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PhD paper by Nasir Hussain

From PhD Thesis (Research )

 Processed on 10-Jul-2023 20:59 PKT

 ID: 2129178730
 Word Count: 6033

 
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paper text:

2Health risk assessment of hazardous heavy metal contaminated Oryza sativa

and Triticum aestivum grown

near Lahore, Pakistan. Nasir Hussaina*, Syed Makhdoom Hussainb, Arshad javidc, Muhammad

Arshada a. 1Institute of Zoology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. b.

Department of Zoology, Government College University, Faisalabad. Pakistan .

c. Department of Wildlife and Ecology, University of

Veterinary and Animal Sciences * Corresponding author’s email: nasir-422049@pu.edu.pk Email

addresses of other Authors Syed Makhdoom Hussain : drmakhdoomhussain@gcuf.edu.pk Arshad
javid : arshadjavid@uvas.edu.pk Muhammad Arshad: Arshad-624005@pu.edu.pk Graphical
Abstract Abstract Background and Objectives: Numerous investigations have established the
carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic properties of heavy metals. These metals can enter the human
food chain through dietary sources. Triticum aestivum and Oryza sativa are widely consumed as

staple foods worldwide. 2This study aimed to assess the health risks associated

with the consumption of T. aestivum and O. sativa contaminated with As,

Cd, and Pb. Additionally, the

study sought to examine the impact of different irrigation systems on the bioaccumulation of heavy

metals 2in these crops. Methods: Samples of soils and their corresponding crops

were 2collected from four irrigation systems: groundwater, river  water (Ravi),

household domestic wastewater, and industrial effluents

(Hudiara drain wastewater). The collected samples

were subjected to wet digestion and analyzed using ICP-OES. Findings: The findings revealed

that 2the consumption of T. aestivum and O. sativa by adults  resulted in health

indexes surpassing the threshold (1), with values of 1.91, 2.64, 4.98, and 8.78 for T.

aestivum and

4.05, 6.81, 10.14, and 12.52 for O. sativa from groundwater ( 2GW), river water (RW),

domestic wastewater (DomWW), and drain wastewater (DrWW) irrigation

systems, respectively. In the case of

children, health risks doubled with the ingestion of these crops. Moreover, these dietary items also
exhibited significantly high carcinogenic effects in both adults and children, exceeding established

limitations. Conclusion: Immediate action is crucial to address the alarming levels 5of heavy

metal contamination in crops and water sources, ensuring the safety of

our food staples and protecting human health on a global scale Keywords: e

Introduction:10Non-essential heavy metals such as Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd),

and Lead (Pb

) contaminate our dietary items. These metals, upon ingestion, have the potential to bio- accumulate
in different organs of the body, leading to various carcinogenic and physiological disorders. Arsenic,
in particular, is renowned 14as the "king of poisons" and the "poison of kings" (Gupta et

al. 2017

). In contaminated foods,14arsenic exists in various forms, including metalloid,

inorganic, organic, and arsine (Kuivenhoven and

Mason 2019). The toxicity of arsenic commonly results in lung and skin cancer (Balali-Mood et al.
2021), bladder cancer (Fernández et al. 2020), liver cancer (Liu and Waalkes 2008), and breast
cancer (Smith et al. 2014). Additionally, it induces several non-carcinogenic effects such as
neurotoxicity (Mochizuki 2019), and impaired male reproductive system (Chen et al. 2012). Studies
have also reported associations between arsenic toxicity and sudden abortion, fetal death, and
preterm birth (Fern Milton et al. 2017),. Reported data suggested that Cd acute and chronic
exposure caused many types of cancer, including lung, prostate, nasopharynx, pancreas, breast
(Mezynska and Brzoska 2018) and kidney cancer (Satarug 2018). Cadmium may also disrupt the
function of kidney and liver. Cadmium binds to mettalothioneins proteins, which leads to oxidative
stress in mitochondria. Thus, mitochondria produce low amount of ATP (Genchi et al. 2020). Pb has
the ability to mimic the action of Ca and thus may can affect the Ca dependent processes. Bone
formation, especially in children, may be affected by high Pb exposure (ATSDR 2015). In children,
Pb can inhibit the enzymes which were responsible for the absorption of Ca, Fe, and Zn and leads to
poor development of bone and brain (Tarrago, and Brown, 2010). Many researchers established the
strong link between Pb exposure to children and criminal behavior, aggression, and violent nature in
them (Braun et al. 2006) Carcinogenicity and non-carcinogenicity depends on the exposure level,
frequency, and duration of a particular metal to human. Our plant-based foods become
contaminated from soil and soil becomes polluted ultimately from irrigating water. Irrigation systems

put significant effect on soil contamination with heavy metals. Therefore, 2this study

was designed to find the health risk levels with the consumption of O. sativa and T.

aestivum

irrigated on ground river Ravi and domestic and industrial receiving drain’s waste water. Materials
and methods This investigation was conducted in a locality of Lahore, Pakistan. After the survey, the
study area was selected due to the application of different irrigation systems. This area is lying

in 1Lat 31.2233ʺ N. 74.20ʺ E and Lat. 31.250ʺ N Long 74.120ʺ E

. In this area, crop fields are irrigated through four types of fields irrigated by underground (50m to
200m depth), river Ravi, domestic, and industrial and dump loaded drain water. In the under-study
area, all these irrigation systems might have varied levels of heavy metal pollution due to increased
industrial domestic activities in the last four decades, so they might have varied levels of risks to
human’s health. The cereal crops O. sativa and T. aestivum were grown on all these irrigation
systems and utilized by the local inhabitants of surrounding areas. Figure 1 Sampling area in the
vicinity of Lahore, Pakistan Sampling Approach Soil, food crops Sampling Soil samples with three
replicates were collected in a clean polythene zip bags from each irrigation source. Samples were
collected from 0-30 cm depth with the help of a steel hollow pipe. Similarly, samples of O. sativa and
T. aestivum with three replicates were also collected from each irrigation system. Only the fully
ripped edible parts(Seeds) of O. sativa and T. aestivum were collected in their respective seasons

and packed in cleaned 15polythene bags. The collected samples were brought to

the

lab and were prepared for heavy metal analysis through the digestion method. Preparation of
samples Soil sample preparation All soil samples were digested by an optimum digestion method

reported by (APHA 2012). 1 g samples of soil 13were taken into digestion flasks, mixed

with 10 ml HNO3, and

heated for 10 mins at 95 0C in microwave and then cooled. After cooling, we added 5 ml HNO3 and
heated again at 95 0C for 30 mins until brown fumes were aroused. 3 ml of H2O2 was added for
complete oxidation. Finally, 10ml HCl was added and heated again for 30 minutes to make to
complete digestion as followed by Kacholi and Sahu (2018). Crop sample preparation Samples of T.
aestivum and O. sativa grains only were washed with deionized distilled water for the removal of
dust stuck on the seeds of samples. Seeds of both food crops were dried at 70 0C for 24 hours in
oven. All seeds were converted into powder form with the help of steel jar grinder. 1 g samples of
each type of sample were taken and mixed with 129 ml HNO3 and 3 ml HCl and heated

for 45 minutes

in microwave oven at 1800C. 1Blank samples were also prepared by

following the optimum conditions

. Analysis of heavy metals Well digested samples of soil and crops were diluted in1250 ml

volumetric flask up to the mark with 2% HNO3

. After this, all samples were filtered with Whatman filter paper No.42 by using a vacuumed
volumetric flask. Finally, each sample was analyzed for heavy metals with the help

of11inductively coupled plasma optical plasma emission spectrometry (ICP-OES).

Blank samples were

run repeatedly after every three-sample analysis to guarantee the exact measurement.

The 1standard reference solutions of each metal

were also run to obtain 1the correctness of each metal's analysis

. Bioaccumulation factor Translocations of As, Cd, and Pb were calculated by using equation 1. Cp

BAF ? Cs Eq. 1 Where, Cp 4is the concentration of a heavy metal in plants

(mg/kg−1); and Cs is the concentration of the heavy metal in the soil (mg/kg

−1).21Health risk assessment Daily intake of  heavy metals (EDI) Estimated daily

intakes of each heavy metal were
determined to calculate the carcinogenic (Cancer risk) and non-carcinogenic (target hazard

quotients) of each metal. EDI 4of the selected heavy metals is calculated by the

following equation

no. 2. E f ? ED ? FIR ? CM ? C f Equation No. 2 EDI ? Bw ? AT Hence, the details of the parameters
used to calculate the daily intake of heavy metals were given in Table 1. Target Hazard Quotients
Non-carcinogenic effects include many impairments in human physiology by these heavy metals.
These impairments in different tissues and organs might be caused by an individual heavy metal and
by the combined effects of all heavy metals. The strengths of these physiological disorders depend
on the exposure frequency, level, and duration of heavy metals. Target hazard quotient is the
parameter to investigate the exposure level of each metal. These were calculated with the help of

equation no. 3 EDI THQ ? R f D Eq. 3 Hence,7RfD is the reference dose and EDI is the

estimated daily intake

of a particular heavy metal. The reference doses of each metal were presented in Table 1. The

threshold value of15the target hazard quotient is 1. Health indexes The

cumulative effect 18of a mixture of heavy metals on

human physiology of a specific food stuff is determined by health index equation no. 4. HI ? ?in?
1THQn;i ?1,2,3......,n Equation 4 It was determined by the summation of the target hazard quotients
of all understudy heavy metals. The threshold value of health index is also 1. Total Cancer risk
Cancer risks associated with As, Cd, and Pb were measured by using equation no. 5. This study is
very useful to assess the carcinogenic effects in the human body. It has been concluded by many
researchers that if it remained ≤10-4, then it was not acceptable in terms of carcinogenic effects.
CR= EDI x CSFo Eq. 5 Where CSFo represents the oral slope factor. This factor converts the EDI of
heavy metals into a plodding risk of developing cancer in whole life exposure. Values of

CSFo 1of As, Cd and Pb are given in Table 1. Statistical Analysis

All data was arranged and analyzed through software statistix version 8.1). Table 1. Parameters,

abbreviations, 3and variables used in the calculation of EDI, THQ, HI, and CR
 Parameters Abbreviation Value References Exposure frequency Ef 365 days

(Antoine et al. 2018) Exposure duration ED 70 years (Antoine et al. 2018) Global

International Food ingestion rate

FIR 0.325 kg/day Information Network. (2017) 3Concentration of metals

mg/Kg CM Conversion factor Cf 0.085 (Rattan et al. 2005) Body weight Bw 70Kg

(Adults) (Antoine et al. 2018) 15Kg (child) (Antoine et al. 2018) 3Average time 70 x 365

AT 25,550 days (Antoine et al

. 2018) As 0.0003 (Antoine 3et al. 2018) Reference dose (mg/Kg/Day) RfD Pb 0

.0035 (Yang et al. 2018) Cd 0.001 (Antoine 1et al. 2018) Oral cancer slope factor As 1.5

(Antoine et al

. 2018) (mg/Kg/Day) CPSo 1Cd 0.0085 (Yang et al. 2018) Pb 0.38 (Yang et al. 2018

) Results Mean concentration of 8heavy metals in soil It has been observed

that GWI and

industrial DrWWI had caused 1the lowest and highest contamination of soils with As,

Cd and Pb

soils contaminated the soils respectively. In T. aestivum sown fields soil’s As, Cd and Pb was ranged
from 7.45 mgKg-1 (GWI) to 16.18 mgKg- 1 (DrWWI), 1.58 mgKg-1 (GWI) to 8.53 mgKg-1 (DrWWI)
and 4.43 mgKg-1 (GWI) to 8.77 mgKg-1 (DrWWI) respectively. While the O. sativa sown field’s, As,
Cd, and Pb were ranged from 10.79 mgKg-1 (GWI) to 16.54 mgKg-1 (DrWWI), 1.60 mgKg-1 (GWI)

to 10.54 mgKg-1 (DrWWI), 6.73 mgKg-1 (GWI) to 12.26(DrWWI) respectively (23Table 2).

Table 2. Mean concentrations (mgKg-1) of heavy metals in soil

of T. aestivum’s and O. sativa’s fields irrigated with 1four different

irrigation sources. GWI RWI Dom. WWI Dr. WWI Fields of crops HMs Means ±SDs

Means ±SDs Means ±SDs Means ±SDs

(Triticum aestivum) As Cd Pb 7.45±0.14 1.58±0.08 4.43±0.15 6.65±0.29 1.81±0.05 5.46±0.17

10.52±0.22 4.42±0.05 7.28±0.30 16.18±0.44 8.53±0.07 8.77±0.11 (Oryza sativa) As Cd Pb
10.79±0.05 1.60±0.22 6.73±0.52 12.57±0.22 1.75±0.18 7.57±0.25 15.27±0.22 3.44±0.09 10.05±0.06

16.54±0.34 10.54±0.09 12.26±0.12 1Permissible limit of FAO/WHO [24] (As=20 mgKg-

1, Cd=0.3 mgKg-1, Pb=100 mgKg-1) Mean concentration of

metals in T. aestivum and O. sativa grains 1The minimum and maximum mean values

of As

in edible part(grains) of T. aestivum were recorded as 1.33 mgKg-1 and 5.43 mgKg-1 grown under
GW and DrWW irrigation systems respectively. While the Cd showed minimum and maximum
concentration in O. sativa as 0.03 mgKg-1 and 2.42 mgKg-1 grown with GW and DrWW irrigation
systems respectively. Similarly, the highest and lowest accumulations of Pb in T. aestivum were

observed under GW and DrWW irrigation system as 0.35 1mgKg-1 and 1.58 mgKg-1,

respectively. However, the grains of O. sativa accumulated the

minimum mean 1values of As, Cd, and Pb as 2.76 mgKg-1

, 0.07 mgKg-1 and 1.43 mgKg-1 under GWI system while, maximum mean 9values of As,

Cd and Pb were accumulated in

O. sativa as 7.46 mgKg-1, 3.64 mgKg-1 and 4.76 mgKg-1 under DrWW irrigation

system.22Table 3. Mean concentrations (mg Kg-1) of heavy metals in T. aestivum

and O. sativa

1consumable parts grown under four different irrigation  sources. GWI RWI

Dom. WWI Dr. WWI MAC Crops names HMs Means ±SDs Means ±SDs Means

±SDs Means ±SDs

Wheat (Triticum aestivum) As Cd Pb 1.33±0.09 0.03±0.00 0.35±0.04 1.80±0.16 0.07±0.03 0.85±0.03

3.14±0.01 1.05±0.03 1.39±0.04 5.43±0.08 2.42±0.06 1.58±0.15 0.05a 0.1a 0.2a Rice (Oryza sativa)
As Cd 2.76±0.23 0.07±0.02 4.65±0.11 0.09±0.01 6.64±0.08 1.05±0.02 7.46±0.02 3.64±0.09 0.2a
0.05a Pb 1.43±0.10 2.36±0.16 3.66±0.10 4.76±0.20 0.1b MAC = Maximum allowable concentration
(a) FAO/WHO food standards program [25] Bioaccumulation factors Heavy metals are adding up in
the soil through various anthropogenic and mining activities. These heavy metals are absorbed and
translocated to the aerial parts of plants. Where, these heavy metals tend to bio-accumulate.
Bioaccumulation factors were determined through equation 1 and their results were displayed in

Figure 2.6The results of this study revealed that bioaccumulation of As, Cd, and Pb in

T. aesstivum and O. sativa remained beyond the threshold limits (1.0) grown under all GW, RW,
Dom. WW and Dr. WW irrigation. However, it was noticed that BAFs of selected heavy metals were
greatly influenced by the irrigation system. It has also been observed that under Dom. WW and Dr.
WW irrigation systems showed more BAFs of selected heavy metals than river and ground water

irrigation systems. Figure. 2 BAF 3of heavy metals in some food crops under different

irrigation systems
17Estimated daily intake (EDI) Estimated daily intake (EDI) of heavy

metals for adults and children was calculated separately through equation

no. 2 and was presented in Figure 3. The results clearly indicated that ingestion of T. aestivum and
O. sativa by humans also takes heavy metals with them. It has been observed that As showed more

EDI through both food crops as compared to Pb and Cd. In adult,13EDI (mg/Kg/day)

of As, Cd, and Pb through ingestion of

T. aestivum were ranged from 5.17×10-04 (GWI) to 2.11 × 10-03 (DrWWI), 1.17 × 10-05 (GWI) to
9.41 × 10-04 (DrWWI), 1.38 × 10-04 (GWI) to 5.75 × 10-04(DrWWI) respectively.

While, 1minimum and maximum daily ingestion of As, Cd, and Pb

by children through T. aestivum were observed as 8.66 x 10-04 (GWI) and 3.5×10-03 (DrWWI), 1.96
× 10-05 (GWI) and 1.58 × 10-03 (DrWWI), and 2.31 × 10-04(GWI) and 9.6 × 10-04 (DrWWI)
respectively. However, human adults EDI of As, Cd, and Pb through O. sativa ingestion were ranged
from 1.07 × 10-03 (GWI) to 2.90 × 10-03(DrWWI), 2.72 × 10-05 (GWI) to 1.42 × 10-03 (DrWWI), and

5.54 × 10-05 (GWI) to 1.85 × 10-03 (DrWWI) respectively. While, human children, 1EDI of

As, Cd, and Pb through the ingestion of

O. sativa were ranged from were observed as 1.84 x 10-03 (GWI) – 4.80 x 10-03 (DrWWI), 4.56 ×
10-05 (GWI) – 2.37 × 10-03(DrWWI), and 9.29 × 10-03 (GWI) -3.10 × 10-03 (DrWWI) respectively.
The results also revealed that daily intake of As was more than the Pb and Cd in all irrigation
systems. Furthermore, it was observed that none of the EDI under any irrigation system exceeded
the maximum tolerable dose intake (MTDI) as reported by Gebeyehu and Bayissa (2020). Figure 3:

Estimated the 1daily intake of selected heavy metals in some vegetables to

human adults and children

Total Hazard Quotient (THQ) Carcinogenic effects happening in the human body by individual heavy
metals are estimated by measuring the target hazard quotient. Summaries of THQs of T. aestivum
and O. sativa in children and adults are shown in figures 4. THQs of As by T. aestivum consumption
in children were observed as 2.89, 3.90, 6.81, and 11.80 under GWI, RWI, DomWWI and DrWWI
respectively. While the corresponding crops produced slightly lower THQ of As in adults as 1.72,
2.33, 4.06, and 7.04 under GWI, RWI, DomWWI, and DrWWI respectively. The consumption of O.
sativa by children produced far higher THQ for arsenic as 5.99, 10.10, 14.41, and 16.21 under GWI,
RWI, DomWWI and DrWWI respectively. While, the THQ of As through O. sativa consumption by
adults were recorded as 3.57, 6.02, 8.60, and 9.67 under GWI, RWI, DomWWI and DrWWI

respectively. Combined18effects of a mixture of heavy metals

to produce non-carcinogenic health hazards are estimated by calculating the health index(HI).
Results regarding to HI for adults and children were presented in Figures 5(a) and 5(b), respectively.

It was observed during the present study that 2the consumption of T. aestivum and O.

sativa

grown near Lahore had exceeded the limit of hazard index. Figure 4 targets the hazard

quotient 1of selected heavy metals in some vegetables

to adult It was noticed that consumption of T. aestivum by adults produced HI as 1.77, 2.45, 4.62,
and 8.15 under GWI, RWI, DomWWI and DrWWI respectively. While the consumption of O. sativa
by adults exerted the HI as 3.76, 6.32, 9.41, and 11.61 under GWI, RWI, DomWWI, and DrWWI

systems respectively. Similarly, ingestion 2of T. aestivum and O. sativa by the

child produced

higher HI and consequently proved for more non-carcinogenic effects in children body under all
irrigation systems. It has also been noted that O. sativa consumption compared to T. aestivum
exerted more risk on the human body. Cancer risk (CR) Results of CR had been calculated through
equation 3 and were presented in Figures 6 and 7. According to USEPA 2011, if the value of CR of a
particular heavy metal exceeds 1.0 x 10-4 then some cancerous effects will be observed in the
human body. The present study assessed that CR of As and Cd through T. aestivum consumption

surpassed 1.0 x 10-4. CR of As exceeds the 1.0 x 10-4 and were observed as241.30 x 10-

3, 1.76 x 10-3, 3.06 x 10
-3and 8.53 x 10-3 under GWI, RWI, DomWWI and DrWWI systems respectively. While, CR of Cd
only exceeds under DomWWI and DrWWI systems as shown in Tables 6a and 6b. In this study, it
was also noticed that O. sativa ingestion by human child may also cause cancerous risk even at
higher rates. Among other heavy metals, CR of As through O. sativa ingestion by child exceeds the

1.0 x 10-4 as 2.69 5x 10-3, 4.54 x 10-3, 6.49 x 10-3 and 7.30 x 10-3

under under GWI, RWI, DomWWI and DrWWI respectively. While O. sativa grown on DomWW and
DrWW also posed the CR to children with Cd as it also exceeds 1.0 x 10-4. However, aggregate

effect 3of As, Cd and Pb were also calculated in the form of

3Total Target Cancer Risk (TTCR) of all heavy metals. It was

observed that TTCR of all understudy20heavy metals had exceeded the threshold limit

of cancer risk for both human adults and children as presented in the

figure 7(a) and 7(b) respectively. Figure 6(a) Cancer risk to human adults from heavy metal
contaminated T. aesstivum and O. sativa cultivated under different irrigation systems. Figure

6(b) 3Cancer risk to human adults from heavy metals contaminated

O. sativa cultivated under different irrigation systems. Figure 7(a)3Total Target Cancer risk

to human adults from heavy metals

contaminated T. aesstivum and O. sativa raised from different irrigation systems. Figure 7(b) Total
Target Cancer risk to human children from heavy metals contaminated T. aesstivum and O. sativa
raised from different irrigation systems Discussion Assessment of the concentration of heavy metals
in soil Present study results revealed that As and Cd in the soil of T. aestivum and O. sativa fields
under all irrigation systems remained lower than the maximum permissible level (MPL) proposed by
FAO/WHO (2014). While, the value of Cd in these corresponding crops under DrWW irrigation had
crossed the MPL. Ability of heavy metal translocation from soil to plants and bio-accumulating made
the food crops contaminated. Guo et al. (2019) also revealed that 42% soil sample of O. sativa fields
exceeded the Chinese threshold level (0.3 mgKg-1). 8Fu et al. (2008) observed

also the similar results, and they indicated that

As and Pb in soil remained lower than MPL while Cd exceeded the MPL. Assessment of the
concentration of heavy metals in human food crops During this study, it has been assessed that

As 2and Pb in T. aestivum and O. sativa was

found higher than the MPLs under all irrigation systems, while Cd remained lower than MPL only in
T. aestivum grown with ground water irrigation system. Moreover, it was determined that with
domWW and DrWW irrigation system, T. aestivum and O. sativa showed far higher contents of all
heavy metals than the MPL. In ground water irrigated crops, the heavy metal content increased due
to repeated application of chemical fertilizers. Satpathy et al. (2014), also concluded that
agrochemical fertilizer is one of the main reasons in paddy soil growing O. sativa. However, heavy
metal contents increased in wastewater irrigated soil due to household sewage, industrial effluents,
and agrochemicals. Chandorkar and Deota (2013) revealed that the contents of As and Cd in
Tritcum aestivum and O. sativa have exceeded MPL due to irrigation of domestic wastewater to the
fields. Zhuang et al. (2009) revealed that O. sativa tend to accumulate more Cd and Pb, due to

irrigation from mining wastewater drains. 1Bioaccumulation factors (BAF) This

factor revealed the bioavailability of heavy metals from soil to the plants

. Figure 2 compared the bioaccumulation factors of 1Pb, As, and Cd under GW, RW,

DomWW, and DrWW irrigation systems, respectively. Results of

this study revealed that O. sativa bioaccumulated more heavy metals than T. aestivum under all
types of irrigation sources. This study revealed that the highest bioaccumulation of Pb, As, and Cd
under drain wastewater irrigated O. sativa and T. aestivum. Bioaccumulation factor records of heavy
metals of this study revealed that the lowest bioaccumulations occur in T. aestivum and O. sativa
irrigated with ground water. It has also been found that O. sativa showed more tendency to absorb
heavy metals than T. aestivum. 5Estimated daily intake of heavy metals In the

present study, the values of

EDI through T. aestivum and O. sativa consumption for both adults and children were found lower

than MTDI9for As (0.3mg/Kg/day), Cd (0.21 mg/Kg/day and Pb (0.02-

0.07 mg/Kg/day) as reported by Gebeyehu and

Bayissa, (2020). However, if our body is exposed to these amounts of As, Cd, and Pb for a long
time, it may cause various cancerous and non-cancerous (Physiological) defects in the human body.
Ahmad et al. (2017) found similar results that EDI of heavy metal through T. aestivum remained
lower than MTDI, but they found high target hazard quotients and health indexes due to long-term
exposure of human body to Cd and Pb. Baghaie and Aghili (2019) also revealed that EDI of Pb and
Cd through T. aestivum, and Hordeum vulgare consumption remained lower than MTDI, but due to
the accumulating nature and long-term exposure to these metals exerted high THQ, HI and TCR.
Target Hazard Quotients World’s food and environmental regulatory authorities, i.e., EPA of USA,
FAO/WHO, and national authorities of many countries set the threshold level of THQ as 1. It is
considered that if THQS exceeds 1, there should be definite physiological defects. In the present
study, it was observed that the levels of As in T. aestivum and O. sativa under all types of irrigation
sources had very high target hazards to the human body. Wang et al. (2015) also determined THQ
of As for T. aestivum and O. sativa was higher than limitation. Previously, it was commonly held that
the heavy metal content in groundwater remained well below safe levels. However, recent findings

indicate that 19the levels of heavy metals in

groundwater have escalated to a point where19the Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) has

surpassed the

threshold level. Figures 4(a) and 4(b), represent that2consumption of T. aestivum and O.

sativa produced
higher THQ of Cd under drain wastewater irrigation system. Similar findings of Guo et al. (2019)
revealed that Cd through O. sativa give higher THQ to human. He assessed that THQ of Cd for
adults and children remained higher than the threshold as 1.725 and 1.523, respectively. Finally, we
can have concluded that As in T. aestivum and O. sativa coming from all types of irrigation system
and Cd in both food crops of DrWW irrigation system pose very serious threats to the inhabitants of
Lahore. Health Indexes (HI) The metals As, Cd, and Pb present significant risks to both children and
adults. The cumulative effects of these metals were evaluated using the Hazard Index (HI). The
results of HI for adults and children were displayed in Figures 5(a) and 5(b) correspondingly. In
present investigation the values of HI of both crops were recorded far higher HI than threshold. The
values of HI of both crops revealed that these both crops under contaminated irrigation system are
not fit for human health. In the study of Xue et al. (2019) it was also recorded that grains (wheat and
maize) grown in sewage irrigating water and in smelter influenced area showed higher HI than the
threshold (1) as 1.35 and 1.28 respectively. Guo et al. (2019) also determined the HI of Cd and Pb
through O. sativa consumption as 2.14. similarly, Khan et al. (2019) revealed that long term use of
domestic wastewater for irrigation made the T. aestivum caused the higher HI than threshold levels.
Dhar et al. (2019) also reported that anthropogenic activities made the irrigating source
contaminated with heavy metals. He demonstrated that vegetables and cereals showed 4.0257 and
12.627 HI, respectively, under wastewater irrigation. In addition, it has also been noted that As had
generated high HI. While, these toxicity levels even had been more alarming in case of child
consumption of such contaminated foods. Cancer risks During the present study, it has been found
that CR of As through T. aestivum and O. sativa exceed the limits (1.0 x10-4) in all irrigation systems
while Cd crossed the limits under DomWW and DrWW irrigation systems. Dhar, et al., (2019) also
found that As present high cancer risk while Pb showed moderate CR among humans. Similar
results were also indicated by Zeng et al. (2015) who derived that by O. sativa ingestion CR of Cd,
Cr, As and Ni exceeds 1.0 x10-4. Mahfooz et al. (2020) revealed that T. aestivum and O. sativa
grown in wastewater lead to high CR in adults and children. Their value of CR also surpassed the
limit. Kormoker et al. (2020) also stated that bodies exposed to contaminated O. sativa showed
higher CR in children and adults. Their values of CR of As also exceed limitations. It has been
proven by many studies like this investigation that consumption of cereal crops can cause high

cancer risk to children and adults of humans.8Therefore, the concentrations of heavy

metals in our environmental should be regularly checked and monitored

. Conclusion This study4concluded that heavy metals (As, Cd, and Pb) in the
environment had been increasing day by day. 1The mean concentrations of As, Cd,

and Pb in GW, RW, DomWW, and DrWW irrigated

crops had crossed the maximum permissible levels indicating that our dietary stuffs i.e. O. sativa and
T. aestivum are not safe for human health. However, ground and river irrigated food crops showed

lower values of heavy metals than DomWW and DrWW. High contents5of heavy metals

in ground water may be due to the use of chemical fertilizers in soil

. Oxides of As coming from industrial and household activities may be the other reasons of high As
contents in ground water irrigated crops. Estimated daily intake of heavy metals were noticed
lowered than MTDI during this study. However, their exposure for a long time can cause serious
carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic effects to the human body. Exceeding THQ, HI, and CR of heavy
metals (especially As) than the threshold under all irrigation system, indicates that none of the
sources of irrigation is not safe for producing O. sativa and T. aestivum for human consumption.
Therefore, environmental authorities at the national level as well as world level should pay special
attention towards the heavy metal monitoring in the highly thick populations of the world.

Acknowledgment We are sincerely1thankful to Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shafiq

and Prof. Dr. Asmatullah

. Their assistance for this study was greatly appreciated. Conflict of Interest There are no conflicts of

interests Declaration of 16use of Generative AI and AI-assisted technologies

We have not used any16generative AI and AI-assisted technologies

Li, Z. (2009). Health risk from heavy metals via consumption of food crops in the vicinity of
Dabaoshan mine, South China. Science of the total environment, 407(5), 1551-1561.