutrient cycle
(a) Nutrient Cycle in an Undisturbed Rainforest

Numerous fallen leaves
Nutrient enriched soils Decay rapidly to form humus

Enhance forest growth
Nutrients added to the soil
(b) The Cycle After Forests Have Been Cleared
Less leave fall
Nutrient deficient soils Less humus

discourage tree growth
Less nutrients added to the soil

and nutrient leaching leads to infertile soils
from trees in the rainforest and that a quarter of the world’s water is stored in the
Amazon forest.
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Harsh micro and macroclimate: Forests have a significant influence on micro and
macroclimate. Trees, through the process of transpiration, transfer tones of water from
the soil to the atmosphere. Under favourable conditions this water can lead to the
formation of rainfall. In addition, close growing trees in a forest produce microclimates
beneath their dense leaf-cover often having a reduced temperature range and relatively
higher humidity. Thus destroying forests generates harsh micro and macroclimatic
conditions, which reduce the productivity of the affected ecosystems.
Shortage of fuel wood and timber: Forests are exploited for domestic and
commercial purposes. There is an increasing demand for trees for timber for building,
fuel wood, paper industry etc. For instance fuel wood is the main source of energy in
rural East Africa. Over 80% of rural folks use firewood and charcoal for cooking.
Another significant number of urban population use charcoal for cooking. Unless the
high rate of deforestation is reversed, East Africa may be unable to meet the increasing
demand for fuel wood and timber.
Water degradation: Water degradation is evident where population growth causes

higher demand than the supply. On one hand, water quantity declines following an
increase in its demand to meet domestic, agricultural and commercial needs. On the
other hand, water quality declines too, as a result of agricultural and industrial related
pollution. As the demand for water increases, conflicts arise as people fight over the
available water. For instance in January-February 2005 water shortage sparked ethnic
clashes mainly between the Maasai and Kikuyu in Mai-Mahiu Naivasha, Kenya where
over 10 people were killed.
(c) Glutted labour market: A high rate of population growth results in an increase in
the number of people joining the labour force. This is a serious problem in East Africa
where generation of employment opportunities is remarkably low and slow compared
to the number of job seekers; a problem attributed to East Africa’s low economic
growth. Between 1980 and 2000 for instance, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania realised an
economic growth rate of about 0.0%, 5.1%, and 4.0%, respectively
(http://www.nationmaster.com). Consequently, the rate of unemployment has risen
77
inordinately to a situation whereby the labour market is glutted. Currently the rate of
unemployment is over 40% in the three East Africa countries.
(d) Inadequate social and economic infrastructure: A rapidly expanding population

exerts increasing pressure on the social and economic infrastructure of the concerned
countries. Schools, hospitals and other facilities become inadequate almost as soon as
they are constructed. Urban areas especially Nairobi, Mombassa, Moshi, Dar es
Salaam, Kampala Entebbe are experiencing an acute house shortage problem. The
ongoing rural to urban migration has aggravated the housing problem further.
Consequently slums and ghettos have developed in the big cities (elaborated in lesson
seven).
6.7 Conclusion and Summary

East Africa’s population is unevenly distributed with a few pockets having
extremely high densities while others have sparse population.
A number of physical factors namely climate, relief, soils, presence of minerals
and diseases contribute to the distribution of population in the region.
East Africa’s population has continued to show an upward trend due to high,
though declining birth rates coupled with low death rates.
The population of East Africa unlike those of developing countries comprises
mainly of young children below 15 years old; thus increasing the dependency
ratio.
The large population has had negative environmental and socio-economic
problems, which pose a major threat in terms of achieving economic
development.

(a) Draw a map of East Africa and on it show population distribution.
(b) Discuss the major factors accounting for population density in (i) Central
Kenya and (ii) Central Tanzania
(c) Describe the different types of migration and show how they affect
population size of East Africa.
(d) (i) What is a population structure?
(ii)Discuss the effect of the high dependency ration in the economic
78
development of East Africa.
(e) Drawing specific examples from your home district, discuss any three
major population-related problems. How is the local community
responding to these problems?
6.9 Further Reading

Waters, G. and J. Odero (1986): Geography of Kenya and the East African Region,
Hong Kong: Macmillan,
World Bank (1989): Sub-Sahara Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Development;
A Long –term Perspective Study, Washington, D.C.
World Bank (2001): African Development Indicators 2001: From the World Bank
Data Base Washington D.C.
World Population Data Sheet (2002)
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7.0 LESSON SEVEN: URBANIZATION IN EAST AFRICA
7.1 Introduction
The term urbanization is defined and a brief historical account of urbanisation in East
Africa is given. An attempt has been made to describe the internal structure of a city
with special reference to Nairobi city. The major problems associated with urbanisation
are highlighted and some suggestions with regard to how some of these problems could
be addressed have been made.

• Define the tem urbanisation
• Give a historical account of urbanisation in East Africa
• Discuss problems of urbanisation in East Africa.
7.3 Urbanization Defined

The term urbanisation has different connotations in sociological, economic and
demographic terms. Demographically, urbanisation is a process of population
concentration in urban areas. It represents a way of ordering the population of a general
area for the purpose of attaining a higher level of subsistence and security.
Economically, urbanisation is a process of economic development. The latter is

measured in terms of: guaranteed food security; better and accessible health facilities;
improved sanitation; high-quality housing; functional efficient and accessible transport
and communication; and high incomes all of which translate to increased standards of
living. Thus, to economist urbanization is a way of improving a country’s and
individual’s social and economic status.
Sociologically it is a process leading to the evolution of communities in which the

bonds of kinship, neighbourliness and sentiments arising out of living together for
generations under a common folk tradition, diminish and become relatively weak.
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Sociologists associate urbanisation with individualism and egocentrism and a break
from the traditional cultural norms, which tend to tie people together.
Geographically urbanisation is a process involving an increase in the number of urban

centres as well as a rise in the number of people living in urban centres or towns/cities.
In this case population size is used to define the process because the variable is easily
available and measurements can be made. What then is an urban centre?
7.4 Urban Centres

The indices for defining urban centres differ from country to country. The commonly
used indices are the size of population; population density and the functions of the
settlement. The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA)
recommends three categories of urban settlement, which make it possible for
comparison among towns to be made. These include:
1. Town or urban area – 20,000 people

2. City – 100,000 – 500 000 people
3. Big (mega) city – over 500,000 people.
Going by these statistics, East Africa has a few mega cities, but numerous towns. Only
the capital cities and a few other towns have over 500,000 people. For instance there
were 3,043,100 and 2,456,100 million people in Nairobi and Dares salaam respectively
in the year 2002. The situation is likely to change sooner than later since the rate of
urbanization in the region is growing quite fast.
Another commonly used way of defining urban areas is by scrutinising their functions.
Urban centres are regarded as non-agricultural in character and primarily concerned
with exchange rather than the production of goods. They perform functions such as
industrial, administrative, recreational and commercial; while in rural areas people
engage in primary production such as agriculture and fishing. Most 20th century
cities/towns are characterised by:
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• High population densities
• High density of buildings
• Heavy human and vehicle traffic
• Non-agricultural functions such as administrative, industrial, marketing. Etc.
The rate of urbanisation, measured by population size, in East Africa is low and slow.
Unlike in the developed world where large populations usually over 80%, live in urban
areas, in East Africa majority of the populations live in rural areas. Uganda is the least
urbanised of the three East Africa countries (Table 7.1). While about 31% of the total
population in Kenya and Tanzania were urbanised by the year 1998, only 14% of
Uganda’s population lived in urban areas. This means that most of the East Africa’s
population is still agriculture based, residing in rural areas.
Table 7.1: Urbanisation in East Africa

Country/ Average annual % growth of urban population
Period 1980 1990 1998 1975-79 1980-90 1990
-98
Kenya 16.1 24.1 31.3 8.6 7.9 6.3
Tanzani 14.8 20.8 30.5 11.6 6.9 8.0
a
Uganda 8.8 11.2 13.5 3.9 4.8 5.6
Source: World Bank (2001): 311
7.5 A Historical Background of Urbanization in East Africa

The history of urbanisation falls into three vital periods namely: pre-colonial, colonial
and postcolonial periods.
7.5.1 Pre-colonial Era: Before the colonial era, and even long before the coming of
Europeans to East Africa, barter trade thrived quite well. People from different
geographical areas exchanged goods at certain specified places (markets), which were
not yet established as towns/urban centres. Nobody lived (permanently) in these so-
called markets and therefore urbanisation had not yet occurred. In some instances,
traders walked long distances in search of goods that they required. For example
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Kamba and Giriama transported ivory from Eastern and Central Kenya to coastal
towns, which they exchanged for clothes and guns and beads. As the local trade
developed, Arabs and Indians sailed to the East African coast to buy ivory among other
goods. This ‘international’ trade saw the establishment of markets where traders lived
as they transacted their businesses.
Urbanisation can thus be traced to the medieval times along the East African coast.
Urban centres developed those early days as a result of people (Phoenicians, Greeks,
Asians and Egyptians) who visited East Africa for purposes of trading. These people
settled in areas such as Malindi, Lamu, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Pemba and Lindi from
where they conducted their trading businesses.
Besides trade with foreigners, urban centers in other parts of East Africa resulted from
local trade and for administrative needs. For instance the Kabaka Mutesa of Buganda
had an elaborate court in Mengo Hill, which today forms the core of Kampala city. Dar-
es- Salaam grew up as a result of indigenous and colonial forces. It was originally a
fishing village.
During the pre-colonial period, urbanisation was quite a slow process. In total there
were extremely few urban centres in the region, with a fairly small population and
limited urban activities.
7.5.2 Colonial Era: Colonialism played a key role in the urbanisation process in East
Africa. It brought about dramatic changes in the pre-colonial urbanisation process. For
instance, the construction of the Kenya-Uganda railway line (1896-1901) led to the
establishment of railway stations, some of which later became towns. Colonial
governments also set up administrative centres in which they settled their
administrators (Provincial Commissioners District Commissioners and District
Officers).
Colonialism thus, led to the growth and establishment of new patterns and types of
urban centres. These new settlements, which were linked by railways and major roads,
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changed their role from serving the local population to serving an export-oriented
economy. They were largely located along the major lines of transport and provided
residence to settler communities; base for the processing of raw materials for export,
and performed administrative functions.
Some of the urban centres later grew to become export enclaves, which had relatively
more development facilities and limited links with the surrounding rural areas. They
have continued to play this role attracting a substantial number of heterogeneous ethnic
communities from the rural areas. A good number of urban centres have expanded
rapidly over a short period of time largely due to rural-urban migration and high rate of
natural population growth.
7.5.3 Postcolonial period: The rate of urbanisation has increased dramatically in the
postcolonial era. Old urban centre have noted unprecedented growth and have attained
the status of cities, while new urban centres have been established. These changes have
resulted from expanding economies, population growth, and decentralisation of
administrative and industrial activities from the main urban centres. Urbanisation in the
post colonial can be described as pretty fast, as evidenced by the mushrooming of urban
centres, increased urban populations, diversification of urban activities and a high
degree of specialisation. Unfortunately a few urban centres (Nairobi, Dar-es-Salaam
and Kampala), which also happen to be the capital cities of the respective countries,
have grown into mega cities each with over 2million people. These mega cities have the
following characteristics:
• They are parasitic in nature. They have, to a certain extent, negatively affected the
development of surrounding rural areas through the outflow of rural labour, and other
resources. Their linkages with the rural areas can be referred to as a phenomenon of
urban bias where the urban centres grow and expand at the expense of the rural areas.
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• The major cities have a high level of primacy. This is because of the high
concentration of economic activities. Nearly all the industries and formal sector
employment opportunities are located in the capital city.
• They are characterized by a dual economy in which there is a transitional informal
sector competing and complementing the formal sector in the provision of goods and
services. A significant proportion of the inhabitants have strong links with their rural
origins.
• The internal structure is highly segregated. During the colonial days racial
segregation was very common. This has however been replaced by socio-economic-
cultural segregation.
• They are victims of pseudo-urbanisation; a state of affairs in which the majority of

the population is economically unproductive. As such, a key percentage of the
population comprises of poor subsistence producers.
• They are poorly planned and badly managed. The authorities cannot cope with the
spontaneous growth of population and illegal physical infrastructure.
7.6 Internal Structure of East Africa Urban Centres

According to the concentric model of urban structure developed by William Alonso
(1965) urban areas can be categorised into three zones on the basis of the key activities
undertaken. These include:
(a) The Central Business District (CBD)

The CBD is the central commercial centre of any city. It is the centre of retailing, office
locations, and service activities such as banking and finance. It contains the principle
commercial streets and main public buildings and forms the core of a city's business
and commercial activities. Some cities have more than one CBD due to increasing
decentralization of offices and relocation of retailing. The CBD:
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(i) Contains the major retailing outlets. The principle departmental stores and
specialists shops with the highest turnover and requiring largest threshold
populations compete for prime sites.
(ii) Contains the tallest buildings in the city due to high rents, which result from the
competition for land.
(iii)Contains the highest proportion of the city's main offices.
(iv) Has the highest land value.
(v) Is constantly undergoing change. New shopping complexes, taller offence blocs and
new traffic schemes are common occurrences.
(b) Industrial Zone and Low Class Housing

This zone is mainly an industrial zone where the processing and manufacturing take
place. Land value is not as high as it is in the CBD. This is also a low class residential
area. It is characterised by overcrowding, poor housing and cheap rent. Therefore most
of the people who cannot afford to pay rent in high-income residential area live in this
zone. Usually a large number of the people living in this zone comprise of the
immigrants to the city especially those from the rural. Most of the residents in this zone
are low skilled workers and provide cheap labour to the near-by industries. They earn
meagre salaries and cannot afford high transport costs.
(c) Residential Area (Sub-urban zone)

Middle class and wealthy citizens who demand more space and privacy occupy this
zone. Most of residents own private means of transport and can afford to make long
journeys to CBD. In most cases, houses are built on more than 0.5 hectare of land with
the acreage increasing with the income levels of the residents; and therefore this zone is
moderately to sparsely populated. Muthaiga, Kitsuru, and Karen in Nairobi city best
exemplify this zone.
Activity 7.1
Visit your Provincial headquarters and attempt a zonation of the urban centre.
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7.7 Urbanization and Related Problems
Urbanization in East Africa, like in the rest of the world, is a function of natural
population change and rural-urban migration. Natural population change: The rate of
natural increase of population in urban areas of East Africa is much higher than that of
the rural areas. While the latter is growing at a rate of 2.5% per annum, natural rate of
population growth in urban areas is about 5.4%; a fact attributed to, reduced death rates
especially child mortality because of advanced medical facilities and high fertility
among urban women resulting mainly from improved standards of living.
Rural-urban migration: Urban areas are perceived as better than rural areas. Perceived
better wage labour opportunities and higher incomes/wages in urban area as opposed to
shortage of agricultural land, and scarce income generating opportunities in the rural
areas entice people especially young ones to urban centres. As a matter of fact, there
has been some kind of ‘mass exodus’ of rural folks to urban areas, a phenomenon
contributing significantly to the expanding numbers of urban populations.
Are urban areas coping with the rapid rate of urbanization? The answer to this
question is largely a ‘No’. The quick growth of urban population in East Africa has led
to sombre environmental and socio-economic problems, which the governments are
finding extremely difficult to deal with. These include:
(a) Inadequate housing: Urban authorities have not been able to provide adequate
shelter for the escalating urban population. The high demand for housing is remains
unmet. As a result, as thousands of immigrants stream into urban centres, they are
faced with lack of accommodation. They therefore spread out into the outskirts of the
cities where they construct temporary houses without any proper plan. These so -called
slum areas lack essential facilities and services such as water, sewage, electricity and
adequate refuse disposal systems. For example Kibera and Mathare slums in Nairobi
are over-congested, lack basic facilities and are major crime areas.
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(b) Inadequacy of physical structures and social amenities: The larger the city
grows, the greater is the need for public services, utilities and transport. The total and
per capita consumption of water and electricity increases; the demand for buses
surpasses the supply; and better and more effective means of refuse disposal are
demanded. The result is that only a few urban residents, usually the high and medium
income groups, are provided with basic services such as clean water supply, and
sanitation services. In the low-income residential areas and in the slums, refuse is often
carelessly dumped in open grounds while the drains are inadequate to carry surplus
water and sewage away. Electricity supply is also inadequate in addition to schools,
hospitals, and security and fire services.
(c) Pollution: pollution in East Africa urban areas takes various forms and emanates
from different sources. (i) Air pollution: most of the air pollutants come from vehicle
exhaust and industrial emissions and involve noxious gases and particulate matter (tiny
solid respirable particles present in the air, sometimes visible as dust or smoke). The
open burning of household and yard waste is also a source of air pollution particularly
in the residential areas. Poor architectural designs and the presence of high-rise
buildings, which interfere with the wind patterns, and dispersal of certain pollutants
compound air pollution. For instance carbon monoxide emitted by vehicles can be
trapped between buildings in the case of places with high rising buildings, increasing
their concentration.
One major form of air pollution is the suspended particulate matter. The suspended
particles include substance such as sulphate, nitrates and hydrocarbons. These
substances can sometimes interact with other substances in the air to form acid rain.
And due to their small size, the human body is unable to filter out the smallest of
suspended particulates. These enter the lungs and cause various respiratory diseases
such as asthma, lung cancer and bronchitis.
(ii) Water pollution: The key sources of water pollution are agricultural, industrial and
domestic. Surface runoff and industrial effluents have polluted the waters in rivers
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running through urban areas. For instance The Nairobi River, which rises from the
foothills of the Kikuyu Escarpment has very clean and unpolluted water at the source.
However, pollution levels increase with a rise in human activity, and gets worse as it
crosses Nairobi city. The same could be said about all the rivers flowing through
Nairobi city. They are choking with human waste, oils, greases and industrial wastes.
Most industrial activities are potential sources of water pollution. Industrial discharges
either directly into water systems or sewers regularly surpass permissible amounts. For
example majority of leather tanning factories discharge sulphides and heavy metals into
water courses causing a great deal of pollution.
Inadequately treated sewage and raw sewage also contributed to water pollution.
Although waste treatment takes place at the treatment plants, not all pathogens are
removed from the sewage. Faecal coli and wastes dumped around bridges as well as
direct dumping of excess rubbish and waste in rivers and streams reduce their stream
volume capacity which in turn can cause flooding in addition to reducing the quality of
the water in the systems.
Pollution increases turbidity, which in turn reduces photosynthetic activity, an

important link in the food chain. When this happens the affected water lack the ability
to support plant growth and animal life.
(iii) Noise pollution: Increased motor traffic in the East Africa cities is a major source
of noise, which can be detrimental to human health. Extreme noise has been associated
with increased hearing rate in sheep. In Nairobi city, matatus for a long time played
loud music. The ear-splitting music produced noise above 55 decibels, which could
easily impair hearing faculties. Studies have shown that people who are exposed to high
noise levels especially those exceeding 55 decibels suffer from high blood pressure,
urinary problems and hearing loss among other ailments.
(c) Unemployment and underemployment: As already noted, urbanisation is growing

at a high rate. Demand for employment is thus growing at an unprecedented rate.
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Unfortunately, East Africa economies are growing at a rather slow rate, one that does
not generate enough job opportunities to match the demand. The increasingly high
numbers of unskilled workers among the immigrants further complicates this situation.
Majority of the immigrants lack basic technical skills required in urban occupation and
are not qualified for the available jobs. Unemployment is thus rampant and is largely to
blame for the increasing crime rate (car jacking robberies and rape cases), prostitution,
and street children problem.
(d) Traffic congestion: The expansion of economic activity has increased transport
needs, a phenomenon that has led to increased vehicles in the region. In addition,
improved urban incomes and availability of cheap (used) vehicles form Dubai and
Japan has also contributed to increased number of vehicles in urban areas. Traffic
congestion especially during peak hours is now characteristic of the major urban
centres. Movement almost comes to a halt causing unnecessary delays and wastage of
valuable time which if quantified could translate to massive monetary losses. Traffic
congestion constrains economic productivity, damages people’s health and degrades the
quality of their lives.
7.7.1 Solutions to Urban Problems

(a) Growth centres strategy: The East African governments are keen about the
decentralisation of development beyond the centres of power. Both Kenya and
Tanzania have sought to decentralise future urban expansion through growth centres
strategies. Their aim is to spread urbanisation around the countries rather than permit
excessive concentration in a few cities and towns. Tanzania’s second development plan
(1969 –74) stipulated measures to decentralise industry and some government functions
from Dar-es-Salaam and in doing so identifies eight towns in which development was
to be concentrated. As a follow up, Tanzania moved her capital from Dar-es -Salaam to
Dodoma, which is about 483km to the west. This regional development policy is being
pursued by Kenya in her effort to induce economic growth in Kisumu and Eldoret
towns. Establishing a better-balanced urban hierarchy is a means of developing the
economic capacities of the regions and also an essential tool in integrating rural and
urban economies.
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In the spirit of decentralisation, the East African governments are also encouraging the
location of industries in the rural areas. This will increase employment opportunities
and generate incomes and hence boost standard of living in the rural areas.
(b) Administrative decentralisation: The East African governments are now committed
to the promotion of economic and social initiatives beyond the centres of power and
decision-making, the capital city.
(c) Making rural areas attractive: Governments are reducing the rural urban imbalances
by providing rural areas with electricity, tapped water, all weather roads and health
facilities. Kenya, for instance, through her District Focus for Rural Development policy
is providing essential services to the rural areas. Policies aiming at making farming a
viable and profit–making venture are also being put in place.
7.8 Summary
Urbanization dates back to the pre-colonial era when people from different
geographical locations met and exchanged goods at specific centres through barter
system of trade. During this period urbanisation grew rather slowly. The process
picked momentum during the colonial and postcolonial eras. Today about 25% of the
East Africa’s population live in urban areas. This is apparently a minute population
compared to those of developed countries where over 80% of the population is
urbanised. But urbanisation comes with a price; hence the many socio-economic and
environmental problems in the cities which are actually threatening their liveability.

(a) What is urbanisation?
(b) Give a historical account of urbanisation in East Africa
(c) Attempt a zonation of Nairobi city. If you were a city planner, how would
you address the problem of hawking in the city?
(d) Drawing examples from your District headquarters, identify and evaluate the
rate and problems of urbanisation.
7.10 Further Reading
91
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8.0 LESSON EIGHT: EAST AFRICA AGRICULTURE
8.1 Introduction
Factors accounting to the different types of agriculture and the intensity of rural land
use in East Africa are discussed at length in this lesson. The major characteristics of
some selected types of agriculture practised in the region are examined. Special
attention is awarded to the important role of agriculture in economic development of
the region.

By the end of learning and studying this lesson, you should be able to:
• Discuss factors determining the type and intensity of agriculture in East
Africa
• Describe different types of agriculture in East Africa
• Evaluate the contribution of agriculture in the economic development of
the region.
8.3 Introduction to East Africa Agriculture

Agriculture is a very fundamental sector in East Africa. Just like in other developing
countries, it is the main stay of the East Africa economies. It is regarded as an
important sector through which economic development of the region can be achieved.
The main argument raised in support of this line of thought is that the region is well
endowed with a good and diverse agriculture base, which if well exploited can generate
enough income for industrialization. This is why agriculture is often referred to as the
backbone of the region.
8.4 Distribution, type and intensity of agricultural activities in East Africa

Do you know why nomadism is practised in Karamoja and not in the Kigezi District of
Uganda? Why is the Lake region intensively cultivated while Central Tanzania is
extensively utilised? To answer these questions we need to examine factors
contributing to these variations in the region. These can be divided into two broad
categories namely physical and socio-economic.
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8.4.1 Physical factors
The physical factors also known as geographical, natural or environmental factors
include climate, topography, and soils.
(a) Climate: Several climatic factors affect the type and distribution of agriculture in
East Africa, but the most significant are rainfall and temperature.
Rainfall is the single most dominant weather element influencing the intensity and
location of farming systems. Areas that receive high rainfall (over 1000mm) and those
that have low evaporation rates are intensively cultivated. In such places the received
rainfall has a high effectiveness and reliability. Rainfall effectiveness is the actual
rainfall received in a given place, minus the total possible evaporation. Rainfall is said
to be reliable if its deviation from the mean (average) figure does not exceed 20%. A
variability of more than 20% implies a great risk to farming and rain-fed agriculture in
such circumstances cannot be practiced successfully. Table 8.1 shows the relationship
between rainfall characteristics and land use.
Temperature is very critical for plant growth because each plant or crop requires a
particular minimum growing temperature. Warm temperatures (16 –220c) are better
suited to a variety of agricultural practices than extremely high and cold temperatures.
Areas characterised by such temperatures are intensively utilised. High temperatures
(>25oc) increase evapo-transpiration rates thus decreasing moisture available for crop
production; and when coupled with high humidity, they become favourable to a variety
of insect pests and a higher incidence of plant pathogens. Very few crops (dates) and
animals (camel) will survive in regions of extreme temperatures. On the other hand, too
low temperatures (< 10oc) discourage the growth of many crop varieties, cause delays
in the maturity of cereal crops such as maize and sorghum and may also lead to crop
losses (Awuor and Ogola, 1997). Areas of extremely low of high temperatures are
extensively utilised.
Table 8.1 Relationships between Rainfall and Land Use in East Africa
Rainfall characteristics Intensity of land Type of Agricultural
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use agricultural systems
activities
High, reliable and effective Agricultural land is Crops- Horticulture;
rainfall (Lake Victoria intensively used rubber, dairy farming;
region; the slopes of Mt. and a wide range of coffee, tea, subsistence
Kilimanjaro and Mt. Meru; agricultural bananas, tillage (with
Eastern slopes of the activities are potatoes paddy
Aberdare’s range South practiced Animals- dominance)
and East of Mt. Kenya ; dairy animals Plantation
Taita hills, Kisii highlands farming etc
Ruwenzori, Elgon, Kigezi
district in Uganda
Moderate rainfall, Agricultural land is Which crops Subsistence
moderate effectiveness, intensively to do you think tillage (without
moderate reliability extensively used do well in paddy
this area? dominance),
plantation
farming etc
Low, unreliable and Land is extensively Crops- Commercial
ineffective rainfall (Central used wheat, grain farming;
Tanzania; Northern bulrush livestock
Uganda; North Eastern millets, ranching;
Kenya sorghum, nomadism etc
dates
Animals-
hardy
animals such
as the cow,
goats and
camels
(b) Topography’s characteristics influence the type and intensity of agriculture in East
Africa. These include:
At high altitudes, decreased atmospheric pressure causes nausea, hence inhibiting

human settlements and limiting agricultural activities that can be conducted there.
Vegetation growth is restricted and crops take long to mature. Soils too take long to
mature as there are fewer mixing agents; humus content takes longer to break down,
and leaching is more likely to occur.
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Moderate to high altitude lands are intensively used (Table 8.1). Dairy farming is an
important agricultural activity practiced in such places. Crops like tea and coffee grow
best on well-drained hilly slopes and at altitudes of up-to 2000m above the sea level.
This explains why the slopes of Mt Kenya and Mt Meru are intensively cultivated.
Lowlands especially those receiving effective and reliable rainfall are some of the most
intensively cultivated parts of East Africa world. The level-ness of the ground eases
cultivation and makes the use of machinery possible. But lowlands that do not receive
adequate rainfall are usually extensively used.
Slope also affects agricultural land use. Steep slopes are in most cases not used for
agriculture, except in the cases where population pressure has forced farmers to
encroach on such land. These are fragile ecosystems. It is true that all soils are prone to
erosion but it is also true that erosion is greater on steep slopes than on gentle slopes.
Such soils can only become productive if appropriate management strategies are
applied. This is because the soils are poorly developed, are thin and hence very
vulnerable to erosion. In addition steep slopes pose a serious limitation to the use of
machinery.
Gently and moderately sloping lands especially the windward sides are intensively
used. This is particularly true where adequate rainfall is received and where means of
transport are developed.
(c) Soils (edaphic factor) constitute the physical base for any agricultural activity. Soils
endowed with a proper combination of texture, salts and humus tend to be very
productive, give high yields and are usually intensively cultivated. As soils are so
varied in their physical and chemical composition, their suitability for the cultivation of
crops varies tremendously. The characteristics of a soil that determine its usefulness
include:
Soil texture: the texture of a soil influences the ease of cultivation, root penetration,
aeration, and water absorption. For example, clay soils retain a lot of moisture, are
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heavy to work and are best suited to wet crops like rice. Sandy soils lack coherence,
but are well aerated, and easy to work and are best suited to crops like barley, dates,
cotton wheat, maize and pulses. Loamy soils are the most ideal for agriculture. They
have sufficient:- clay, 20 per cent, which helps in moisture and nutrients retention;
sand, 40 per cent which prevents water logging, allows for adequate aeration and
makes them easy to cultivate; and silt, 40 per cent which acts as an adhesive, holding
the sand and clay together. As such they accommodate a wide range of crops and are
intensively cultivated. Loam soils are also least susceptible to soil erosion.
Soil composition: Apart from their mineral content (influenced by parent rock)
soils contain organic matter derived from the decomposition of plants and animals.
The higher the organic matter in a soil, the more fertile it is; the higher its resistance
to erosion and the more intensively it is utilised.
8.4.2 Socio-Cultural and Economic Factors

As noted above, the physical factor plays an important role in determining the
agricultural activities practiced in a given area. Socio-cultural and economic factors
also play a crucial role in determining the type, intensity and modernisation of
agriculture. The key socio-economic factors are discussed here below:
Cultural and religious beliefs: The most direct consequence of cultural and
religious beliefs in agriculture is in the field of animal husbandry. For example, among
the pastoralists such as the Maasai of Kenya and Tanzania, the number of cattle
possessed by an individual or family determines their status and prestige within the
tribe. As such pastoralists adhere to quantity rather than to quality. Moslems will not
engage in pig farming because they consider the pig an unclean animal. In other places
farmers retain an animistic view of natural events. Crop yields are thought to be the
work of gods and droughts and other natural hazards are accepted. Agriculture is such
places remains backward.
Land tenure: There are three types of land tenure namely- tenancy; owner-
occupier and communal ownership. Under tenancy type of ownership, a farmer rents
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the piece of land that he cultivates. Tenancy takes two forms namely cash tenancy and
sharecropping. Cash tenancy is when a farmer gives as much as 80 per cent of their
income or a fixed pre-arranged rent to the landowner. Sharecropping on the other hand
is when the farmer gives part of his harvest to the landowner as a payment. Owner-
occupier means that the farmer owns the land he cultivates and he most likely has title
deed for the land. Communal ownership implies that the land belongs to the
community, and that as long as one is a member of the community, he has every right
to that land.
Any type of ownership that does not guarantee security of tenure discourages
agricultural development. Farmers cannot adopt green revolution farming technologies
(such fertilizers, improved seeds, cross bred animals, pesticides and herbicides) or
practice sustainable farming techniques on farms that do not fully belong to them. For
example nearly all the grazing land in East Africa is communally owned. As there are
no restrictions upon the number of animals that can be grazed, the capacity of the land
is, more often than not over-stretched. Most often than not land degradation sets in and
within a short time the affected land begins to show signs of desertification as is the
case in Baringo district Kenya and Sukumaland in Tanzania.
Land subdivision and fragmentation: Repeated subdivision resulting from

inheritance practices and fragmentation of land holdings affects agriculture adversely.
Indeed, as population grows, land holdings continually become smaller and smaller,
and more fragmented. For example, in the densely settled parts of East Africa, average
farm size equals to or is less than 2 ha, a problem attributed to land subdivision. These
farms are not only small but also fragmented and scattered and sometimes in distant
different areas. While the small nature of the farms hinders mechanization,
fragmentation is time wasting.
Transport: Good transport conditions are an essential prerequisite to agricultural

development. Transportation network opens up and links places, enabling the
movement of people and goods from one place to another. Regions that are accessible
and well connected are more developed agriculture-wise and are more intensively used
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than those that are not. A well-established and efficient transport network is also
conducive for the marketing of the bulky and highly perishable agricultural produce
such as milk and fresh fruits.
Capital: agriculture is a capital demanding exercise. Unless one has sufficient

resources, they cannot engage in successful agriculture. One needs to have land on
which farming will be practiced; labour to execute farm operations; a steady and
reasonably high income to purchase farm inputs and to finance farm-work. As such,
farmers who lack sufficient capital usually practice subsistence farming while the
progressive and resource-advantaged farmers undertake commercial agriculture.
In East Africa, most farmers face a severe capital deficiency. This problem is attributed
to the meagre incomes associated with small and fragmented farms. Low incomes
means that the farmers’ savings are small too. In turn, small savings implies less or no
investment in agriculture. Such farmers cannot adopt green revolution technology. As a
result farm yields are low; no surplus is realized and farmers incomes remain low.
These types of farmers are actually trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty (Fig. 8.1).
Lack of capital impedes their transition to commercial agriculture.
Low income
Low farm productivity Low savings
Low investment
Figure. 8.1. Poverty Cycle of Subsistence Farming
However, the progressive farmers and especially those in developed countries receive
financial support from banking institutions. They therefore have enough capital to
engage in commercial agriculture employing capital-intensive methods.
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8.5 Agricultural Types
The main types of agriculture practised in East Africa fall under the following two
broad classifications:
(a) Subsistence Systems of Agriculture

1. Nomadic pastoralism
2. Shifting cultivation
3. Subsistence agriculture (mixed farming).
(b) Commercial systems

1. Livestock ranching
2. Commercial grain farming
3. Commercial dairy farming
4. Plantation agriculture
5. Horticulture farming
6. Mixed farming
8.5.1 Subsistence Systems of Agriculture

(a) Nomadic Pastoralism
Nomadic herding is an extensive form of land use involving largely the rearing of
animals and constant or seasonal migration of the nomads and their flocks. It is the
simplest form of pastoralism in which herds and flock graze on natural vegetation.
Nomadic herding is largely confined to sparsely populated and harsh environments

characterized by low, ineffective rainfall, high temperatures and high evaporation rates.
In East Africa it is practised in the semi-arid areas including north eastern and south
western parts of Kenya; north eastern parts of Tanzania and in the Karamoja area of
Uganda. Some of the typical nomadic people in East Africa are the Maasai, Samburu,
Rendille, Turkana, Karamojong, Ankole, Sukuma, Gogo and Bahima.
(i) Characteristics of Nomadic Pastoralism
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Seasonal movements: nomadic herders are constantly on the move searching for
pastures and water. The movement could be constant from one pasture to another or
from one water hole to another; or it could be of a seasonal nature in which the
pastoralists spend their dry season in one place and migrate to the wet areas during the
rainy season. The migratory behaviour of the nomads is further enhanced by the
presence of a variety of animal diseases such as foot and mouth, anthrax and East Coast
fever; and also pests especially the tsetse fly. These diseases reduce the health of the
animals as well as their productivity. Cattle rustling also contribute to the migratory
nature of the nomads.
Large herds of animals are kept. A large herd plays an important role as risk
‘capital’ during periods of prolonged drought and livestock disease outbreaks. When
such incidences occur large herds spread thin the risk of the total loss. Large herds also
enhances ones social status. In addition large herds are necessary for building social
alliances through transfer of animals to friends and kinfolk as loans, especially during
times of need. These facts are the major reason behind the immense resistance to the
idea of de-stocking.
Living structures: The habitation is usually a tent, which can easily be transported
or cow-dung build huts. Where true nomadism is practiced, there are no permanent
settlements.
Land is owned on a communal basis.
Indigenous types of animals such as the Boran and Zebu are reared. The average
high temperatures (22-270c) are too high for the exotic breeds of livestock such as the
Aberdeen, Fresian, and Galloway. In some of the extremely arid places with
exceptionally high temperatures like North Horr in Kenya, only camels and goats can
survive.
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The quality of the animals is low, a fact attributed to the large sizes of herds reared
in harsh environments characterised by insufficient pastures. Also the constant
movements contribute to weight loss of the animals.
(ii) Problems Experienced by Pastoralists

Pastoralists experience a wide variety of problems. Among them are:
Droughts
Livestock farming forms the main stay of the livelihoods of the nomadic people. These
people inhabit harsh environments characterised by a regular occurrence of acute
droughts, shortage of water and pastures. Starvation and death of livestock as well as
human losses are the main effects of drought on the nomads. Due to the frequent nature
of drought in these fragile ecosystems pastoralists have evolved coping strategies to
circumvent the consequences of droughts. These include:
1. Herd maximisation: Large herds are kept as some insurance during periods of
drought. Nomads are never eager to sell their livestock. But during a drought period
more livestock than is normal is sold to minimise the number of losses.
2. Slaughter of the young kids and lambs: During the time of a severe drought, the
newly born lambs and kids are slaughtered. This is done to increase the chance of
survival of the mother.
3. Mobility: Pastoralists move with their stock to alternative grazing areas during
severe drought periods. The number and distance of movement in any year depends on
environmental conditions, the quality and quantity of resources and the species of
livestock. During the 1984 and 2000 droughts, the Maasai pastoralists moved to
Nairobi (urban and peri-urban) in search of pasture and water. Elsewhere during the
1999/2000 drought, herders in Northern Kenya moved their livestock to southern
Ethiopia, Bulo area and Sibiloi National reserve. Sometimes desperate pastoralists
invade or encroach onto land owned by sedentary farmers a problem, which has been a
source of conflicts between pastoralist and crop farmers.
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4. Herd splitting: Pastorlist split their herds into smaller groups in order to visit
different grazing areas simultaneously. In other instances pastoralists with large
numbers of animals distribute their flock to poorer relatives especially those with fewer
animals to look after them in return for milk. In other cases, the mature animals are
moved to distant grazing areas while the young ones are left behind to subsist on the
little available pasture. By moving substantial numbers of livestock away from areas of
concentration, the rate of use of pastures around dry season water holes is minimised.
In addition each given grazing area is used for a short time and by a small number of
livestock. As such the pasture are not seriously degraded.
5. Herd Diversity: This involves maintaining several species of livestock at one go.
Pastoralists usually keep different species of livestock as a way of minimising the risk
associated with drought. Camels, cattle, sheep, and goats are the different species kept
by nomads. Camels and goats are particularly useful during drought periods because
they give relatively high yields of milk. This is because of their browsing habit, which
ensures feed supply from the perennial shrubs in times of drought. Camels can
withstand drought more than the other species. They can do without water for many
days and can withstand long intervals between watering. Every nomad family today
strives to own a camel. Goats and sheep are important in the pastoral economy due to
their fecundity and hardiness. They are able to reproduce fast enough after the drought
and are thus more suitable for herd reconstruction after catastrophes.
6. Cattle rustling: Cattle rustling has tormented the livestock sector in Eastern Africa
for generations particularly in the so called rustling triangle –Northern Western Kenya,
North Eastern Uganda, and Southern Sudan. Specifically cattle rustling is most
pronounced in West Pokot in Kenya; Kapchorwa District in Uganda and Kapotea and
Nagishot in Southern Sudan.
Culturally rustling was acceptable among some communities. It was for instance
considered an achievement when one paid dowry from ‘stolen animals’ or a way of
increasing a community’s wealth or a proof of a community’s strength. Today it is a
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severe security risk in the affected areas and in some instances has escalated to ethnic
clashes.
7. Land degradation: Overgrazing is a common practise among nomads worldwide. It is

attributed to the fact that pastoralists usually keep large herds of animals on limited
grazing areas. The problem of overstocking is compounded by land tenure insecurity all
of which lead to severe land degradation.
8.6 Commercial Farming Systems

8.6.1Commercial Livestock Ranching
Livestock ranching is an extensive form of agriculture practiced mainly in the semi arid
areas of East Africa. In a few instances it is practised in wet areas such as the Kenya
Highlands. Animals are reared mainly for beef. Although indigenous types of animals’
area reared, cases of cross breeding the indigenous with exotic breeds are now very
common. Cross breeding is performed in order to improve the quality of the beef
produced so as to meet the world market specifications.
Kenya: livestock ranching is practiced in Kajiado, Kwale, Nakuru, Machakos, Samburu

and Kitui Districts
Uganda: Southwestern Uganda, specifically Ankole and Northwestern Masaka Districts
Tanzania: Kongwa District.
The salient features of this type of farming include the following:
In most cases, it is carried out in sparsely populated areas. Harsh environmental

conditions discourage crop farmers from settling in the regions where livestock
ranching is practiced.
Although the climatic conditions may not allow for adequate grass to grow, the
ranchers’ plant selected grass varieties to ensure a continuous supply of food for the
animals all the year round. The diet is usually supplemented with man-made feeds,
which contain a balanced content of carbohydrates, proteins and mineral nutrients. In
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addition to rainwater, ranchers sink boreholes or dig dams to ensure a constant supply
of the commodity through out the year.
Farmers live in permanent ranch houses and the farms are fixed and fenced. This
means that animals roam within clearly defined boundaries. The land is privately
owned through purchase or leasing.
Livestock ranchers specialize in one form of livestock and the livestock products
are mainly for export. Thus this is a market-oriented enterprise and while the ranchers
strive to ensure quantity, they also keep high quality animals in order to meet world
market specifications. In order to achieve quality and maintain high standard, the
ranches are scientifically managed: the best breeds are used and the animals are
vaccinated or dipped to eliminate diseases.
Large herds of livestock are reared within each ranch. In fact, ranching is a large-
scale operation, a natural consequence of the low productivity of the low value land
used for grazing. Ranches in East Africa are relatively smaller compared to those in
Australia and other parts of the world. They are about 1000 ha on average.
Like nomadic herders, ranchers adopt the policy of ‘the larger the herd, the greater
the chance of survival’.
Cattle ranching are an expensive capital investment. A great deal of capital is
required for the provision of fencing material, slaughterhouses, cattle dips, water and
roads.
8.6.2 Horticulture Farming

This type of farming involves the growing of flowers (floriculture) and; fruits and
vegetables (market gardening) for commercial purposes. It thrives in places with fertile
soils and a near- temperate type of climate and especially those neighbouring major
towns or those found along major highways for easy transportation of farm produce to
markets. Horticultural produce is marketed both locally and internationally. It is an
important foreign exchange earner in the East Africa region.
East Africa has a favourable environment for horticulture. The diverse environmental
conditions allow for a variety of horticultural crops to be produced through out the year.
It is practised under rain-fed conditions as well as under irrigation.
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Key horticultural products include flowers, fruits (mangoes, bananas, paw paws,
oranges and lemons), and vegetables (carrots, tomatoes, onion, pepper and cabbages).
The following are the typical features of this type of farming:
It is a small scale as well as large-scale activity.

It is an intensive form of agriculture. Labour, capital and organization are
intensively applied to the land and yields per hectare are high.
Modern scientifically developed techniques of farming are used. Farmers use
fertilizers, improved seed varieties, insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating
systems.
High quality products are produced to meet the world demand and specifications.
Irrigation is often used especially in marginal areas. In Makueni District, Kenya
over 60% is irrigated because it is practised in areas, which receive too little rainfall
to support it. It is practised along the many seasonal rivers criss-crossing the
district.
Greenhouses are used for temperature control.
There is a significant increase in both local and international demand for
horticulture products, a fact attributable to the growing rate of urbanization
worldwide. In response, the area under horticulture agriculture has doubled in the
recent past.
8.7 The Role of Agriculture in the Development of the East Africa Economies
Agriculture, being the backbone of the East Africa economies, plays an important role
in the economic development of the region. This is particularly so in view of the fact
that the region does not produce large quantities of minerals. What role does agriculture
then play in the economic development of East Africa?
(1) Agriculture is a major source of food for the survival of the large East Africa
population. Throughout the region, population has continued to show an upward trend
(Table 8.2), hence the ever rising demand for food. In addition increasing urbanization,
which has resulted in the migration of the young able, bodied men from rural areas to
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urban areas; and changing tastes and preferences with a strong bias towards foreign
foods (mainly rice and wheat products) exacerbate the food supply problem. The
problem is further aggravated by the phenomena of changing climates, which has led to
increased incidences of droughts and famine in the region. Against this background the
agricultural sector is therefore faced with the great challenge of producing enough food
to meet the high demand and to ensure food security in the region.
Unfortunately the agricultural sector has not been able to meet the food demand in the
region. While population is growing at 3% per annum, food supply is growing at 1.45%
per annum, a situation that has resulted in the widening gap between food demand and
supply. In response to escalating food insecurity in the region, the governments have
become more food-aid dependent then ever before and have also increased the level of
food imports as an attempt to bridge the food-population gap. Food imports today form
a significant expenditure of the government’s budgets. What is worrisome is the fact
that these governments do not have significant foreign currency reserves to spend this
way. The little earned foreign exchange should be used in the purchase of technology
and materials required in the industrial sector or in the provision of basic infrastructure
especially roads so as to speed up the process of development.
(2) Agriculture as a source of food, contributes to the formation of human capital. Food
utilization improves the quality of labour force. Malnutrition (lack of quality food) and
under nutrition (lack of quantity food) causes both mental and physical retardation.
Generally poor diets also affect general health of the workers. As a result worker
absenteeism is higher and on the job productivity lower than would be the case with a
well-fed and nourished population.
(3) Agriculture provides employment. Over 80 per cent of the rural population is
employed in the agricultural sector. Another significant proportion of the population is
employed in agriculture-related industries.
(4) Agriculture provides an important market for the industrial and consumer goods.
However, prices for agricultural commodities are in most cases lower than the cost of
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production and therefore farming is usually associated with losses. This fact coupled
with the facts that most of the farmers are subsistence producers and that rate of
unemployment is high in the region perhaps explains why about 36%, 35%, and 50% of
the population in Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya respectively live below poverty line. It
is therefore doubtful whether East Africa population large as it is can actually provide
an effective market especially for industrial products.
(4) Agriculture is a source of national income, foreign exchange and capital for
investment in non-farm activities and for development generally. Agriculture makes a
significant contribution to the GDP in East Africa especially in Tanzania and Uganda
(Table 8.2).
Table 8.2: GDP Composition by Sector in East Africa (2002)
Country Agriculture (%) Industry (%) Services (%)

Kenya 24 13 63
Tanzania 48.1 15.4 36.5
Uganda 43 19 38
Source: http://www.nationmaster.com
The three East African countries rely on the export of agricultural produce such as
coffee, tea, and horticultural products. However, this sector does not raise enough
income to sustain their development. The inability of the East Africa countries to
provide from within some of the key resources required for economic development
makes them as agricultural economies dependent on agricultural exports for the means
to acquire these important resources which are available outside their territories. A
major determinant of the pace of development has therefore been the ability of Kenya,
Uganda and Tanzania to earn foreign exchange necessary for financing the required
imports by agricultural exports. The earned foreign exchange is used to finance the
purchase of capital goods not produced locally but also to import consumer goods
required for improving living standards of the people. Agricultural exports also provide
revenue to government through export taxes, for investment in domestic industries and
the improvement of public utilities or infrastructure. What this means is that the bulk of
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capital for industrial development must come from domestic savings, which must in
turn come from the agricultural sector of the East Africa economies.
8.8 Summary
There is a diversity of agricultural practices in East Africa. A variety of environmental

and socio-economic factors determine the type of agriculture practised in different
localities in East Africa. The environmental factor however appears to have a profound
influence in the distribution of agriculture in the region.
Agriculture is the backbone of the economy and plays a very crucial role in the
development of the region. It is an important source of foreign exchange and national
incomes in East Africa. Unfortunately the incomes derived from this sector are grossly
inadequate to support meaningful economic development. One contributory factor is
the fact that the region over-relies on the export of the so-called traditional exports,
which do not fetch high foreign exchange. Hence there is need for the economies to
diversify their agricultural ventures in order to boost the regions’ savings.

(a) Distinguish between intensive and extensive land use
(b) Examine the factors accounting for the different types of agriculture in Lake
Victoria Basin
(c) Discuss the major problems faced by pastoral communities in East Africa.
How do they deal with these problems?
(d) Evaluate the role of agriculture in the economic development of East Africa.

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9.0 LESSON NINE: TOURISM INDUSTRY
9.1 Introduction
The different types of tourism and the major tourist attractions are examined here. A
brief historical account of the development of the tourist industry is given. A quick
evaluation of the current status of the industry is also given. The importance of the
industry in the economic development of East Africa is examined and the problems
affecting this industry are reviewed.

By the end of learning this lesson, you should be able to:
• Describe the main tourist attractions in East Africa.
• Evaluate economic and other benefits of tourism.
• Discuss problems associated with tourism and wildlife in East Africa.
9.3 Tourism Industry

Tourism is one of the most important industries in East Africa. It involves visitation of
local and international tourists to tourist resorts, game reserves, national parks coastal
beaches, etc., for pleasure and recreation. There are two types of tourists: domestic
tourists are local people who visit other parts of their country for pleasure and
recreation; and international tourist including those people who visit East Africa from
other parts of the world for pleasure and recreation. The biggest number of tourists
originates from Europe (United Kingdom, Italy, France, Germany, Scandinavia and
Switzerland), United States of America (USA), the rest of Africa and Asia.
9.3.1 The History of Tourism Industry in East Africa

In the pre-colonial period East Africa had early contacts with ancient Greece, Arabia,
Persia (now Iran) and India. People from these countries who were mainly traders
spared time to enjoy the scenic beauty along the Indian Ocean. Before 1890 most of the
visitors were missionaries and explorers. However, in 1929, the British Commercial
Service linked East Africa by air with European cities. At this point, Europe became a
possible source of tourists to the region.
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After the defeat of Germans during World War 1, Britain completely dominated East
Africa. This situation created a close economic and political unity. The first governors’
conference in 1926 made several important decisions to support cooperation in the
region. In 1948 the East African High Commission was established thus further
strengthening the cooperation. From 1948 onwards, the three East African countries
shared many services, including the East African Railway, East African Airways, East
African Posts and Telecommunication, Immigration Customs and harbours, which were
essential for the development of tourism. In addition, the British administration helped
to create uniform laws and regulations for the conservation and management of national
parks and tourism.
At about the same time, industrialization in Europe was growing at a fairly high speed.
The number of people employed in the industries was growing rapidly and adequate
labour laws were developed to protect their rights and interests. The international
Labour Organization (ILO) supported the right of workers to receive paid holidays, a
move that encouraged many people to travel.
There was a remarkable expansion in tourism after the World War II resulting from:
(a) Paid holidays in Europe.

(b) The development of efficient and fast modes of transport. In particular air
transport drastically reduced the absolute distance between East Africa and
Europe.
(c) Increased income resulting from better wages, which enable people to afford
holidays abroad.
(d) The development of well-organised travel companies which are responsible for
publicising tourism abroad and making travel arrangements (accommodation and
local tours to different tourist attractions) for the tourists
9.3.2 Status of the Tourism Industry

Tourism is a well-developed industry in the three East Africa countries. Number of
tourists visiting the region has shown a steady increase over the years (Table 9.1). For
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instance, the number of tourists in Tanzania has grown from 153,000 in1990 to 501,669
in 2000. Rising numbers of tourists in the region signify the availability of certain
attractions that entice foreigners to visit East Africa. What are these tourist attractions?
(a) Wildlife: Wild life is a key tourism attraction. A large number of the world’s large
mammals-the so-called ‘big five’ that include elephants, leopards, lions, rhinoceros and
buffalo are found in the region. The roan antelope, which is a rare species, is also found
in East Africa. These animals attract a big number of tourists from all over the world.
They are mainly found in Game reserves or National parks. The fact that animals are
found in their natural habitats unlike in Europe and America where they are usually
kept in zoos, the tourists end up not only being thrilled by nature’s innocence but also
witnessing nature’s violence.
(b) Conducive climate: The peak tourist season is between October and March each
year. This happens to be the European winter and a good number of Europeans escape
the chilling winter to enjoy warm and sunny weather in East Africa.
(b) Cultural Attraction: East Africa enjoys a diversity of culture and tourists are
particularly keen to learn about the different cultures. Tourists visiting Kenya and
Tanzania are not satisfied until they visit Maasai. The Maasai way of life, their
manyattas are a great attraction. Tourists buy beads, necklaces and the red Maasai
shukas. The Swahili and Arabic culture are also another central attraction and are
evident in Pate and Lamu islands in Kenya; and Zanzibar and Pemba in Tanzania.
(c) Coastal Beaches: The East African coast is a destination of many tourists
especially during the winter period (November-March) in their home countries.
Tourists enjoy the warm waters and quiet beaches where they relax and occasionally
engage in sporting activities such as wind surfing, water skiing and boating.
(d) Historical sites and monuments: East Africa has a variety of historical sites and
gorgeous architectural monuments. Olduvai Gorge in the East of Serengeti Game Park
and West of Ngorongoro crater in Northern Tanzania and Olorgesailie and Kariandusi
in Kenya are stunning historical sites. The sites are associated with the earliest home of
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mankind. Tourists also visit sites associated with monumental ruins such as Fort Jesus
in Mombasa, and Gedi located about 20 Km south of Malindi town.
(e) Other natural features: East Africa has a number of spectacular towering volcanic
mountains such as snow-capped Mt Kenya, Mt Kilimanjaro, Mt. Elgon, Mt Meru, and
the snow-capped Ruwenzori Mountain. The Rift Valley and the associated features
such as Lakes, steam jets/hot springs and craters are important attractions. Natural
waterfalls (e.g. Murchison falls in Uganda and the Fourteen falls in Kenya) add to the
scenic beauty of the Savannahs. The Kazinga channel that separating Lake Edward and
Lake George in Uganda has one of the largest concentration of water birds in the world.
(f) Accommodation: The number of hotels and lodges befitting international standards
has continued to rise to cater for the accommodation needs of the tourist industry.
These are strategically located in relation to the tourist attractions and are easily
accessible. Well-trained staff equipped with modern facilities to ensure maximum
comfort of the tourists is employed in these hotels and lodges.
In addition to having several tourist attractions, East Africa governments have made
remarkable effort in marketing tourism. For instance, Kenya invested heavily on a
marketing campaign in Europe in 2003. She spent an equivalent of about US$ 6M on
television, billboards and poster advertisements.
9.3.3 Positive Impacts of Tourism

Tourism contributes significantly to the growth of East Africa economies in different
ways:
(a) It is an important foreign exchange earner. In the year 2004 alone the earning were
kshs.42 billion. In Tanzania, foreign exchange receipts from tourism grew from US $
65 M in 1990 to 259.44M in 1995 and to 725M in 2001. The earnings represent an
invisible export to the recipient countries since they add greatly to their revenues and
help to finance imports and aid in national development.
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A steady flow of tourist and development of the industry increases the demand for a
number of services; hence employment opportunities. There are people employed as
hotels staff; tourist guides; transport workers; travel agency workers and entertainers.
For instance in Tanzania, over 156,000 people are employed in the tourism industry. It
may also stimulate building construction such as hotels, and the construction of roads
and other transport facilities, which are also employment opportunities to the many
unemployed people.
Tourism also promotes local industry especially through souvenirs. Tourists buy
artefacts, woodcarvings, baskets and soapstone, which is a major boost to the domestic
industry. In addition, tourism enhances the protection of wildlife and the environment.
9.3.4 Negative Impacts of Tourism

Tourism is associated with some negative impacts. Western styles of behaviour have
eroded the local social etiquette and African traditions. Homosexuality, drugs and
prostitution are negative behaviours resulting from the intermingling of local societies
and the tourists.
9.4 Obstacles and Threats to Tourism Development

9.4.1 Introduction
The approach of the World Tourism Organization (WTO) is to facilitate tourism as the
fastest growing industry in the world and its emphasis is on the expansion of tourism
for political, economic and income gains. Anything that interrupts these aims is an
obstacle to tourism. Generally, threats and obstacles are perceived mostly at the
destination and they can be physical, psychological, cultural, or ideological, and
therefore will be both specific (between two people, two nationalities or regions).
9.4.2 Civil Unrest, Crime and Arm Twisting

Civil unrest is a major threat to the business of tourism. In this context are cited
incidents like: strikes in airlines or hotels, agitation or civil disturbances, communal
riots, and activities of militants/terrorists, etc.
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It is a fact that tourists are very much concerned about their safety. Hence avoiding
destinations, which are not safe. The drop in the number of tourist arrivals to Kenya in
1992 and 1997 can be seen against the backdrop of tribal clashes that preceded the
previous two General Elections. It is not only the tour operators, airlines or travel
agents that suffer losses, but the local population is also a victim. The tour operator can
negotiate or arrange for changed itineraries, but what alternatives do the local
population have? In most of the cases destinations have seasonality. Failure of one
season leads to extreme hardship, particularly for those who belong to the informal
sector, or depend on providing subsidiary services.
Crime is another threat. For example, theft, molestation or cheating all brings a bad
name to the destination.
In an event of these adverse reports, the tourist source countries use arm-twisting
methods in relation to the Third World countries by issuing travel advisories. They can
declare the affected countries out of bound for their citizens as per their own discretion.
Many a times they have used civil unrest and terrorism as an excuse to issue such
advisories. It is worth noting that often the duration for such advisories is very short,
raising the question of the seriousness of the situation, or it was used as an excuse to
arm twist the small nations for political reasons. The British and American
governments’ travel advisories about Kenya just before high tourist season in May
2003 is one such example.
9.4.3 Red Tapes and Bureaucracy

Red tapes are a common feature for the delay in framing or implementing of plans.
Tourism is no exception to this. Another aspect is the attitude of certain bureaucrats and
politicians towards tourism. Most of them do not realize that it is a specialized area and
not every one can plan or handle the operations. Frequent transfers are a drawback. It is
vital for tourism that competent officials who have sound knowledge of tourism
industry and impacts handle the issue rather than novices in the area.
9.4.4 Trained Manpower and Awareness
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Lack of trained manpower and awareness are two other obstacles in tourism
development. Training is lacking at many levels, particularly in the informal and
subsidiary services.
Another aspect is the lack of awareness about tourism. Awareness includes knowledge
about the impact of tourism on day-to-day life of the people, their own attitude towards
tourism, benefits or loss, etc. Very often people working in one segment of tourism are
unaware about the impact of their services or actions on other services.
9.4.5 Ignoring Domestic Tourists

In the three East Africa countries, the proportion of domestic tourists is much higher
than foreign tourists. However, because of foreign exchange earnings, the emphasis
remains on providing facilities for the foreign tourists while domestic tourists are
ignored.
9.4.6 Poaching: This is the illegal killing or capture of wild animals and marine life.
Commercial poaching is more dangerous than subsistence poaching because poachers
kill every available mature and healthy animal, including potential mothers in order to
meet their game trophy demands. Through increased incidences of poaching in East
Africa’s national parks and reserves, wild animal populations have declined drastically
and some wild species have almost become extinct. Elephants and rhinos are the most
threatened species. Elephants are killed for their ivory while the rhino is poached for its
horn. For example, between 1968 and 1988 the elephant population in Kenya declined
rapidly from about 165,000 to 18,000 and that of rhino from 20,000 to 350 and a
number of sanctuaries have had to be created to reverse the situation.
9.4.7 Poor infrastructure

Road network in and out of the national parks and reserves and other tourist attraction
centres are poor and in dire need of repair. Getting to some of these areas is sometimes
impossible especially during the rainy seasons.
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9.4.8 High charges
Entry to the tourism centres is out of reach of many people especially the locals, a
factor that contributes to the small numbers of domestic tourists. In addition to the lofty
gate fees, many prospective tourists consider accommodation and subsistence charges
exorbitant and unaffordable.
9.4.9 Environmental Pollution

Water, air and noise pollution are notable threats to the tourism industry in East Africa.
Pollution occurs when effluents from industrial and agricultural sector; and urban
sewage systems flow into habitats of animals, birds, fish, and plants. The pollutants kill
aquatic fauna and flora. Beaches along the Indian Ocean are polluted by industrial
effluents coming from industries located near-by. The wastes kill animals and plants
including the coral polyps. Lake Nakuru National Park in Kenya was once famous for
flamingos, which were a major tourist attraction. However, due to pollution in the Lake
very few flamingos live there today. Nearly all of them shifted to Lake Bogoria.
Honking and dust from speeding vehicles scares animals in the parks, which go into
hiding, causing frustration of the tourists who spent a lot of time searching for the
animals.
9.5 Alternative Options

95.1 Cultural Tourism as a Positive Development Option
Cultural tourism can often provide an alternative socio-economic development option
for many societies. For example, according to Lanfant (1995):
“Tourism is often presented as the last chance. Thus, through

international tourism, poor regions which have been removed any focus
of activity, closed in on themselves, and condemned to certain death by
economists find themselves rediscovered and thrust into the path of
development linked to the international market and propelled onto the
world scene.”
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This suggests that tourism can raise the profile of a destination, attracting the interest of
visitors and investors alike. There are a number of benefits that are derived from
tourism. Inskeep (1994) suggests that a combination of socio-economic impact control
measures and socio-cultural programming can be taken to maximize the benefits of
tourism development. Table 9.1 summarizes many of the main issues facing
destinations that want to develop tourism in a sensitive and appropriate manner.
In terms of socio-cultural impact management, there are difficult relationships between

hosts and guests to manage. Some have suggested that the creation of enclaves or all-
inclusive complexes can minimize host-guest tensions. For others, the establishment of
appropriate forums for host-guest interaction and production, exhibition and display or
sale of local cultural goods is important. This can be in the form of cultural centers,
craft villages or locally run workshops.
Table 9.1 Impact of control measures and programming

Socioeconomic control measures Socio-cultural programming
Strengthen linkages between tourism Community and tourist education
and other economic sectors about tourism and its impacts
Minimize leakages by encouraging use Provide opportunities for cross-
and purchase of local goods and cultural exchange and host-guest
services interaction
Encourage local ownership and Impose visitor codes of conduct where
management of facilities and services necessary and appropriate
Set a limit on international and non- Ensure local community access to
local investment cultural facilities
Provide financial incentives for local Preserve local architectural styles
investment
Maximize local employment Maintain authenticity of local arts and
opportunities at all levels cultural performances
Provide appropriate training, education Prevent visitation of religious or
and skills development spiritual sites or ceremonies where
appropriate
Encourage and support local business Protect and support local culture
and entrepreneurial development production methods
Increase tourist expenditure and the Establish local cultural centers with
multiplier effects of tourism exhibition and performance space
Develop tourism gradually to Market the destination selectively to
counteract problems of inflated prices ‘culturally sensitive’ tourists
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of land and products
Limit tourist numbers where necessary
through appropriate control measures
Source: Adapted from Inskeep (1994)
9.5.2 Ecotourism
The UN, whose Commission on Sustainable Development called upon the international
agencies, governments and private sector to support activities related to ecotourism,
declared the year 2002 the International Year of Ecotourism. The Ecotourism Society
(1991) defines ecotourism as: “responsible travel to natural areas which conserve the
environment and sustains the well-being of the local people.” This includes not only the
appreciation of nature but also of traditional cultures present within natural settings.
However, Mowforth and Munt (1998) observe that a form of global ‘eco-colonialism’
has emerged, which is based on the notion that power and control are central to the
development of global models of sustainable and environmentally friendly tourism. As
stated by Hall (1994) many of the models of conservation found in ecotourism are
based on Western concepts. One of the main problems of ecotourism is that many tour
operators have tended to abuse the ecotourism label as a marketing ploy, especially in
the 1990s, which was predicted to became the ‘Decade of Ecotourism” (Smith and
Eadington 1994). Like all other forms of tourism, ecotourism needs to be managed
carefully and sensitively if it is to be sustainable. Table 9.2 suggests some measures
that can be taken.
Table 9.2 Measures to manage ecotourism
Protecting and Ensuring local Creating economic

managing the participation opportunities for local
ecosystem communities
Maintain appropriate, Convey a sense of local Create opportunities for
small-scale controlled ownership, leadership and local employment
development empowerment
Ensure compatibility of Develop opportunities for Ensure local ownership
development with local local control and and management of
surroundings management facilities and initiatives
Aim to conserve energy Create opportunities for Distribute economic
and recycle materials group and community- benefits and revenue
based projects equitably
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Use indigenous labor, Respect local heritage, Make use of local
materials and expertise traditions and cultural materials and products to
values prevent leakages
Aim for multiple land- Facilitate host-guest Channel profits back into
use where possible interaction conservation,
environmental protection
and education.
Source: Adapted from Hawkins and Khan (1994).
9.6 Summary
East Africa has a well-developed tourism industry. The region boasts of beautiful
scenery, fabulous and diverse cultures, a variety of wildlife including the world’s big
five and historical sites which are key tourist attractions. However, the industry
experiences several problems, which impede its development. Insecurity, political
instability, crime, arm-twisting, and poaching, among others are the threats and
obstacles to tourism development. Otherwise East Africa has a great tourism potential.

(a) Draw a map of East Africa and on it show the major national parks and game
reserves.
(b) Distinguish between tourism and eco-tourism.
(c) Account for the major tourism attractions in East Africa.
(d) Human-wildlife conflicts are on the rise. How can this problem be
addressed?
(e) Drawing specific examples explain the role of tourism industry in economic
development.
(f) What is the future of the tourism industry in East Africa?
9.8 Further Reading

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10.0 LESSON TEN: TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
10.1 Introduction
In this lesson, the role of an efficient and sufficient transport and communication
networks in economic development is explained. An evaluation of the status of East
Africa’s transport and communication networks is given. The implication of a poor
transport and communication network is discussed.

• Explain the role of transport and communication in development
• Evaluate the status of transport and communication and its implication
in the development of East Africa.
10.3 Introduction to East Africa Transport and Communication

Transport refers to the movement of goods or human beings from one place to another
while communication is the passing of information from one person to another. Both
transport and communication are a fundamental aspect of human development in that
they promote spatial interaction by allowing people and places to specialize. Due to
increased specialization human societies have become more and more interdependent,
hence the need to provide adequate transport and communication facilities to enhance
exchange of goods, services and ideas. It is thus vital for all places to be well connected
and easily accessible at all times of the year.
10.4 The Role of Transport and Communication Networks on the Economy

Since time immemorial, human societies have exchanged and traded goods and
services. Over time, different modes of transport have been developed and used. The
earliest form of transport was human and animal porterage, which was a slow way of
movement. Through this form of transport, goods were carried on the head, shoulder or
at the back. During those early days the modes of communication used were quite slow
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and inefficient. Sending a messenger, smoke signals or drumming were some of the
modes of communication relied upon. As a result, society was generally spatially
restricted or isolated with a series of self-sufficient communities living far apart. But
with time and improvement in science and technology, today there are more efficient
and effective means of transport and communication. These include all weather roads,
railway lines, air transport, modern ships and boats, telephones, faxes, e-
communication among others. But why do we need efficient transport and
communication network in East Africa?
Having a sufficient and efficient transport and communication network is crucial for the
economic development of the region. It:
a) Helps to minimise scarcity, reduce wastage and increase the value of goods and
services. Under the earlier, less efficient forms of transportation, areas of food
deficit and surplus existed in the same geographical region with little or no food
materials passing from one region to another. However, with improved means of
transportation, food is moved over short and long distances to avert imminent
wastage and at the same time offset local shortages.
b) Provides links between regions hence allowing for the migration of people seeking
for new opportunities and challenges.
c) Forms the basis for the development of the tourism industry, which relies on the
ability of people to move rapidly and easily from place to place.
d) Helps in the diffusion of new ideas and innovations e.g. spread of news thus
enabling people to take advantage of advances in sciences and technology, and
develop a better understanding of the world.
e) Promotes trade. A good transport network will promote brisk internal and external
trade and encourage the development of agriculture and industry.
Promotes political stability: A well -developed transport system is vital to the

establishment of political, control, national unity and an efficient central administration
since areas, which are not accessible, may develop separatist tendencies if not
administered.
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10.5 The Status of Transport and Communication Network in East Africa
Like elsewhere in Africa, East Africa lags behind the rest of the world on almost all
dimensions of infrastructural development especially that concerning modes of
transport and communication-quantity, equality of access, quality and cost. Means of
transport and communication are not only inadequate but inefficient and therefore
impeding the process of economic development in the region.
10.5.1 Transport
Roads, as opposed to rail, water and air transport are the most commonly used mode of
transport through out East Africa. However these are not equally and or evenly
distributed in the region. Road density is highest in the productive areas especially
those with a high agricultural potential. But this not withstanding, a good number of
roads particularly rural feeder roads that connect the interior rural areas to main
highways are in poor condition with accessibility limited in most cases to the dry
season. During the rainy season motorised vehicles, which are faster, and also carry
large and heavier goods are replaced by animal transport as well as human transport,
with women bearing the brunt of the transport burden.
Areas of low productivity, which also happen to have low populations for example
North East Kenya, Central Tanzania and northern Uganda, are poorly connected and
least accessible almost through out the year. This is also true of areas in difficult terrain
such as mountainous and hilly places. Constructing roads to such places is quite costly
and not self-sustaining. In some of these areas long range motor transport services on
roads often operate only during markets days, which usually take place once or twice a
week.
The problem of inadequate and inefficient transport is aggravated by the high costs of
transportation in East Africa, which has continued to rise over the years. In some parts
of the region the cost of transport is so high that people resort to alternative and
seemingly cheaper but slow and inefficient modes of transport. Today many people in
East Africa have turned to the use of intermediate forms of transport (Box 10.1) such as
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bicycles commonly referred to as boda boda in Kenya, carts or pack animals. These
intermediate means of transport though relatively slow have been known to save time
and energy especially for women and children. The time and energy saved if diverted
elsewhere could improve the productivity and quality of rural households.
Box 10.1: Intermediate Transport in Rural East Africa

It is true that a significant imbalance in the type, quantity, quality and cost of transport
and communication exist between rural and urban areas through out East Africa. In
rural areas, there are limited transport alternatives to walking and carrying heavy loads
on the back or head. A large section of the rural population especially women and
children spend over 50 per cent of their time daily walking long distances as they try to
meet their many and varied socio-economic obligations. Many rural households do not
yet have access to tapped water and as such women and children make several trips to
waterholes. Some of the water points are many kilometres away from the household
and a lot of time and energy are spent in this exercise. Collection of firewood is another
area, which consumes a lot of time. Women walk long distances in search of firewood,
which is the main source of fuel energy in the rural areas. In addition to meeting these
domestic obligations a lot of time is also spent daily in meeting agricultural related
transport needs. Men and women walk almost daily to and from their farms either to
transport manure/fertilizers and other farm inputs; harvest or to weed in the farms.
These movements consume a lot of the rural populations’ time and energy.
The situation is however, much better in the case of people with access to intermediate
means of transport. People who own a wheelbarrow, a donkey, and handcart will make
fewer trips to water points than those without. Farmers with carts for example increase
crop production through a greater use of manure, they increase animal production by
transporting and stocking crop residue and they avoid losses by timely transport of their
harvests. Also rural folks with bicycles, carts or pack animals transport a bigger load to
the market than those who carry their loads on the head or back. A study conducted in
Makete Tanzania shows that people transport 20 – 30 kg on their heads to the market
while donkeys carry about 80kg and that households that own a donkey use higher
amounts of farm inputs and had higher outputs, incomes and more wealth than those
without. These people also operate within a larger circle than those without access to
intermediate means of transport. As such they have more contacts, a better access to
new information, markets and trading possibilities.
Intermediate means of transport therefore ease the transport burden in the rural sector
especially in those areas without an efficient road network. They increase capacity and
reduce human drudgery at an affordable cost. Rural folks are becoming increasingly
aware of their use.
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Intermediate means of transport increase accessibility to markets, schools, health
centres and other social and economic facilities. While applauding the role of
intermediate modes of transport in rural development, it must be appreciated that
motorised modes of transport are more effective in inducing development. But the latter
can be too costly and out of reach of majority of East Africa’s poor population.
Let us now make a quick evaluation of the transport situation in East Africa.
(a) Road Transport

Kenya has a high road density joining almost all parts of the country. Nearly all major
urban areas and high potential areas are well connected by all weather roads. However
areas of marginal productivity are poorly connected and are in most cases served by
seasonal roads. Unlike Kenya, Tanzania does not have a well spread road network. The
central parts of the country unlike the coastal and Lake Victoria region are poorly
served. The southern and central parts of Uganda have an evenly distributed road
network. The northern part, which is also on the whole unproductive, is poorly covered
and most of it is inaccessible during rainy seasons.
(b) Railway transport

Railway transport is not well developed in East Africa. In fact the railway network
existing today was built during the colonial era and has not been expanded ever since;
except in Tanzania where a railway was built recently. This railway line connects Dar-
es-Salaam to Kapiri Mposhi in Zambia and is part of the Tanzania- Zambia railway
line. Today, a great deal of transporters appears to prefer road to railway transport.
Modern trucks with capacity to carry heavy loads and ability to move faster than trains
are being used to transport bulky and heavy goods across the region and beyond.
(c) Water transport

This form of transport is largely limited to Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika and Malawi and
Indian Ocean. East Africa lacks navigable rivers.
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(d) Air Transport
Although East Africa is well served by airlines, air transport is handicapped by its
relatively high cost. Each country has an international airport and an airline. These
connect the region to numerous foreign countries and are useful for international trade.
Internal air transport is not as well developed as the international one.
(e) Pipeline Transport

There is an efficient pipeline transport in Kenya and Tanzania used in the transportation
of water and petroleum. This form of transport eases congestion from roads and
railways.
10.5.2 Communication
Telecommunication, computers and the Internet are essential and basic ingredients of a
modern economy through which the world has become a ‘global village’. Nowadays
business transactions are conducted via telephones, faxes and Internet without the
people involved necessarily having to meet at all. This digital and information
revolution has changed the way the world learns, communicates, does business etc.
Modern information and communication technologies offer opportunities for progress
in various areas of life worldwide. Some of these opportunities include those for
economic growth, improved health, better service delivery; learning through distance
education as well as cultural advancement which if well exploited can improve a
country’s standards of living.
However, while appreciating the importance of an effective and efficient

communication network in economic development, it is imperative to note that East
Africa is not fairing well in this respect. Only a minority of the population have a main
line, or a mobile phone (Table 10.1) and the waiting time for a connection is still long.
While there were 260 mobile phones per every thousand people in Tanzania, there were
only 42 and 16 mobiles per every one thousand Kenyan and Ugandan respectively in
the year 2002.
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It is also discouraging to note that a large population in East Africa does not read
newspapers, nor do they own radios or television sets. Also very few people own a
personal computer and only a minority use the Internet (Table 10.2). Perhaps this fact is
attributable to the increasing levels of poverty in the region.
Table 10.1: Ownership of Telephones and Mobile Phones
Country Main telephone Waiting list (per Mobiles (per Mobiles (per
lines (per 1,000 1,000 persons) 1994 1,000 1,000 persons)
persons) 1994- – 98 persons) 1994 2002
98 – 98
Kenya 9 77 0 42
Tanzania 3 37 1 260
Uganda 2 6 1 16
Table 10.2: Ownership of Sources of Information (per 1000 Persons)

Country Daily news Radios Television Personal Internet
paper computers users
Kenya 10 221 26 6.4 13
Tanzania 4 406 45 4.2 2
Uganda 2 122 18 3.3 4
10.6 Impact of Transport and Communication Network

For the most part of East Africa, infrastructure especially in rural areas is highly
deficient and inefficient, a problem likely to retard the rate of development in the
region. So far it has been noted to have serious economic and social repercussions in
the region.
1) Improved means of transport and communication are an essential requirement for the
modernization and growth of the agricultural sector at household, national and regional
level. An efficient road transport for instance characterised by well maintained all
weather roads ensures timeliness in the transportation of farm inputs and also in the
movement of agricultural produce most of which is highly perishable from the farms to
the markets and or processing plants. Through timely delivery of fresh farm produce,
the amount of wastage especially at farm level is significantly reduced; while the
volume of trade, which is essential for competitiveness, is augmented.
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Agricultural production is also bound to benefit from improved communication
technologies. Better communication will promote an effective interaction among
researchers, farmers and extension officers followed by a higher adoption of modern
agricultural technologies and consequently food security as well as a surplus for
marketing purposes. At the same time farmers will locate potential buyers for their
produce through improved means of communication. For example, in recognition of the
importance of telephones especially the mobile ones, the Kenya Agricultural
Commodity Exchange (KACE), a Non Governmental Organization (NGO) is earnestly
promoting the use of mobile phone by small scale farmers to monitor commodity prices
and access other markets information as well as farmers knowledge of areas of deficit
and surplus. KACE’s aim is to enhance farmers’ ability to make informed decisions and
to increase their level of competitiveness. So far KACE has distributed over 100 mobile
phones to farmers in various parts of the country. IS KACA likely to succeed in this
endeavour? What constraints is it likely to face?
2) Improved infrastructure will impact positively on transport costs. Increased road

densities and paved road networks, efficient rail net works and air transport will make
transportation much cheaper that it is today. This is important in view of the fact that
transport and communication costs are sensitive to the quality of the infrastructure and
that volume of trade is sensitive to transport and communication costs. For example a
dilapidated road network increases the cost of maintaining vehicles, a cost that
transporters will pass on to the users. Eventually the number of users, journeys, and the
volume of trade decline drastically. This makes business very costly and beyond the
reach of the majority poor.
3) Inadequate and inept infrastructure impedes the integration of domestic markets and
limits the amount of interaction between areas of deficit and those of surplus. Lack of
telephones, all weather roads, and railway lines condemns rural areas to isolation,
subsistence production and backwardness. People living in places which are likely to be
cut off from markets and supply sources at critical times rarely specialize in high value
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crops. Consequently, their volume of trade is small and poverty becomes deeply
entrenched and difficult to deal with.
4) Inefficient infrastructure discourages both foreign and local investors. Well-

organized means of transport and communication are paramount for the success of
private investment. Unreliable services reduce competitiveness. Production stoppage
and missed delivery dates for instance preclude the development of high value products
that depend on timely delivery. Business partners will halt unreliable business
transactions and open up new venture with more reliable partners.
Activity 10.1
Compare the status of transport and communication networks in any two districts
and discuss its effect on the development of the two regions.
10.7 Summary
From the foregoing it is apparent that sufficient and efficient transport and
communication networks are necessary ingredients for development. But this not
withstanding, East Africa’s transport and communication network is wanting in many
ways; modes of transport are unevenly distributed in the region and a large part of the
region is poorly served. Means of communication on the other hand appear to be
concentrated in urban areas with very limited facilities in the rural areas. As such
inadequate and inefficient means of transport and communication do actually slow the
process of development, as the potential of the region is not fully exploited.

(a) Describe the role of transport and communication in development
(b) Evaluate the status of transport and communication networks in East Africa.
(c) Drawing examples from Kenya, explain the advantages of intermediate
modes of transport
(d) Assess the impact of any one mode of transport in agricultural development.
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A Long–Term Perspective Study, Washington, D.C.
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11.0 LESSON ELEVEN: INDUSTRY AND TRADE
11.1 Introduction
In this chapter special attention is awarded to the manufacturing industry. Drawing
examples from East Africa, a distinction is made among the different types of
Industries. The role of industry in the economy of the East Africa region is discussed;
and factors determining the location of industries are elucidated. The factors
determining the different types and amount of trade are explained.
11.2 Objectives

• Explain factors influencing the location of industries
• Evaluate the role of industry in the economic development of East Africa
• Explain factors determining the type and amount of trade in East Africa
• Evaluate the different types of trade practised in East Africa
11.3 Manufacturing
Manufacturing involves the conversion of resources either chemically or physically to
improve their utility. It is a prerequisite to human survival and is performed in a wide
variety of ways. In this topic the term manufacturing is defined, and the various types
of manufacturing activities are discussed. Factors determining the location of
manufacturing industries are discussed and the importance of manufacturing as an
economic activity in East Africa is highlighted.
11.4 Types of Manufacturing Industries

Agriculture, fishing, forestry, and mining products are in most cases not directly
consumable; various degrees of processing are required to meet human needs of these
products. Thus manufacturing industry is concerned with the changing of materials
from their raw form into a consumable form. In this respect inputs to the
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manufacturing unit arrive from agriculture or mining and the outputs depart to families
or similar consumers. Some manufacturing however uses already manufactured
products as the inputs, assembles them, adapts them, or generally increases their
usefulness and subsequently sells the new product to either another manufacturer or to
the final consumer. Manufactured goods are more useful and valuable than the original
raw materials from which they are made. For example timber is converted into
furniture, construction materials, pulp and paper.
Manufacturing performs three basic functions namely: processing, assembly and repair.
These functions serve to distinguish between agriculture and industry. Secondly,
manufacturing differs from agriculture in that the latter is an areal activity, while the
former is punctiform i.e. manufacturing has a point location and thus demands far less
land per employee than is the case with agriculture. More often than not the locations
are usually urban based.
Industries fall into four main categories including:
(i) Primary industries- these deal with the extraction of raw materials directly from
the earth or sea. Examples are farming, fishing, forestry and mining.
(ii) Secondary industries- these process and manufacture primary products. Local
examples include crude oil refining, food processing, tobacco curing, vehicle
assembly, cement, etc.
(iii)Tertiary industries provide a service. These include health, education, tourism
trade and transport.
(iv) Quaternary industries provide information and expertise. These include the new
microchip and micro-electronic industries.
In this lesson, the use of the term industry is confined to its narrowest definition, that
is, manufacturing.
Activity: 11.1
Give 5 specific examples of each type of industries from each one of the three East
Africa countries.
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There are a variety of industries in East Africa, located in different parts of the region.
What do you think a prospective industrialist takes into consideration before deciding
where to construct his/her industry?
11.5 Factors influencing the Location of Manufacturing Industries

Location of industries is not done arbitrarily. Several factors are taken into
consideration before a decision to locate an industry in a given place is made. Some of
these factors are explained here below:
11.5.1 Availability of raw materials

The basis of the manufacturing process is the conversion of an existing product into a
more useful or valuable form. Thus raw materials are very important for the
manufacturing industry. Raw materials differ in terms of weight, bulkiness and
perishability. What is most crucial to an industrialist is the cost of accumulating raw
materials at a particular location. Some industries (e.g. sugarcane, cement, soda ash)
use large amounts of heavy and bulky raw materials. In this case the cost of the
transporting the raw material is higher than that of the finished product. Ordinarily such
industries are located near the source of the raw material. If the raw material is highly
perishable breakable or fragile (e.g. fruits) than the finished product the industry is
located near the source of the raw material. These are what are referred to as raw
material oriented industries. However, if the raw materials are small in quantity, light in
weight or of high value (e.g. gold, diamond and ruby) transport costs may be low and a
raw material location will not be necessary. In the latter case the cost of the
manufactured product is high enough to pay for the transportation and processing of the
raw materials.
11.5.2 Availability of markets

It is important for the finished products to reach the consumer on time. Since the
products cannot be delivered to the consumers at their doorstep, the industry can be
located near or at an urban centre where people can access it. However, markets are not
just a question of numbers, but also of earning capacity of the populations and of their
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willingness to spend. Unless a population can make effective demand of the products
then industries cannot develop.
Some types of industries are more market oriented than others. These are the industries
dealing with perishable finished products (e.g. industries producing bread, cakes, dairy
products); fragile finished products (e.g. bottled drinks, glassware); goods that are bulk
and of a low value (brick making and tile-making industries); industries that involve
much personal contact with customers (packaging industries, tailoring, printing and
publishing); industries producing raw material for other industries (automobile
component manufactures) and industries requiring small quantities of raw materials.
11.5.3 Transport
The availability of a good network of transport is another deciding factor in the location
of industries. Raw materials must be moved to the industries and the finished products
must be dispatched to the markets. Thus a prospective industrialist must take into
consideration the cost of transportation. Unlike in the developed world where transport
and communication networks are well established and in most cases transport costs are
not only relatively low but also form a very insignificant fraction of the total production
cost; in East Africa means of transport and communication networks are poorly
developed. As a result freight charges are very high and usually take up a big share of
the cost of production. Under such circumstances transport becomes an important
deciding factor to be taken into consideration before one makes up their mind about the
place where to locate their industry. Thus an industry will be located where the cost pf
assembling raw materials and the cost of distributing the finished goods to the market
put together is lowest.
11.5.4 Labour supply

An adequate labour force is essential in the initiation and continuance of an industry.
But the actual number of people required in an industry varies between different
industries. Obviously capital-intensive industries will require less labour. The question
a prospective industrialized should ask themselves is: what type of labour do we need?
Some industries demand specialized and highly skilled workforce (watch-making,
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diamond cutting, and aircraft manufacturing industries). Such skilled labour demands
high salaries and good working conditions. But the good thing about skilled labour is
that it is highly mobile and can move to the industries once given the assurance that its
demands will be met. Other industries require semi-skilled labour. The semi-skilled
workers are fairly mobile especially in countries where their demand is high. However,
the bulk of labour force in most industries consists of unskilled workers. These are the
least moveable because the demand for their skills is low except in the developed
countries. In the developing countries, unskilled labour is abundant and in most cases
the supply exceeds demand, hence the low salaries/wages awarded to this group of
workers. But due to the increasing shortage of employment opportunities, unskilled
labourers are now assuming a certain degree of mobility. It is also worth noting that
labour can easily be transported to any part of a country where it is demanded.
11.5.5 Capital
Without capital, industries cannot be set up. Capital is required to purchase land, where
the industry will be set up, raw materials, office equipment and build offices; to hire
labour as well as for the promotion of the finished products. The initial capital outlay
can be enormous although this will depend on the type of the industry being set up. But
availability of capital may not be a strong location factor. This is because capital is
very mobile; people will invest where there are possible rewards regardless of the
nature of the physical environments.
Capital is however very crucial in determining the prosperity of an industry. We have

heard of cases where industries have been closed down because the available capital
has been mismanaged or misappropriated.
11.5.6 Government policies

Governments play an important role in the location and development of industries in a
country. Through policy formulation, governments can encourage or discourage the
development of industries in a country or in a certain region within the country. For
example it can decide where the industries will be located through decentralization
policies in countries where industries have been concentrated in one or a few areas of
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the country. This may be done in order to open up the underdeveloped parts of the
country and to reduce overcrowding in some parts of the country. Governments may
also have clear-cut policies discouraging the setting up of industries in certain parts of
the country. For example it would not be wise to set up any other industries in National
Parks except tourism-related ones.
11.5.7 Power
All industries require power for manufacturing processes. Natural gas, petroleum and
electricity are the main types of power used in the production of energy for industrial
purposes in East Africa. These forms of energy are easily transmitted through high-
tension wires or by tankers or pipelines to industrial sites. Thus, power is not a strong
location factor in East Africa.
It is important to note that power was a strong location factor when coal was the only
source of power. Because coal was heavy and bulky and hence expensive to transport,
industries had to be located within a short radius of the coalfield. That’s why most of
the industries in Germany where concentrated within coal producing areas such as the
Ruhr coalfields which was also the Ruhr industrial area.
11.5.8 Industrial Inertia

Traditional industrial areas usually have a strong pull factor and continue to attract new
industries because of their well-established economies of scale. Such economies of
scale include:- good transport and communication network, available markets,
availability of certain skills, cheap storage facilities, affordable construction costs etc.
The failure of an industry to move from one area to another when, locational
advantages and disadvantages change is called industrial inertia. Prospective
industrialists would enjoy better economies of scale by locating their business within
already established Nairobi, Kampala and Dar-es Salaam industrial areas.
11.6 Industrialization in East Africa

Industrialization in East Africa has been rather a slow process The industrial sector,
which is in its early stages of development, is dominated by light industries, which deal
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with the processing of agricultural raw materials such as coffee, tea, sisal, cloves, sugar
cane and pyrethrum. These are basically simple processing industries, which do not
require heavy capital investments or very advanced technological and skilled labour.
As such the manufactured goods especially the ones for export have not contributed
significantly to the economic growth of the region. The growth of manufactured goods
exports is not really impressive and a big chunk of the income finances food imports
rather than capital goods that East Africa desperately needs.
East Africa lacks heavy industries especially those that require bulky and expensive
raw materials such as iron and steel; and which produce high value products. This
situation is explained by the fact that:
(a) East Africa is poorly endowed with high quality minerals; and cheap energy
resources. The region lacks important minerals such as iron, steel and oil; and energy
resources such as petroleum, nuclear, fuel, natural gas, and coal, which are important
component in the manufacturing industries.
(b) Over the years the economic growth of the region has been very slow; on average
less than 5% per annum. This has had two implications. On the one hand, over 55% of
the population is poverty-stricken and cannot make effective demand. Although East
Africa has a large population it is unfortunate that this population cannot guarantee
market for the manufactured goods. For example, a large number of farmers cannot
afford a plough and continue using a hoe, which is, not only slow but cultivates a small
area per day than a plough would. On the other hand, diminutive economic growth
implies modest savings and investment and inability of the region to purchase capital
and technology that East Africa lacks.
11.7 Importance of the manufacturing industry

A thriving and well-developed manufacturing industry could be a significant boost in
the economic development of East Africa. This is true because:
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i) Industrial growth is cumulative and can stimulate progress in other sectors of the
economy. For instance, fertilizers are industrial products, which if well used in the
improvement of impoverished soils will not only improve the soils fertility but also
enhance agricultural productivity and consequently improve food security in the region.
ii) Where industry is concerned with the processing of commodities for export, it
increases foreign exchange earnings by increasing the value of the commodities.
iii) Where raw materials are found locally, the finished products are less expensive than
their imported substitutes.
iv) Industrial sector could absorb surplus population in the agricultural sector and at the
same time improve the marginal productivity of the people left behind.
Activity 11.2
1. Visit any industry in your district and give an account of the factors that
influenced its location.
2. Explain the contribution of the industry in the development of the region
where it is found and that of the entire country.
11.8 Trade
Trade, the exchange of goods, commodities or services is one of the most important
economic activities, which continues to make society interdependent. It is generated
primarily as a result of surplus productions in one area, of materials and goods, which
are in short supply in other areas. Differences in terms of resource endowment,
technological capabilities and level of consumption produce a regional pattern of
surpluses in production and deficits in supply of goods and materials – a
disequilibrium, which trade is designed to eliminate. These differences between
countries or regions give rise to territorial specialization in the production of certain
goods. In such a case, trade occurs because a country or a region has an absolute
advantage in producing a certain commodity, which the other cannot produce. In other
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cases a country or a region may have a comparative advantage if for instance it is
cheaper for it to produce a commodity than anywhere else.
11.8.1 Factors Affecting Trade

As an interaction process, the existence of trading activities can be explained by the
three principles of (a) Complementarity (b) Intervening opportunity and (c)
Transferability (Box 11.1)
Box 11.1: Principles of trade
Complementarity refers to the existence of demand of a good or service in one
place, and the existence of a supply point of the same in another area. In other
words, the supply of a good or service in one region complements the demand of
the same good or service in another region. For example the production of coffee,
tea and flowers in East Africa complements their demand in Europe where they
are not produced. Like wise East Africa’s demand for heavy machinery and
vehicles, is complimented by Europeans markets.
Intervening opportunities relates to the existence of closer alternative sources of

supply of commodities or markets. Interaction between two complementary
regions may occur only if there are no intervening opportunities. This is because
the intervening opportunities act as ‘spatial sponges’, which soak up potential
interaction between complementary regions.
Transferability is the movement of goods from complementary regions. It is

measured in real money or time costs. If it costs a lot of money wise or time wise,
interaction between two points may not take place. Trade is possible only when
the various products are transferable from one region to another. Transferability
is a function of transport efficiency, the absence of intervening opportunities and
the absence of institutional, economic or social constraints.
But what exactly are the factors that determine the existence of trade?
1. Differences in endowment of natural resources – The basis of trade is the fact that
resources on earth are unevenly distributed. Different places are endowed with
different resources a fact attributable to:
(i) Diversity in climatic conditions: East Africa enjoys a diversity of climates ranging
from the Equatorial climate characterised by high, sufficient and reliable rainfall; and
cool to moderate temperatures to the very arid ones characterised by extremely low and
unreliable rainfall and high temperatures. And as noted earlier, different climatic
conditions yield different agricultural commodities most of which are demanded in
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foreign markets. For example, European countries face climatic restrictions that hinder
them from producing flowers yet there is an ample supply of the same in East Africa.
Thus, like elsewhere in the world, differences in climatic conditions are the mother of
regional, national and international trade in East Africa.
(ii) Uneven distribution of mineral resources: East Africa is not endowed with
important minerals like the Middle East and other parts of the world. This deficit is
complimented by those countries, which produce minerals demanded by East Africa
market. For example, Middle East exports large quantities of oil to East Africa. East
Africa also exports some of the few minerals mined in the region to other parts of the
world. For example Kenya exports trona (soda ash) to Japan and India.
(iii) Unequal distribution of people and differences in purchasing power:

Population size, distribution and economic as well as cultural diversity between people
affects the types of exchange and the volume of trade. Cultural differences mean that
human beings in different parts of the world have very distinct forms of art, craft and
other creative works, which are valued elsewhere. For example, East Africa, Kenya in
particular, exports woodcarvings to America, while carpets from Middle East are sold
in East Africa markets as well as European markets. Also people’s culture and size of
population affects international trade. But it should be understood that a large
population does not necessarily imply a large market. What matters is the purchasing
power of the population.
Stage of economic development: The level of a country’s development also

influences the volume and type of trade. East Africa produces and exports agricultural
commodities while she imports high value manufactured goods from the developed
world, mainly Europe and Asia. A significant share of her exports comprise of semi-
processed goods, which do not fetch a high value in the international markets.
Extent of foreign investments – The level of foreign investment can affect the
volume, type and pattern of international trade. Developed countries have more foreign
investments than East Africa and the rest of the less developed world. For instance,
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Japan, Germany and Britain have invested heavily in East Africa or are providing aid in
the form of manufactured goods and personnel and by so doing they secure a ready
market for their products, as well as employment for their people.
Transport – Inadequate transport networks limited trade within national boundaries in

the past. Movement of perishable and bulky products was very limited. However, the
modernisation of transport and communication networks has eliminated these barriers
and goods and services are transported wherever they are required and in most cases in
time. Consequently, the volume and variety of goods has increased remarkably. There
are however some exceptional cases. Distance is still a barrier to international trade in
places with hostile climates such as deserts, jungles etc, which have the poorest
transport, and communication networks.
Government policies and trading restriction-These are particularly important as

intervening opportunities to possibilities of free trade. Governments have put in place
policies meant to safe guard their industries from undue competition especially from
the developed world. Protectionism measures are meant to protect local industries or
the production of local goods. By so doing, they stimulate the growth of domestic
industries. Consequently, levels of employment and standards of living are improved.
Some of the protectionism measures include:
a) Tariffs – are taxes or duties levied on imported articles whose effect is to make
imported goods equally or more expensive than locally produced goods.
b) Quotas – a system where a country refuses to import more than specified quantities
of a certain commodity. Quotas can also be arranged by countries producing the
same product, by allocating themselves a certain quantity of the product for export.
c) Subsidies – are some form of tax relief or other government payments put in place
order to lower local prices. Such measures are meant to boost the morale of
producers and therefore tend to result in higher productivity and increased volume
of trade.
d) Trading blocs – are forms of economic cooperation between countries for purposes
of increased trade and development. These can be in the form of:
142
(i) Free trade arrangements – where there is an elimination of trade barriers only
for members countries done through stages (e.g. Preferential Trade Area)
(ii) Customs Union - where countries adopt certain customs and import regulations
to govern transit arrangements.
(iii)Common market – where trade plays a dominant role hence the adoption of
export trade. These measures may include free trade arrangement, common
external tariffs or free use of currency.
(iv) Economic Union- where the countries also tackle other economic and political
problems by joint action.
11.8.2 Types of Trade in East Africa

How many types of trade do you know? Trade falls into three major categories namely:
Domestic or internal trade; regional trade and international trade. Let us examine each
one of these different types of trade.
Domestic trade also commonly referred to as internal marketing is the buying and
selling of goods and services produced within a given country. It is trade limited within
the national boundaries of a given country. Within the confines of the territories of each
one of the three East Africa countries there is a great deal of trading involving
agricultural and manufactured goods; and services. Amount of trade varies according to
the level/size of the urban centre where the trade takes place. According to Christaller’s
central place theory, the small urban centres, which are numerous in number and are
located close to each other, provide less specialised goods and services to relatively
localised populations. These are what Christaller calls low order central places
(hamlet), which are characterised by a narrow range of goods and materials including
fresh agricultural produce, foodstuffs, local textiles, and household wares etc. Trading
at this level takes place in rural markets, which actually form an important entry point
of most agricultural products and craft industrial products into the exchange economy.
It is also through these markets that the imported goods finally reach the consumer. In
each market there is usually a designated day (market day) once or twice a week when
sellers and buyers converge at the market. Conversely larger centres usually fewer in
number and widely spaced provide highly specialised and high order goods and
143
services. As the threshold of a trading centre increases the range of goods and services
widens and higher-level items dominate the trade. Manufactured products, processed
food products and high level modes of communication are key traded items in the high
order centres including Nairobi, Kisumu, Kampala, Entebbe, Dar-es-salaam and
Arusha. In these big towns trade takes place all the time while at the village level
significant trade occurs mainly on the periodic market days.
Domestic trade is actually rife between areas of deficit and those of surplus. Much of
the trade is on foodstuffs in which ASAL areas and humid areas compliment each other
perfectly well. However, obstacles of a various nature particularly inadequate and
inefficient transport and communication restrict the amount of trade; and hinder the
smooth and timely flow of trade.
Regional Trade takes place between countries within the confines of a defined
boundary. Trade between Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania is therefore regional trade. East
Africa is basically an agricultural region. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania produce more
or less the same products a fact that limits trade in the region. This is because to a large
extent the region has a similar environmental and as such there is little each country has
to offer the other in form of primary products. Regional trade, a feature of regions with
contrasting ecological zones and natural resource endowment, is thus limited among the
East Africa countries.
Activity 11.1 Kenya’s Trade within East Africa
Country/Year EXPORTS (K ‘000) IMPORTS (K ‘000)
1996 1997 1998 1996 1997 1998
Uganda 953,117 909,772 973,317 1,485 23,361 2,987
Tanzania 758,254 823,028 805,818 46,399 43,228 30,502
Total 1,711,371 1,732,790 1,779,133 47,884 66,589 33,489
Source: CBS, 1999
Activity 11.1
1.What goods does Kenya export to and import from Uganda and Tanzania?
2.Study Table 6.1 and comment about regional trade between Kenya Uganda and
Tanzania.
144
However this not withstanding, there is a reasonably high amount of trade involving
manufactured goods especially in view of the fact that Uganda is landlocked and uses
Mombasa and Dar-es-salaam ports as entré ports. Kenya for instance sells petroleum
products, cement, meat, and milk to Uganda and Tanzania. In turn she imports copper
from Uganda and diamonds from Tanzania.
In order to promote trade within the region, East Africa Governments revived the East
African Cooperation (EAC) in 1988. Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda are the bonafide
members. The major objectives of the cooperation are to:
i) Create a common tariff system that allows a smooth flow of goods in the region;
ii) Ease movement within the region by establishing a reliable transport and
communication system; and to minimise custom checks;
iii) Create a common currency like the Euro in Europe;
iv) Create a common market for member countries;
v) Form a common trading bloc through which as a bloc the East Africa countries can
market their agricultural commodities.
Unlike the West African Economic Community (CEAO), which has been the most
successful among Africa’s market integration, the East Africa Cooperation is riddled
with serious logistical problems:
Similarity of traded products

Mistrust among nations
Unequal distribution of benefits.
Inefficient management of customs revenue.
Lack of efficient transport and communication links.
Activity 11.2
Up to the late 1970s the East Africa Community was a very promising economic
community. Its collapse then demonstrated how the inability to solve political
145
differences could compound the economic problems inherent in any economic
integration involving countries at different stages of development. The community
began with a shared currency, a regionally coordinated infrastructure, harmonized
economic policies, and forced labour. It however fell apart over the sharing of
benefits, political divisions and conflicts of interest between Kenya, Uganda and
Tanzania. What do you think the future of the community is?
International Trade: The amount of trade between East Africa and the rest of the
world has been increasing over the years. More than 50% of the region’s external trade
is conducted with Europe; the United Kingdom being the most important trading
partner. Other key trading partners include Japan, North America, Canada, Iran and
India.
Exports from East Africa comprise mainly of primary products (Table 11.2). In the
recent past international trade has been diversified to include horticultural products and
flowers. These products are an important source of foreign exchange in the region.
Unfortunately most of these items are semi-processed and therefore do not fetch a high
market value, a fact explaining the low levels of foreign exchange in East Africa.
Table 11.2: Principal exports from East Africa –1990 – 1999

Country Commodity Thousands of metric tons
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Kenya Coffee 112 83 78 88 80 89 114 68 51 70
Tea 166 176 172 199 177 259 261 199 264 246
Cotton - 1 6 8 7 1 - 0 0 0
Manufactured 140 171 144 230 224 298 290 283 220 238
goods (Million
of US$)
Uganda Coffee 141 127 119 114 194 169 279 210 163 230
Tea 5 7 8 10 11 11 15 18 19 22
Cotton 4 8 8 8 4 6 10 19 1 10
Manufactured - - - - - - - - - -
goods (Million
of US$)
Tanzania Coffee 61 52 51 59 37 48 62 47 45 38
Tea 15 18 20 20 22 22 22 22 22 21
Cotton 46 39 73 61 60 71 82 86 37 28
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Manufactured 104 87 67 59 76 69 117 102 68 84
goods (million
of US$)
Source: World Bank 2001
No country in the world is self-sufficient and therefore, East Africa imports

manufactured goods most of which come from Britain, Japan and America.
Manufactured goods have a high added value and fetch high amounts of foreign
exchange to the countries of origin. East Africa pays dearly for these imports. The
meagre foreign exchange earned from her exports is used to pay for these costly
imports. Unfortunately the monetary value of the exports never balances that of its
imports (Table 11.3). In most cases the value of exports is less than that of imports and
as such the balance of trade is unfavourable or negative implying a trade deficit. This is
not the case with the developed countries, which export high value goods and import
low value goods thus enjoying a favourable trade balance.
Table 11.3 Manufactured Goods Exports and Imports-1990 –1999
Country Commodity Millions of US$

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Kenya Exports 140 171 144 230 224 298 290 283 220 238
Imports 265 289 291 307 293 487 443 465 413 402
Uganda Exports - - - - - - - - - -
Imports - - - - - - - - - -
Tanzania Exports 104 87 67 59 76 69 117 102 68 84
Imports 176 174 241 249 271 322 275 282 290 315
Source: World Bank 2001
How can this gap be bridged? East Africa should:
i) Diversify her exports by exploring opportunities in which she enjoys a comparative

advantage. For instance, indigenous food crops such as millets and sorghums, which are
very handy, drought and disease resistant, and which are extremely nutritious should be
marketed vigorously.
ii) Improve her marketing strategies. She must be prepared to invest in advertisement.
147
iii) Graduate from semi-processing to advanced processing where more fully processed
and high value commodities are exported. The value added will add to quality and fetch
a higher income.
11.9 Summary
East Africa has different types of industries. The location of industries is not arbitrary
but governed by a variety of location factors ranging from availability of raw materials,
market for the final produce, labour, government policies etc. Although these produce
high value products compared to the agricultural output, East Africa’s industry is not
highly developed.
East Africa then trades in manufactured and agricultural products. But while there is a
thriving domestic trade in each one of the countries; the regional trade is not very
successful because of the uniformity of climatic conditions and hence by implication, a
high degree of similarity in the produced goods. There is also a flourishing international
trade between the region and other countries. Unfortunately the trade is not favourable
to the region, which exports low value (agricultural) products while importing high
value products.

(a) Differentiate among the four types of industry.
(b) Describe any four factors that influence the location industry
(c) What is the role of the manufacturing sector in economic development
(d) What is protectionism and how does it affect the growth of domestic industry
(e) How can East Africa benefit from International trades?

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BHU 2110 Geography of East Africa

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING

DR. DOROTHY N. MUTISYA

PART ONE: HISTORICAL BASIS AND PHYSICAL REALM OF

1.0 LESSON ONE: HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY AND PEOPLES OF

2.0 LESSON TWO: THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EAST AFRICA---------15

3.0 LESSON THREE: THE CLIMATES OF EAST AFRICA------------------------26

4.0 LESSON FOUR: EAST AFRICA VEGETATION AND SOILS------------------34

5.0 LESSON FIVE: EAST AFRICA RANGELANDS-----------------------------------49

PART TWO: THE HUMAN REALM OF EAST AFRICA

6.0 LESSON SIX: POPULATION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION-----------------------62

7.0 LESSON SEVEN: URBANIZATION IN EAST AFRICA ------------------------- 80

8.0 LESSON EIGHT: EAST AFRICA AGRICULTURE--------------------------------- 93

9.0 LESSON NINE: TOURISM INDUSTRY----------------------------------------------111

10.0 LESSON TEN: TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION ---------------------- 121

11.0 LESSON ELEVEN: INDUSTRIES AND TRADE ---------------------------------131

POLITICAL BASIS AND PHYSICAL REALM OF EAST

1.2 Learning Objectives

1.3 Historical Geography of East Africa

1.3.1 Arabs Invasion

The major contributions of the Arabs can therefore be summarized as introduction

1.3.2 The Portuguese

1.3.4 Colonization of East Africa

1.3.5 The Kenya-Uganda Railway

1.3.6 Post-Independent East Africa

1.4 The Peoples of East Africa

1.4.1 The Africans

The earliest known people of a country are referred to as indigenous or natives.

Table 1.1. The Indigenous People of East Africa

Cushites Orma, Redille, Gabbra and Boran

1.5 Conclusions and Summary

1.6 Review Questions

1.7 Further Reading

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.3 Location and Size of East Africa

2.4(a) Rocks and Surface Relief

2.4(b) Diversified Landforms

2.5 East Africa Physical Divisions

2.5.2 The Coasts and Coastal Plain

2.5.2.1 Potential Resources

Figure 2.1: East Africa Physical Division

2.5.3 The “Nyika” and North Kenya Plateau

2.5.3.1 Resource Potentials

2.5.4 Mountainous Regions and Highland Masses

2.5.5 The Rift Valley

2.5.6 The Lake Region

2.5.5.1 Resource Potentials

2.6 Significance of Physical Features

2.9 Further Reading

3.2 Learning Objectives

3.3 Introduction to East Africa Weather and Climate

Finally, winds influence temperature by being warmer or cooler depending on the

(Source: Waters and Odera 1986)

3.4.1 Region 1: Coast Tropical Climate

3.4.2 Region11: Desert, Semi-Desert and Dry Tropical Climate

3.4.3 Region 111: Tropical Climate

Figure 3.2 Climatic Regions of East Africa

3.4.4 Region 1V: The Lake Equatorial Climate

3.4.5 Region V: Modified Equatorial Climate

3.4.6 Region V1: The Highland Sub-Tropical Climate

3.7 Further Reading

4.2 Learning Objectives