UNIT - 1

Gender roles in prehistoric and subsistence societies varied greatly across different cultures and
regions. In many societies, gender roles were shaped by the environment and available resources. For
example, in societies where hunting and gathering were the primary means of subsistence, men and
women often had different roles and responsibilities.

In many hunter-gatherer societies, men were responsible for hunting large game, while women were
responsible for gathering plants and small game. This division of labor was often based on the physical
attributes and abilities of men and women. Men were generally stronger and more suited to tasks
that required strength and endurance, such as hunting and warfare, while women were better suited
to tasks that required more attention and care, such as gathering and child-rearing.

In many agricultural societies, gender roles were often shaped by the demands of farming and food
production. Women often played a more prominent role in farming and food production, while men
were responsible for tasks that required more physical strength, such as plowing fields and building
structures. However, gender roles in agricultural societies were not always so rigidly defined. In some
societies, men and women shared equally in the tasks of farming and food production.

In many prehistoric and subsistence societies, gender roles were also shaped by religion and
mythology. In some societies, women were seen as the primary creators of life and were therefore
revered and respected. In other societies, men were seen as the primary creators of life and were
therefore given more power and authority.

Despite these variations in gender roles, many prehistoric and subsistence societies were patriarchal,
with men holding more power and authority than women. This was often reflected in the social and
political structures of these societies. For example, in many societies, men were the leaders of the
community and held more power and authority than women. Women were often excluded from
decision-making processes and had little say in the affairs of the community.

Similarly, the rise of complex societies and the development of social hierarchies led to changes in
gender roles and expectations. In many societies, men gained more power and authority as social
hierarchies became more complex. Women's roles in these societies were often more restricted, and
they had fewer opportunities for social and economic advancement.

However, gender roles were not always so rigidly defined, and women often found ways to assert
their power and influence within their communities. For example, women in many societies were
responsible for passing down knowledge and traditions from one generation to the next. They were
also often the primary caregivers for children and the elderly, and their contributions to the
community were essential for its survival.

In conclusion, gender roles in prehistoric and subsistence societies were shaped by a variety of
factors, including the environment, available resources, religion, and mythology. While gender roles
were often patriarchal and restrictive, they were not always static or unchanging. As societies evolved
and changed over time, so too did gender roles, and women often found ways to assert their power
and influence within their communities.

Origin of family and private property

The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State is a book written by Friedrich Engels in 1884.
In this book, Engels discusses the nature of society, family, and politics from a Marxist perspective.
Engels argues that as society develops, the nature of the family, property, and politics also change.
According to Engels, the natural development of society is closely linked to the development of the
family and property.
Engels begins his discussion by examining the earliest forms of human society, which he calls
"primitive communism." In this stage of society, people lived in small, nomadic groups and shared
everything in common. There was no concept of private property, and the family unit was not well-
defined. Engels argues that this stage of society was characterized by a high degree of social equality
and cooperation.

Engels then discusses the emergence of private property and the family unit. He argues that as
societies became more complex and agriculture developed, people began to settle in one place and
cultivate the land. This led to the development of private property and the family unit. The family
became the basic unit of society, and property was passed down from generation to generation.
Engels argues that this stage of society was characterized by the emergence of social classes and the
exploitation of the working class by the owning class.

Engels then discusses the emergence of the state. He argues that the state emerged as a result of the
need to maintain the power of the owning class over the working class. The state, according to Engels,
is an instrument of class oppression, used by the owning class to maintain their power and privilege.

Engels concludes his discussion by arguing that the natural development of society is towards a
classless society in which there is no private property and the state has withered away. He argues that
this can only be achieved through a revolution led by the working class. Engels' ideas have had a
significant impact on Marxist theory and have influenced many socialist and communist movements
throughout history.

Savagery, barabrism and civilization

Savagery, barbarism, and civilization are three stages of social development that were proposed by
the 19th-century anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan.

Savagery is the earliest stage of social development, in which humans lived as hunter-gatherers and
had no concept of agriculture or permanent settlements. They relied on simple stone tools and lived
in small, nomadic groups. During this stage, humans had no formal social organization and no concept
of private property.

Barbarism is the second stage of social development, in which humans began to develop more
advanced technologies and to live in larger, more settled communities. They also began to
domesticate animals and develop agriculture. During this stage, humans developed more complex
social organizations, such as tribes and chiefdoms, and began to have a concept of private property.

Civilization is the third and final stage of social development, in which humans developed even more
advanced technologies and created more complex social and political organizations. They developed
writing, which allowed them to record their history and to create more sophisticated religious and
philosophical systems. They also began to create art and literature, and to build monumental
architecture.

It's important to note that these stages are not meant to be taken as strict categories, but rather as a
way to understand the general progression of human social development. Additionally, the terms
"savagery" and "barbarism" are now considered outdated and offensive, and are no longer used in
contemporary anthropology.

Families in prehistoric culture

Families in prehistoric cultures were typically small and extended, consisting of nuclear families and
sometimes including grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. These families were often nomadic,
moving from place to place in search of food and resources. They relied on hunting and gathering, and
sometimes fishing and farming, to sustain themselves. Gender roles were often divided, with men
hunting and women gathering, although this varied across different cultures. The family unit was
important for survival and provided support and protection for its members.
Consanguine family
The consanguine family is a type of family structure that was proposed by Lewis Henry Morgan, a
19th-century anthropologist. In the consanguine family, people are organized into groups based on
their biological relationships to one another, rather than on marital or social ties. This means that
people are grouped into generations, with each generation consisting of people who are related to
each other by blood. The consanguine family is often associated with early human societies, where
kinship ties were important for survival and social organization. In this type of family structure, there
is often a lack of distinction between biological and non-biological children, and there may be less
emphasis on marriage as a social institution.

The punalun family

The punaluan family is a type of family structure that was proposed by Lewis Henry Morgan, a 19th-
century anthropologist. In the punaluan family, people are grouped into larger units based on their
biological relationships to one another, rather than on marital or social ties. This means that people
are organized into groups that consist of multiple nuclear families, with each nuclear family consisting
of a married couple and their children. The punaluan family is often associated with early human
societies, where kinship ties were important for survival and social organization. In this type of family
structure, there is often a lack of emphasis on monogamous marriage, and multiple sexual partners
may be accepted within the larger family unit. The punaluan family is also characterized by a high
degree of cooperation and mutual support among its members.

The pairing family

The pairing family is a type of family structure that was proposed by Lewis Henry Morgan, a 19th-
century anthropologist. In the pairing family, people are organized into small family units consisting of
a married couple and their children. This type of family structure is common in modern Western
societies, where monogamous marriage is the norm. The pairing family is characterized by a strong
emphasis on the marital bond between the husband and wife, and there is often a clear division of
labor between the two partners. In this type of family structure, there is also a clear distinction
between biological and non-biological children, and children are typically raised by their biological
parents. The pairing family is often associated with industrialized societies, where people have more
individual freedom and economic opportunities than in traditional societies.

The monogamous family

The monogamous family is a type of family structure that is based on the practice of monogamy, or
the idea that individuals should have only one spouse at a time. In this type of family structure,
people are organized into small family units consisting of a married couple and their children. The
monogamous family is common in many modern Western societies, where monogamous marriage is
the norm. This type of family structure is characterized by a strong emphasis on the marital bond
between the husband and wife, and there is often a clear division of labor between the two partners.
In this type of family structure, there is also a clear distinction between biological and non-biological
children, and children are typically raised by their biological parents. The monogamous family is often
associated with industrialized societies, where people have more individual freedom and economic
opportunities than in traditional societies.

Neoclassical economic and it's impact on women

Neoclassical economics is a school of economic thought that emphasizes the role of markets in
allocating resources and determining prices. The impact of neoclassical economics on women has
been the subject of much debate. Some critics argue that neoclassical economics has reinforced
gender inequality by assuming that individuals are rational actors who make decisions based solely on
their own self-interest. This assumption has been criticized for ignoring the ways in which gender
roles and social norms can influence economic decision-making. Additionally, neoclassical economics
has been criticized for failing to take into account the unpaid labor that women often perform in the
home, such as childcare and housework. This has led to a devaluation of women's work and a lack of
recognition for the important role that women play in the economy. However, proponents of
neoclassical economics argue that it has provided a framework for understanding the benefits of
economic growth and development, which can ultimately benefit women by providing them with
greater economic opportunities and access to resources.

Capitalism and gender relation

Capitalism has historically been associated with the exploitation of labor, and women have been a
particularly vulnerable group in this regard. Women have been paid less than men for doing the same
work, and have often been relegated to lower-paying jobs that are seen as "women's work." This has
been true across a wide range of industries, from manufacturing to service jobs. Women have also
been excluded from certain types of work altogether, such as jobs in the military or in certain
scientific fields.

Heidi Hartmann's article "Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex" provides a feminist
analysis of the relationship between capitalism, patriarchy, and gendered job segregation. Hartmann
argues that gendered job segregation is a product of both capitalism and patriarchy, and that it is
reinforced by social norms and expectations.

Hartmann begins her article by noting that the issue of gendered job segregation is not a new one; in
fact, women have been concentrated in a narrow range of low-paying, low-status jobs for centuries.
She argues that gendered job segregation is not a natural or inevitable outcome of differences in
men's and women's abilities or preferences, but rather a product of social and economic systems that
have historically excluded women from certain types of work.

Hartmann then turns to the relationship between capitalism and gendered job segregation. She notes
that capitalism creates a demand for cheap labor, which leads to the exploitation of women and other
marginalized groups. She argues that gendered job segregation is a result of the capitalist system, in
which women are concentrated in low-paying, low-status jobs that are seen as "women's work."
Hartmann notes that women are often paid less than men for doing the same work, and that this
wage gap is a product of the capitalist system.

Hartmann also argues that patriarchy plays a key role in gendered job segregation. She notes that
social norms and expectations around gender create a culture in which women are expected to be
caregivers and nurturers, while men are expected to be breadwinners and providers. These norms
and expectations reinforce gendered job segregation, as women are seen as less suitable for certain
types of work and are often excluded from male-dominated fields. Hartmann notes that even when
women do enter male-dominated fields, they are often subjected to discrimination and harassment.

Hartmann then turns to the question of how gendered job segregation can be addressed. She argues
that both economic and social changes are necessary to eliminate gendered job segregation. On the
economic front, she notes that policies such as equal pay for equal work, living wages, and access to
affordable child care can help to reduce the exploitation of women in the workplace. She also notes
that unions can play a key role in fighting for workers' rights and reducing gendered job segregation.

On the social front, Hartmann argues that changes in gender norms and expectations are necessary to
eliminate gendered job segregation. She notes that men must be encouraged to take on caregiving
roles and to support women

UNIT - 2