NASE Cave Diver Manual (PDFDrive)

NASE CAVE DIVER MANUAL nin
NASE Cave Diver Manual

Published by:
NASE Worldwide
808 Moody Lane
Flagler Beach, FL 32136
www.ScubaNASE.com
Editor:
Harry Averill
Reviewed by:
Scott Evans
Reggie Ross
Lamar Hires
Version 120801
Copyright Notice
This work is Copyright (©) 2012 by the National Academy of Scuba Educators and its
principal author. All rights reserved under USA and international copyright law.
If you are an NASE Cave Diver Instructor in Active status, you may provide this docu-
ment in electronic form to students enrolled in the NASE Cave Diver eLearning course,
so long as you make them aware of this copyright notice. Otherwise you may not:
• Post this document on any website, bulletin board or other Internet-connected portal.
• Transfer this document to any non-authorized individual via email, CD-ROM, DVD,
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You may, however, make archival copies of this document for personal use, or store it
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for your own personal use.
NASE CAVE DIVER MANUAL niin
Contents
Introduction ........................................................................... 1
Accident Analysis and the Limits Of Training .................. 7
The Cave Environment ....................................................... 17
Cave Diving Equipment .....................................................50
Dive Planning .......................................................................87
Pre-Dive Checks.................................................................125
Cave Diving Techniques/Procedures.............................138
Cave Navigation.................................................................184
Panic, Stress and Emergency Procedures ....................224
Continuing Your Cave Diving Education ......................291
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NASE CAVE DIVER MANUAL n1n
Section 1: Introduction
Here in the Introduction, we are going to be looking
at three things:
■ Course Overview
■ Using This Course
■ Required Equipment
Course Overview
The NASE Cave Diver course consists of two parts:
■ Knowledge development.
■ Skill development and practical application.
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Knowledge Development: In this course, you will

gain the required knowledge chiefly through self
study — although your instructor will assist in this
process and be available should you have questions.
The topics the course will cover include:
■ Accident analysis and the limits of training.

■ The cave environment.
■ Cave diving equipment.
■ Dive planning.
■ Pre-dive checks.
■ Cave diving techniques/procedures.
■ Cave navigation.
■ Panic, stress and emergency procedures.
■ Continuing your cave diving education.
Skill Development and Practical Application: This

takes place with your instructor, typically in north-
central Florida, Mexico, the Bahamas or a similar en-
vironment — one with plenty of diveable underwater
caves.
Over the duration of the course, you will log at
least 600 minutes of bottom time and typically make
16 or more dives. You and your instructor may break
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this down into two or more segments, giving you

time to rest and absorb what you learn in between.
There may even be an opportunity to gain additional
experience on your own, between training segments.
Your instructor can tell you more.
Using This Course

The course is divided into a
little over 50 subsections of
related subject matter. Each
page consists of three parts:
Study Questions, Subject
Matter, Key Points.
■ At the beginning of each

subsection, you will find
one or more Study Questions. These are the ques-
tions the subject matter is designed to help an-
swer. As you go through each page, you should
look for the specific answer to each question.
■ The Subject Matter provides the answers to the

Study Questions in depth. Read it carefully.
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■ At the end of each subsection is a summary of Key

Points — an encapsulated version of the Subject
Matter. Reading this will reinforce the most impor-
tant points on the page.
Required Equipment
As is true of all forms of techni-
cal diving, cave diving is an equip-
ment-intensive activity. You will
read about the equipment you will
need and how it may differ from
that used in technical deep div-
ing in Section 4. Your instructor
will give you a list of the equip-
ment that you will be expected to
provide for this course. This may
vary depending on where you
take the course and your instruc-
tor’s individual requirements, but
typically includes:
■ Mask and fins suitable for cave

diving.
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■ Exposure protection adequate for local cave envi-

ronment.
■ Either double cylinders with an isolation manifold,

or properly configured sidemount cylinders. These
should be typical of those used locally and similar
in capacity to those used by team mates.
■ Two totally independent regulators, each with its

own first and second stage. If diving backmount,
one regulator is to be equipped with a mechani-
cal SPG. If diving sidemount, both regulators must
be equipped with SPGs. The length of all hoses
must facilitate proper equipment configuration. At
least one first stage must be equipped with a sec-
ond stage hose of sufficient length to facilitate gas
sharing through a restriction.
■ A backmount or sidemount harness and air cell

suitable for cave diving.
■ Adequate instrumentation to consist of either two

equally mission-capable dive computers, or one
mission-capable dive computer, backed up by a
depth gauge/timer and dive tables.
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■ One primary dive light, consistent in power and

beam with those of fellow team members and two
battery powered backup lights. All dive lights must
possess sufficient “burn” time (typically 150 per-
cent of expected use).
■ At least one underwater slate or “wet notes” with a

working pencil or marker.
■ At least two safety reels/spools per diver, plus ad-

ditional jump reels/spools as required.
■ At least two cutting tools, one of which must be

accessible by either hand.
If you are flying to the area in which you will do your

training, expect to be able to rent cylinders and, pos-
sibly, other heavy items such as primary lights. Oth-
erwise, you should plan on providing your own.
You should discuss all equipment purchas-

es with your instructor beforehand. Doing
so may help you avoid costly mistakes and,
instead, help ensure the equipment you
buy makes learning to cave dive easier and
more enjoyable.
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In this section we look at two things:
■ Accident Analysis: In almost every instance, cave

diving fatalities result from one or more of three
direct causes and two contributing causes. In this
section we look at what those are and how you
can avoid making these same mistakes.
■ Limits of Training: Your beginning Cave Diver

course is just that — a beginning. There are lim-
its to what it prepares you to do. In this section
we identify those limits so that you can stay within
them.
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Accident Analysis
Study Questions
As you go through this material, look for the
answers to the following:
■ What are the three direct causes and two
contributing causes of recreational diver
deaths in caves?
■ What are the five Rules of Accident Analysis

derived from these direct and contributing
causes?
■ What are at least two ways in which accident

analysis for certified cave divers appears to
differ from that for recreational divers?
Cave diver training is unique in that, rather than be-

ing based on suppositions as to what it is cave divers
“should” know, it comes instead from practical expe-
rience and a careful analysis of what it is that causes
recreational divers to perish in underwater caves.
That analysis reveals that there are just three direct
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causes (and two contributing causes) of recreational

diver fatalities in natural overhead environments.
Direct Causes: The direct causes of recreational div-

er fatalities in caves include:
■ Failure to maintain a continuous guideline to a safe

exit.
■ Failure to keep at least twice the theoretically re-

quired breathing gas in reserve to exit the cave
(i.e. “Rule of Thirds”).
■ Exceeding the safe operational limits of the breath-

ing media used. This can include exceeding an
equivalent narcotic depth of 40 m/130 ft, and hy-
poxia and oxygen toxicity.
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Contributing Causes: The contributing causes of rec-

reational diver fatalities in caves
■ Lack of training or
exceeding the limits
of training and expe-
rience.
■ Failure to carry at
least three sources
of light.
The “Rules” of Accident Analysis: The five rules de-

rived from accident analysis are:
■ Be trained for cave diving and remain within the

limits of your training and experience.
■ Maintain a continuous guideline to a safe exit.
■ Always keep at least twice as much gas in reserve

as you theoretically need to exit the cave.
■ Stay within the safe operational limits of your

breathing gasses.
■ Carry at least three sources of light.
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These rules are represented by

the acronym TGADL and can be
remembered by the phrase The
Good Alert Divers Live.
How Does This Apply to Certi-

fied Cave Divers? Certified cave
diver fatalities are generally not
as easily quantifiable as those in-
volving recreational divers.
■ Where recreational divers often

perish due to “one big mistake”
(i.e. failure to run a guideline,
violating Rule of Thirds, etc.),
certified cave divers often succumb to a cascade
failure stemming from a series of smaller errors.
■ Exceeding the safe operational limits of the breath-

ing media used appears to play a larger role in the
deaths of certified cave divers than it does in the
demise of recreational divers in caves.
■ As the certified cave diver population ages, we

have also seen an increase in accidents in which
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health issues may have been a contributing or di-

rect cause of cave diver fatalities.
Key Points to Remember

■ Direct causes of diver fatalities in caves include:
failure to run a continuous guideline; failure to
keep twice as much gas in reserve as is theoreti-
cally needed to exit the cave; and, exceeding the
safe operational limits of the breathing mixture
used.
■ Contributing causes include: exceeding the limits

of training and experience; and, failure to have at
least three sources of light per diver.
■ The five Rules of Accident Analysis can be summa-

rized as:
Remain within the limits of training and experi-
ence.
Maintain a continuous guideline to a safe exit.
Keep at least twice as much gas in reserve as is
theoretically needed to exit the cave.
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Stay within the safe operational limits of your

breathing gas.
Have at least three sources of light per diver.
■ The Good Alert Divers Live (TGADL) is a mnemonic

for Training, Guideline, Air,
Depth, Lights
■ Certified cave diver fatali-

ties frequently stem from
a series of cascade fail-
ures, rather than from one
single error.
■ Exceeding the safe opera-

tional limits of the breathing media used appears
to play a bigger role in certified cave diver fatali-
ties than it does in recreational diver fatalities in
caves.
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NASE Cave Diver Training Limits

Study Questions
■ What are the limits of depth, penetration,
navigation, starting visibility and
decompression for which the NASE Cave Diver
course is designed to prepare students?
■ What are two activities for which NASE Cave

Diver training and certification does not
prepare students?
The NASE Cave Diver course is designed to prepare

students to dive within the following limits:
■ Depth: No greater than 40 m/130 ft.
■ Penetration: No more than one third of a set of

double cylinders, typical of those used in the local
area.
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■ Navigation: Travel along popular main and offshoot

lines, including limited jumps and gaps, and simple
circuits and traverses.
■ Decompression: Limited accelerated decompres-

sion using oxygen (or an oxygen-rich gas mix),
typical of that done during training and consistent
with that done in the local area.
Certification as a NASE Cave Diver does not qualify

students to engage in more advanced cave diving
activities, including:
■ Use of stage bottles.
■ Use of diver propulsion ve-

hicles (DPVs).
Students can expand on their

training by:
■ Gaining experience gradually.
■ Taking additional courses.
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■ The limits of Cave Diver training include:
Depths if no more than 40 m/130 ft.
Penetration less than one-third of doubles.
Limited jumps, gaps; simple circuits/traverses.
Limited deco on O2 (if covered during training).
■ Cave Diver training does not qualify students for

more advanced activities, such as use of stage
bottles or diver propulsion vehicles (DPVs). Stu-
dents can expand the limits of their training by
gaining experience gradually and taking additional
courses.
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Caves are unlike anything you’ve ever experienced

as a diver. To appreciate this unique environment
(while avoiding its many hazards) you need to under-
stand it. In this section we look at:
■ Cave Type and Formation

■ Environmental Hazards
■ Permanent Guidelines
■ Guideline Markings
■ Landowner Relations
■ Cave Conservation
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Cave Type and Formation

Study Questions
■ What are the four basic types of caves and
which type is most frequently visited by cave
divers?
■ What is the process by which solution caves

form?
Cave Types: Underwater caves generally fall into one

of the following categories:
■ Coral caves: Typically form when the tops of ad-

jacent coral reefs grow together, forming tunnels
and arches.
■ Sea caves: Formed by wave action eroding lime-

stone or other soft rock.
■ Lava tubes: A by-product of volcanic eruptions,

lava tubes form when the outside of a lava flow
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cools and hardens, while the interior remains mol-

ten and later empties out.
■ Solution caves: Formed

by the dissolution of lime-
stone.
Solutions caves are the type

divers most frequently ex-
plore. Geology conducive
to the formation of solution
caves is known as karst to-
pography.
How Solution Caves Form: The type of karst topog-

raphy in which underwater caves most frequently
form consists of layers of highly porous limestone
covered by a thin layer of soil. This limestone will be
saturated with water — in many instances beginning
just a short distance below the surface. The top of
this layer of water is known as the water table. The
body of water below is known as the aquifer.
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Here are some of the steps typically involved in solu-

tion cave formation.
■ Rain water, passing through decaying organic mat-

ter lying on the ground, absorbs carbon dioxide,
forming carbonic acid. Although weak, given suf-
ficient time, carbonic acid can begin to dissolve
the underlying limestone (calcium carbonate) as it
filters downward. An example of this is the “swiss
cheese” appearance of many cave walls (also
known as spongework).
■ Water is subject to the call of gravity. It will tend

to flow down hill whenever possible. In regions like
Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula and the Bahamas, the
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force of gravity will draw ground water through the

porous limestone toward the ocean. In north-cen-
tral Florida, ground water will tend to flow toward
the closest rivers, as their water level is usually
below that of the surrounding water table.
■ Water, seeking the path of least resistance, will

often take advantage of features such as faults,
fractures and bedding planes as it answers the call
of gravity. Bedding planes are the boundaries be-
tween layers of limestone and can be one of the
most significant areas of cave formation.
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■ When the diameter of any such conduit exceeds 9

cm/3.5 in, the dissolution process can accelerate,
helping explain why some cave passageways form
faster than others.

■ The four basic types of caves are:
Coral caves.
Sea caves.
Lava tubes.
Solution caves.
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■ The type of cave most commonly explored by div-

ers is the solution cave.
■ Solution caves form when rain water absorbs car-

bon dioxide from decaying organic matter on the
ground as it passes through on its way down to
the aquifer. This forms carbonic acid.
■ Given sufficient time, carbonic acid dissolves soft

limestone (calcium carbonate) — particularly along
faults, fractures and bedding planes. This is how
caves form.
More Types, Features and Entrances

Study Questions
■ What is the difference between phreatic and
vadose cave formation?
■ Why can speleothems be found in some

phreatic caves?
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■ What is a halocline and give how may it affect

divers?
■ What are four types of potentially fragile cave

formations?
■ What are the three primary types of

underwater cave entrances and how can divers
identify each?
■ What are several reasons why springs are

considered safer to dive than siphons?
Phreatic and Vadose Cave Formation: Solution caves

fall into one of two categories:
■ Phreatic Caves: Caves that form entirely under wa-

ter are known as phreatic caves.
■ Vadose Caves: Caves that form entirely above wa-

ter are known as vadose caves.
What most distinguishes phreatic caves from vadose

caves is the lack of speleothems.
■ Speleothems include formations such as stalac-

tites, stalagmites, flowstone and columns, and can
only form in air-filled caves.
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■ Some phreatic caves,

however (notably those
in the Yucatan and Ba-
hamas) were temporarily
exposed to air during the
Ice Age, leading to the
formation of the speleo-
thems we see today.
Additional Cave Features:

These may include:
■ Haloclines are the boundaries between layers of

fresh and saltwater. Divers may notice a signifi-
cant change in buoyancy when passing through
haloclines. Haloclines may cause visual distortions.
Guidelines located just above or below a halocline
may be difficult to see if you are on the opposite
side of the halocline from them
■ Geothite is a mineral formation composed or iron

and manganese and believed to be secreted by a
specialized bacteria. It is considered fragile and
easily damaged.
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Other fragile and easily damaged formations include:
■ Sedimentary layer formations (clay banks).

■ Fragile rock formations, such as speleothems.
■ Bacteria colonies.
Entrance Types
Common underwater cave entrance types include:
■ A spring or resurgence is where water flows out of

the ground. The flow can be very strong. Springs
are considered safer to dive, as it takes less time,
breathing gas and energy to exit. Springs can of-
ten be recognized by the fact the water coming
out is clear, the presence of a boil at the surface,
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lack of silt and the presence of a spring run lead-

ing to an adjacent river.
■ A siphon or insurgence is where water flows into the

ground. Siphons can form when the level of an adja-
cent river rises above that of the water table (aqui-
fer). The downstream side of a sinkhole can also be
a siphon. Siphons are considered less safe to dive,
as they can require more time, breathing gas and
energy to exit. A spring that temporarily reverses,
drawing in tannic river water can also have substan-
tially reduced visibility. Siphons can often be identi-
fied by dark water, absence of a boil (and, possibly,
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a “drain tornado,” silt and a spring run that has re-

versed and is drawing in tannic water.
■ Sinkholes (called cenotes in Mexico) are formed by

the collapse of the ground above an underground
river. Sinkholes can be inline or offset; an inline
sinkhole will typically have a spring side and a si-
phon side (also known as a karst window). Sink-
holes frequently have a large debris cone near the
center.
Cave diving also takes place in:
■ Caletas: Spanish term for springs that empty into

the ocean.
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■ Sumps: Bodies of water located far inside air filled

caves that may connect to other air-filled cham-
bers or passageways.
■ Underground lakes.

■ Phreatic cave formation takes place entirely under
water; vadose cave formation takes place above
water.
■ Speleothems (stalactites, stalagmites, flowstone

and columns) can only form in air-filled caves.
■ Some shallow phreatic caves, typically in places

like the Bahamas and Yucatan, were exposed to
air during the Ice Age. This provided the opportu-
nity for speleothems to form, which is why you can
now find these formations under water.
■ A halocline is the boundary between layers of fresh

and salt water. Divers passing through haloclines
will experience changes in buoyancy and visual
distortions.
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■ Potentially fragile cave formations include:

Geothite.
Speleothems and other fragile rock formation.
Sedimentary layer formations (clay banks).
Bacteria colonies.
■ A spring (resurgence) is when water flows out of

the ground. A spring may have a surface boil and
a run leading to an adjacent river.
■ A siphon is when water from the surface flows un-

der ground. Siphons can form when high water
levels cause springs to reverse. The downstream
side of a sinkhole can also be a siphon.
■ Sinkholes form when unstable ground collapses

over an underground river. Sinkholes are often
clear and may have a debris cone in the center.
■ Springs require more time, effort and breathing

gas to enter and less to exit. The reverse is true of
siphons. This makes it safer to dive springs.
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Environmental Hazards
Study Questions
■ What are ten environmental hazards
associated with diving in caves?
Underwater caves present divers with a variety of

environmental hazards. These can include:
Being Under Water: Human beings can’t breathe wa-

ter. So, unless you have gills, simply being under wa-
ter creates the risk of drowning.
Limited Gas Supply: This, combined with long dis-

tances to breathable air further increases the risk of
drowning.
Inability to Make a Direct Ascent to the Surface: The

ability to make controlled emergency swimming as-
cents is a major factor making recreational diving so
safe. This is why cavern divers, who may lack backup
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gas equipment, are required to stay within sight of

the entrance (emergency swimming ascent zone).
Darkness: It can take significantly longer to exit in

the dark — and require more gas to do so.
Getting Lost: Few caves

are linear conduits; most
contain a maze of pas-
sageways. A cave can
look entirely different go-
ing out than it does going in.
Silt: Where the risk of darkness can be largely over-

come by carrying sufficient backup lights, there is
no equipment-based solution to being caught in a silt
out. Types of silt include:
■ Sand: Most easily disturbed, but settles almost im-

mediately
■ Mud: Harder to disturb, but remains in suspension

longer.
■ Mung: Usually found in marine caves, this is mud

with a sticky organic component.
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■ Clay: Hardest to disturb, but can remain in sus-

pension for up to 24 hours or more. Clay can stick
tenaciously to divers and equipment.
Flow: High flow can increase exertion, likelihood

of guideline entanglement and risk of running into
things. Low flow can increase the presence of silt and
the likelihood of a silt out.
Restrictions: These are classified as either minor or

major.
■ Minor restrictions are passageways or openings

too narrow for divers to pass through side by side.
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This is why cave divers are required to have longer

second stage hoses to facilitate gas sharing when
single file.
■ Major restrictions are restrictions so small they re-

quire body articulation or equipment removal in
order to traverse. These are best handled through
specialized equipment configuration (i.e., side-
mount or no-mount) rather than taking off back-
mounted doubles. They are not something begin-
ning cave divers should be doing on their own.
Line Traps: Line traps are open-

ings into which the guideline
may accidentally be pulled, but
which are too narrow for the
divers to pass through them-
selves. Their danger is amplified
by loss of visibility.
Guidelines: These can increase the likelihood of en-

tanglement.
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■ Environmental hazards associated with cave diving
include:
Being under water.
Limited gas supply.
Inability to make a direct ascent to the surface.
Darkness.
Getting lost.
Silt.
Flow.
Restrictions.
Line traps.
■ Types of silt include:

Sand.
Mud.
Mung.
Clay.
■ Sand is most easily disturbed, but drops out of

suspension almost immediately. Clay is hardest to
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disturb — but once disturbed, can remain in sus-

pension 24 hours or more.
■ Restrictions are classified as either minor or major.

Minor restrictions are passageways or openings too
narrow for divers to pass through side by side. Ma-
jor restrictions are so small they require body artic-
ulation or equipment removal in order to traverse.
Permanent Guidelines
Study Questions
■ What are the two general categories of
permanent cave guidelines?
■ What are several ways in which main lines may

differ from offshoot lines?
■ What are several ways in which exploratory

lines may differ from popular guidelines?
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Although not a natural feature of caves, permanent

guidelines are nevertheless a very important part of
the cave environment. They provide the convenience
of not having to constantly run reels and, in so doing:
■ Help protect caves from the damage that would be

caused by constant removal and replacement of
temporary guidelines.
■ Reduce the task load, extra time and gas con-

sumption associated with constantly running reels.
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■ Enable cave divers to go farther and see more on

the same quantity of gas.
■ Reduce the temptation to go without a guideline.
■ In the event unqualified divers make their way into

a cave, a permanent guideline may at least give
them a fighting chance at making it out alive.
Permanent guidelines are usually installed and main-

tained by volunteers, who may be members of a
“line committee” or other officially sanctioned organi-
zation.
Permanent guidelines fall

into one of three general
categories: popular, ex-
ploratory and hybrid.
Popular Guidelines:
These include main lines
and offshoot (secondary) guidelines.
■ Main (primary) lines are those that lead directly

to an exit. They are frequently thicker than other
lines and color coded with yellow or gold thread.
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How close a main line will get you to an exit de-

pends on several factors. At sites where there is
little likelihood that recreational divers with lights
will enter the water, main lines frequently come all
the way to the entrance. Where there is a possibil-
ity of recreational divers entering the cave, main
lines generally start just beyond sight of the en-
trance, so that recreational divers will be less like-
ly to find and be tempted to follow them. At sites
where visibility in the open water basin is generally
poor, main lines may run all the way to the sur-
face.
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■ Offshoot lines are those that do not lead directly to

an exit. Offshoot lines may lead to the main line,
or to other offshoot lines. They are generally thin-
ner than main lines and are color coded white. In
many popular guideline systems, there may be a
gap of several meters or feet between the end of
an offshoot line and any other lines it may lead to.
In cave diver terminology, a gap is the space be-

tween the ends of two guidelines; a jump is the
space between the middle of one guideline and the
end or middle of another. Jumps and gaps require
that divers temporarily bridge this space with a reel
or spool in order to maintain a continuous guideline
to a safe exit.
Exploratory Guidelines: As the name implies, ex-

ploratory guidelines are those installed during the
initial exploration of a cave. If a cave becomes popu-
lar, exploratory lines are often replaced with a popu-
lar (hence the name) guideline system. Less visited,
more remote parts of a cave may have the original
exploratory lines still in place.
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Whereas popular guidelines are installed in such a

way as to encourage movement through the largest
portion of a passage, exploratory lines are often in-
stalled in a manner that best facilitates surveying. To
get the most accurate survey data, explorers will try
to run their lines in as many long, straight segments
as possible. This means that exploratory guidelines
may pass through tighter and more environmentally
sensitive places than popular guidelines do
Among the most telltale signs that you are

on an exploratory guideline is that it is per-
manently connected (“tee’d”) to other lines
rather than gapped. It is vital that cave
divers do not negotiate any tees without
first making certain that the exit side of
the tee is clearly marked. Exploratory lines
may also be knotted every few meters or
feet. Knots are used for distance measure-
ments when surveying.
Hybrid Guidelines: These are ones in which the

original, knotted exploratory line has since been re-
placed; however, intersections remain tees. Although
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sometimes referred to as European System guide-

lines, North American cave divers are most likely to
encounter them in Mexico and the Bahamas.

■ The two general categories of permanent guide-
lines are popular and exploratory — although div-
ers will occasionally encounter a hybrid of the two.
■ Main lines lead to an exit and not to other guide-

lines. They are often thicker than offshoot lines
and color coded.
■ Popular guidelines are installed in a manner that

facilitates line following. Exploratory lines are laid
in a manner that facilitates surveying; intersec-
tions may be “tee’d” rather than gapped. Explor-
atory lines are generally knotted for distance mea-
suring.
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Guideline Markings
Study Question
■ What are the conventions used to mark
popular guidelines?
Popular guidelines typically have at least one direc-

tional marker (line arrow) every 30 m/100 ft. Line
arrows may also have numbers on them which indi-
cate the approximate distance to the exit.
Line arrows can also be used to mark the location of

jumps. Popular jumps are generally marked by two
line arrows arranged roughly one hand span apart
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and pointing in the same direction. Less popular

jumps may be marked by a single line arrow.
Back-to-back line arrows can be used to mark the

halfway point between exits.
The downstream end of a guideline should be

marked with a single line arrow to tell divers that, if
lost, they need to tie off and keep going in order to
reach the exit.
Line Arrow Protocol: Among the general rules that

apply to line arrows:
■ Never place a line arrow on a line unless you are

absolutely certain it points in the direction of the
nearest exit.
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■ Permanent line arrows occasionally go missing; re-

place them when they do.
■ Never remove a permanent line arrow marking a

jump, distance or the end of a line.
■ Do not litter permanent guidelines with “hero”

markers commemorating your furthest point of
penetration. An exception exists when temporarily
marking the halfway point for a circuit or traverse
(discussed later).

■ Popular guidelines are generally marked with line
arrows every 30 m/100 ft. The distance to the exit
may be indicated in meters or feet.
■ Popular jumps to offshoot lines are generally

marked with two line arrows, both pointing to the
closest exit.
■ Back-to-back line arrows mark the halfway point

between exits.
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Landowner Relations, Conservation

Study Questions
■ What are several ways in which divers can
maintain and improve landowner relations?
■ What are three ways in which divers can help

protect the fragile cave environment?
Landowner Relations
There is No “Unowned” Land: Regardless of wheth-
er or not it is fenced or posted, all land belongs to
either a government entity or a private owner. As
such, all land requires permission to dive. Diving land
without express consent of the owner can lead to
loss of access for everyone.
Follow the Rules: Virtually all public and privately

operated dive sites have rules divers need to follow.
Privately operated sites frequently require that divers
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sign waivers and collect admission fees. Not following

rules at any of these sites can lead to loss of access.
Improving Landowner Relations: Opportunities to

improve landowner relations include:
■ Joining cave diving organizations and citizen sup-

port groups.
■ Taking part in clean ups and similar public service

projects.
■ Engaging in active discussions with landowners re-

garding their concerns and problems and how cave
divers can assist.
■ Remember that landowners and the public alike

will assume your appearance and behavior are
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typical of all cave divers; don’t make other cave

divers suffer because of the poor impression you
make.
Cave Conservation
Caves are extremely fragile. Damage caused is likely
unfixable. Broken formations are irreplaceable. To
minimize your impact on the caves you dive:
■ Make sure whatever site you choose to cave dive

matches your ability to dive it in as environmental-
ly sound a manner as possible.
■ The best propulsion technique to use in any cave

is generally the one that has the least potential to
cause damage.
■ Bear in mind that

poorly placed or un-
necessary guidelines
can cause damage as
well.
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■ Also remember that goal-oriented dives are fre-

quently at odds with the goal of cave conservation.
■ “Take nothing but pictures, leave nothing but bub-

bles, kill nothing but time.”

■ Cave divers can help ensure good landowner rela-
tions by:
Diving caves only with express permission.
Following all prevailing rules.
Joining organizations that promote cave diving
safety and conservation.
■ To help minimize adverse impact on caves:

Dive only caves within the limits of your training
and experience.
Use the propulsion technique least likely to
cause damage.
Run guidelines when needed for safety but avoid
doing so unnecessarily.
Avoid goal-oriented dives.
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Like all forms of technical diving, cave diving is an

equipment-intensive activity. Having the right gear
and configuring it properly can, quite literally, make
the difference between life and death.
In this section we’ll look at:
■ Configuration Overview
■ Equipment Goals
■ Mask and Fins
■ Exposure Protection
■ Gas Delivery Equipment
■ Harness/Air Cell
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■ Instrumentation
■ Lights
■ Attachment Hardware
■ Guideline Reels and Spools
■ Cutting Tools
■ Line Markers
Understand, this is just the briefest introduction to

the equipment you’ll need as a cave diver. Don’t buy
anything without first discussing that purchase with
your instructor.
Configuration Overview
Study Questions
■ What are two ways in which equipment used
for cave diving differs from technical deep
diving as regards lift bags/marker buoys and
reels?
■ What are the basic goals for cave diving

equipment configuration?
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Equipment configuration for cave diving is largely the

same as the dual-cylinder configuration you learned
in your technical deep diving course. Some notable
differences include:
■ Use of sidemount is likely more common in cave

diving than technical deep diving.
■ Cave divers generally have no need for lift bags/

marker buoys.
■ Reels in cave diving are largely used for making

temporary connections to and between permanent
guidelines, and not the deployment of lift bags/
marker buoys
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Equipment Goals
As with technical deep diving, equipment use in cave
diving must meet certain goals. These include:
■ Having backups for all primary equipment compo-

nents, including:
Regulators and on/
off valves.
Lights.
Instrumentation.
Cutting tools.
■ Making certain all key equipment must be instantly

accessible by touch.
■ Streamlining equipment to reduce likelihood of en-

tanglement.
■ Ensuring an overall balance that facilitates good

buoyancy control, body position.
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■ Cave diving equipment is largely the same as that
used in technical deep diving, with a few excep-
tions:
Cave divers are more likely to sidemount.
Cave divers typically do not deploy lift bags or
marker buoys.
■ Reels and spools are for connecting to guidelines
and not shooting bags.
■ Cave diving equipment goals include:

Having backups for key items.
Streamlining.
Accessibility by touch.
Balance.
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Mask and Fins

Study Questions
■ Why do many cave divers prefer masks with
black skirts?
■ What is a technique that can help prevent

mask loss and ensure better fit?
■ What is a popular style of fin that is not well

suited for cave diving?
Masks: Almost any mask that fits comfortably and

has a low volume and wide field of vision will work
well for cave diving.
■ Many cave divers prefer masks with black silicone

skirts, as these cause the pupils to dilate and ad-
mit more light.
■ As in technical deep diving, cave divers frequently

carry a compact backup mask. This can be stowed
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in a thigh pocket
or a special mask
pocket on the har-
ness waste band.
■ Wearing mask
straps under the
hood helps reduce
the risk of acciden-
tal loss and ensures better fit, as it helps prevent
the mask skirt from getting caught on the lip of
the hood.
Fins: The fins most

cave divers prefer
can differ from recre-
ational diving fins in
many respects.
■ Flat-bladed (“pad-
dle”) fins are pre-
ferred. Split and
hinged fins may increase the risk of guideline en-
tanglement and are not well suited to the special-
ized kicks associated with cave diving.
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■ Spring heel straps allow for easier donning and re-

moval and may help reduce the risk of guideline
entanglement in strap buckles.

■ As with tech divers, many cave divers prefer black
masks, as they cause pupils to dilate and admit
more light.
■ Many cave divers choose to carry backup masks.
■ Wearing mask straps under hoods helps prevent

loss and ensures better fit.
■ Split and hinged fins do not work well for cave div-
ing as they can cause entanglement and do not al-
low use of specialized propulsion techniques.
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Exposure Protection
Study Question
■ Why do cave divers generally need greater
thermal protection than recreational divers do
in water of the same temperature?
Due to longer bottom times and reduced activity lev-

els during decompression, cave divers generally need
more in the way of thermal protection than recre-
ational divers do in water of the same temperature.
■ A 7 mm, full-length wetsuit, with a hood and added

insulation in the torso area, is generally considered
the minimum thermal protection for cave diving.
■ Cave divers in water below 25° C/77° F generally

use dry suits; however, a cave diving class is not
the place to be learning to use a dry suit for the
first time.
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■ Unless absolutely required by cold,

cave divers generally avoid the use
of gloves, as gloves can interfere
with the ability to feel the guideline.
Cave divers in moderately cold wa-
ter will often use lightweight wetsuit
gloves with the fingertips cut off for
greater dexterity.
■ Thigh pockets are extremely help-

ful in organizing items such as slates,
tables and spools, and making them
readily accessible.

■ Longer bottom times, deeper depths and inactiv-
ity during deco mean cave divers will tend to need
more in the way of exposure protection than their
recreational counterparts.
■ A full-length, 7 mm wet suit is the minimum needed

for cave diving in most environments; for water be-
low 25° C/77° F dry suits provide greater comfort.
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■ Thigh pockets and hoods are helpful; gloves are

not and should be avoided unless absolutely nec-
essary due to cold. If possible, use fingerless
gloves to make it easier to feel the guideline.
Gas Delivery Equipment

Study Questions
■ What are the preferred cylinder and valve
configurations for cave diving?
■ What are the preferred regulator configurations

and features for cave diving?
Cylinders: Preferred configuration is doubles (twin-

set) with a DIN isolation manifold or two sidemount
bottles with DIN K-valves. Large singles equipped
with H-valves can, in theory, be used for shorter
penetrations, but lack the safety afforded by isola-
tion manifolds or sidemounting.
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Commonly used sizes can vary by region.
■ 13- to 16.5-liter cylinders (LP steel

85s, 95s and 104s) — and their high-
pressure equivalents — are most
common in Florida
■ 11-liter aluminum “80s” are more

common in Mexico, the Bahamas and
Caribbean.
Factors such as buoyancy characteristics may af-

fect specific applications, such as drysuit use or side-
mounting.
Stage/deco bottles are configured largely the same
as for technical diving; use of stage bottles for ex-
tending range is covered in later courses.
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Valves/Manifolds: Standard
manifold design is a dual-ori-
fice, isolation manifold with
DIN connectors.
■ “Captured O-ring” manifold

designs are preferable to
those with pure compres-
sion fittings.
■ Sidemount bottles use

K-valves with DIN con-
nectors, preferably with
opposing left/right turn-
wheels.
■ Large rubber turnwheel

knobs facilitate gas shutdown.
■ Regular service and lubrication helps ensure turn-

wheels move freely.
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Regulators: Requirements for cave diving regulators

include:
■ Two entirely independent first and second stages.
■ Adequate performance for work load and depth

(this pretty much dictates use of high-performance
regulators with balanced first stages).
■ Configuration facilitates hose routing and gas shar-

ing.
■ All hoses other than the primary second stage

hose will likely need to be shorter than standard
length.
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■ Sidemount regulators each require their own sepa-

rate pressure gauge.
■ Stage bottle regulators need to be of equal or

greater performance than primary regulators.
■ Deco regulators can be simple, unbalanced pis-

ton designs, as they are used only while at rest in
shallow water. Unbalanced piston first stages often
hold up better when exposed to high PO2s.
■ Regular, professional service is critical for all regu-

lators.
Harness/Air Cell
The considerations for selecting a
harness and air cell for cave div-
ing are, for the most part, much
the same as for technical deep
diving. Historically, most cave
divers have used a stainless or
aluminum back plate with a 50
mm/2.0 inch continuous web-
bing harness — but this may be
changing.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD
Increasingly, you are as likely to see cave

divers using a sidemount harnesses and
air cell as you are to see divers in back-
mounted doubles. (Much more so than you
are in technical deep diving.)
Harness and air cell design are constantly evolving.

For information on the most current standards of
practice, ask your instructor.

■ A cave diver’s main gas is carried in two back-
mounted cylinders with a DIN isolation manifold, or
two sidemount cylinders, preferably with left- and
right-hand DIN valves.
■ Back-mounting divers will typically use a back-

plate, harness and air cell; sidemount divers will
use a dedicated sidemount harness and air cell.
■ Connected to the main gas will be two separate

first and second stages, with one SPG for each
manifold or valve. Stock hoses are replaced with
custom-length ones.
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Instrumentation
Study Question
■ What is the minimum instrumentation required
for cave diving?
Depth, Time and Decompression: As with techni-

cal deep diving, most experts recommend that cave
divers each have two separate means of monitoring
depth and time
■ Two multi-gas com-

puters, or a multi-gas
computer and depth
gauge/bottom timer
combination are com-
mon in areas where
accelerated decom-
pression on oxygen or
similar mixes is popular.
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■ If two computers are used, both should be equally

“mission capable.” In accelerated decompression
diving, having a backup computer that lacks multi-
gas capability is not very helpful.
Cylinder Pressure: Divers need one submersible

pressure gauge (SPGs) for each manifold or K-valve.
These should be stand-alone instruments and not be
part of a large, bulky console. Most cave divers pre-
fer heavy-duty, Bourdon-tube models in brass hous-
ings. Additionally:
■ Divers using hoseless, digital

gauges generally prefer to back
them up with mechanical ones
■ Primary and stage bottle SPGs

should be calibrated in 10-bar, or
100-psi increments for more ac-
curately determining turnaround
pressures
Other Instruments: Compasses

have limited value in caves, except for surveying No
other instruments are essential.
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■ Cave divers need two means of monitoring depth,
time and decompression status. This can be two
mission-capable dive computers, or an appropriate
computer backed up by a depth gauge/time and
tables. (Some divers forgo computers altogether
and just dive tables.)
■ Cave divers avoid instrument consoles. Hoseless,

digital pressure gauges, if used, need to be backed
up by mechanical SPGs, calibrated in 10-bar/100-
psi increments for more accurately calculating
turnaround.
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Lights
Study Questions
■ What is the minimum number of primary and
backup lights required for cave diving?
■ What are several desirable features for primary

and backup lights?
As with dive computers, harnesses and air cells, and

other cutting edge equipment, light design is con-
stantly evolving (consult your NASE Cave Diving In-
structor for more information)
Primary Dive Lights: Every team member needs a

primary dive light. The most common design is a
harness-mounted battery canister connected by a
power cord to a light head mounted on the back of
the hand.
■ To facilitate communication and help ensure no

team member is left behind, all team members
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should have lights

of relatively equal
intensity and fo-
cal pattern. A ten-
watt HID or its
LED equivalent is
the most common
(but this could
change with time).
■ Anticipated “burn”
time should ex-
ceed planned dive time by at least 50 percent. This
not only provides a reserve for safety, but helps
extend battery life.
■ Conscientious charging and ongoing maintenance

is required for maximum reliability.
Backup Lights: Each team member needs a mini-

mum of two highly reliable, battery powered backup
lights (chemical lights don’t cut it).
■ Non-rechargeable batteries (alkaline or lithium-ion)

are preferred as they offer long burn time with low
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

maintenance. The best backup lights

currently available generally use two
CR123A lithium-ion batteries.
■ LED backup lights are generally

brighter, provide long battery life,
have no bulbs to burn out or break,
and provide color temperature comparable to most
primary lights.
■ Check voltage on backup light batteries regularly;

replace when needed.

■ Cave divers need a minimum of one primary and
two battery powered backup lights.
■ Primary lights should be rated at 150 percent of

the maximum expected dive time, and compara-
ble to other team members’ lights in intensity and
beam pattern.
■ LED backup lights are preferable due to long bat-

tery life and bulbs that can’t break or burn out.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Attachment Hardware
Study Question
■ What are the desirable features, materials and
styles for attachment hardware?
The term attachment hardware refers to snaps,

clips, and other hardware used to temporarily attach
lights, reels, stage and deco bottles and other items
to harnesses or other equipment.
Desirable Features: These include:

■ One-handed operation.
■ Smooth operation.
■ Reliability.
■ Resistance to guideline entrapment.
Materials: Cave divers generally prefer stainless

steel snaps and clips; however, brass is acceptable
when stainless is not available. You should neverthe-
less avoid chrome-plated ferrous metal or other cor-
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rosion-prone materials, such as you commonly find

in building supply stores.
Styles: The two basic styles of snaps and clips are:

■ Sliding gate (also known as (bolt or dog leash
snaps). Cave and tech divers generally prefer
these due to their high reliability and tendency to
resist guideline entrapment.
■ Swinging gate (also known as (boat or suicide

snaps). Cave and tech divers generally avoid these
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

due to their higher failure rate the greater likeli-

hood they will trap guideline. Nevertheless, so-
called “suicide” snaps may be preferable for a lim-
ited number of applications.
Other styles, such as “butterfly” snaps and carabi-

niers are seldom used in cave diving.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ Desirable attachment hardware features include:
One-handed operation.
Resistance to guideline entanglement.
Non-corrosive materials (i.e., stainless steel).
Smooth operation and reliability.
Guideline Reels and Spools

Study Questions
■ What are the differences between reels and
spools?
■ What are the three basic types of guideline

reels and explain their purpose and function?
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Basic Styles: These fall into one of two categories.

■ Reels have a handle, frame, axle, spool, guide,
guideline and winding knob.
Available in top- and side-handle models
Make guideline
retrieval easier.
Are bigger and
bulkier than
comparable
spools.
Can easily jam.
Are best suited for deploying and retrieving line
over long distances.
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■ Spools consist of nothing but a spool, guideline

and a double-ended snap.
Smaller than
comparable
reels.
Almost impos-
sible to jam.
Can be a pain
to wind up over
any more than
the shortest distances.
Guideline tends to twist during retrieval.
Best suited for short distances and safety spool
use.
Number 24 braided nylon is the most commonly

used guideline on reels and spools; special applica-
tions may require heavier line.
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Basic Types: The types most frequently used by cave

divers generally fall into one of three categories, de-
pending on use.
■ Primary reels are chiefly used, when needed, to

make the connection between the cave entrance
and permanent guideline. Most situations generally
require only one primary reel per team (assuming
the permanent guideline does not already run all
the way to a safe exit). They can be used for any
application which requires more line than a smaller
reel or spool can provide. Primary reels typically
hold 100-150 m/300-450 ft of line. They are al-
most always reels; spools would be impractical to
use over these distances.
■ Safety reels and spools are used primarily in lost

diver/lost line scenarios (but could be used for oth-
er applications if the size and type is right). Every
team member must have at least two safety reels/
spools with him or her at all times. Safety reels
and spools typically hold 30 m/100 ft or more of
line. Most divers prefer spools to reels for this ap-
plication, as spools can’t jam in an emergency.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Jump reels and spools (also known as gap reels)

are used to make connections between the middle
or ends of permanent guidelines. They typically
hold between 6 m/20 ft and 15 m/50 ft of guide-
line. Spools are well suited for short jumps; reels
may be easier to retrieve for longer jumps.
Reel Maintenance: All reels and spools should be pe-

riodically rewound to remove twists or “birds nests”
in the guideline and reduce likelihood of jamming.
Guideline will also need periodic replacement.

■ A reel will have a spool, an axle, a frame, a han-
dle, a winding knob and a guide. A spool is just
that — a spool and little else.
■ Reels are big and bulky, tricky to use and can jam
— but are the easiest way to manage anything but
the shortest lengths of guideline.
■ Spools are compact and jam-proof — but can be a

pain in the butt is you have to wind up any more
than 5 m/15 ft of line.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Primary reels are used to connect the cave en-

trance with the start of a permanent line or ex-
plore off the guideline and generally have 100-150
m/300-450 ft of line.
■ Safety reels and spools are used to re-establish

contact with the guideline or to search for missing
team members and typically have 30-45 m/100-
150 ft of line.
■ Jump (gap) reels and spools are used to make

temporary connections between guidelines and
generally have 6-15 m/20-50 ft of line.
Cutting Tools
Study Questions
■ What is the minimum number of cutting tools
each cave diver should carry?
■ What are the purpose, styles and features of

desirable cutting tools for cave diving?
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Cave divers need sharp, reliable cutting tools for two

reasons:
■ They can be used in cases of extremely bad guide-

line entanglement to help free a trapped diver.
(Just be aware that you will need to immediately
repair the cut guideline, lest your team or others
find themselves without a continuous guideline to
a safe exit; fortunately, this is rare.)
■ Cutting tools may be used to cut away other

equipment as well, such as a stage or deco bottle
held in place by a jammed snap or clip.
Styles: Suitable cutting tools for cave diving are

available in a variety of styles.
■ Z-knives (also known as hook knives) are compact,

hook-shaped tools originally developed for sky div-
ers. They are available in different sizes and can
be mounted in a variety of places. Although razor
sharp when new, insofar as the steel blade is sub-
ject to corrosion, they do need periodic inspection
and replacement.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Custom cave/tech diving knives are often little

more than a ground-down kitchen knife or its com-
mercial equivalent (They can even be a folding
knife made from all-noncorrosive materials). Such
knives are fairly compact in size and a very pop-
ular choice among cave divers. A key feature in
making or selecting such a knife is that it must be
able to hold an edge.
■ Trauma shears have the virtue

of being able to cut through
damn near anything. Although
their large size may appear to
present mounting problems,
this may be solved by carry-
ing the shears in thigh pocket.
Trauma shears may be a good
choice for a backup cutting
tool.
■ Conventional dive knives are

not well suited for cave div-
ing. They are big and bulky,
and can present entanglement hazards. Many can’t
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hold an edge, meaning that they may fail at their

primary task of cutting guidelines.
Use: Every team member needs a primary and

backup cutting tool. At least one cutting tool should
be accessible by either hand. Many cave divers like
to carry two distinct types (for example, a Z-knife
for rapid deployment and trauma shears for cutting
through the unforeseen).

■ Cutting tools for cave diving are used in cases of
severe guideline entanglement or to cut away har-
ness webbing and other equipment.
■ Common cave diving cutting tools include small,

custom-made knives, parachute line cutters (z-
knives) and trauma shears. Conventional dive
knives are largely useless in cave diving.
■ Cave divers need to carry two cutting tools, at

least one of which should be accessible with either
hand.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Line Markers
Study Question
■ What are the two basic types of guideline
markers?
All cave divers should carry a minimum of three

guideline markers. Line markers fall into two distinct
categories:
■ Directional markers (line arrows): A line arrow’s

primary function is to point the direction to the
nearest exit (although divers should bear in mind
the guideline may not go all the way to that exit).
As previously discussed, line arrows can also be
used to mark the location of jumps to offshoot
lines. Further use of line arrows is discussed later
in the course.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Nondirectional markers include cookies and

“clothespins.”
■ Cookies are similar to line arrows, but round in

shape. They are more secure than clothespins, but
take longer to install and remove.
■ Clothespins can be actual clothespins, or outrig-

ger clips or snack bag clips. These can be deployed
faster than cookies, but are less secure. Left in
place, they can easily come off the line and end up
littering the cave.
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■ Cave diving line markers include directional mark-
ers (line arrows) and nondirectional markers
(cookies and clothespins).
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The components of a cave diving plan should in-

clude:
■ Sequence.
■ Air.
■ Depth.
■ Duration.
■ Distance.
■ Direction.
It is these elements we will look at in this section.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Sequence
Study Questions
■ What are the six basic components of a cave
diving plan?
■ How does team sequence work on linear dives?
■ What are two different ways sequence can

work on circuits and traverses?
You already know the answer to the first study ques-

tion, as we covered it on the previous page. On this
page we’ll focus on the first component, which is Se-
quence.
Remembering that cave divers always dive single
file, sequence is the order in which the team will en-
ter and exit the cave. Agreeing on sequence ahead of
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

time helps prevent buddy separation and lost divers.

You need to agree:
■ Who will lead.

■ Who will bring up the rear.
■ Who will remain in the middle (if there is a third
team member).
Linear Dives: On normal, linear dives, each team

member turns in place when the dive is called.
■ The last in line leads the way to the exit.

■ The person in the middle remains there.
■ The original team leader brings up the rear.
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Circuits/Traverses: When making a circuit or tra-

verse, sequence can work in either of two ways:
■ The original team leader can remain in the lead,

being in front both while entering and exiting.
■ The team can reverse its order at the mid point

(point of no return) so that, again, the first in is
last out, and vice versa.
Either way can work, but it needs to be agreed up

before entering.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Who Deals With Reels? The first person in is re-

sponsible for installing any reels; the last a out is re-
sponsible for pulling them. This helps prevent teams
members being left without a continuous guideline.
Bear in mind, however, that if a team completing a
circuit or traverse does not reverse positions at the
mid point, the person left in back will be the one re-
sponsible for pulling reels on the way out.
Team Sequence During Problems/Emergencies: An

exception to the originally agreed upon team se-
quence may come into play if there is a distressed
diver. Examples include:
■ Out-of-air diver.
■ Diver on backup light.
■ Sick or injured diver.
The idea is to keep the affected diver where all team

members can see and assist him. This rule is not ab-
solute; there may be exceptions, such as wanting the
diver with the greatest familiarity with the cave to
lead out, regardless.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Choosing a Team Leader: As a general rule, the

team member with the greatest experience or famil-
iarity with the cave is best suited to be team lead-
er. Be aware, however, that always having the same
person lead can result in the degradation of other
team members’ skills.

■ The six basic components of a cave diving plan:
Sequence.
Air.
Depth.
Duration.
Distance.
Direction.
■ On linear dives, the team leader is generally the

first in and last out.
The last diver in the team the first out.
A diver in the middle, if present, stays there.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Team sequence on circuits and traverses can work

in either of two ways:
The team leader can remain in the lead through-
out the dive, being first in and first out.
The team can agree to switch positions at the
halfway point, making the team leader first in
and last out (just as on a linear dive).
■ What’s most important is that all team members
agree on this ahead of time.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Air (Deco Gas Volume/Gas Turnaround)

Study Questions
■ How does managing decompression gas for
cave diving differ from doing so for technical
deep dives?
■ What is the underlying principle for managing

back (main) gas in caves?
■ What is the basic procedure for determining

gas turnaround points?
■ How do you calculate gas turnaround points for

divers using cylinders with differing capacities?
■ What are seven situations in which you might

want to use more conservative gas turnaround
points than normal?
Your cave diving plan needs to address how you

manage the gas you will take into the cave with you.
This includes decompression gas, back gas (main
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

gas if sidemounting), as well as any stage bottles.

Managing stage bottle gas is a subject for a future
course. In this course we address managing deco
and back (main) gas.
Managing Decompression Gas: Given

identical dive profiles you could, theoreti-
cally, need to manage deco gas largely
the same as you would on an open-water
technical deep dive. In practice, however,
the type of dives most beginning cave div-
ers make involve depths seldom deeper
than 30 m/100 ft with no more than 10 to
15 minutes of accelerated decompression
on oxygen. Thus, managing decompres-
sion gas involves little more than making
certain you have sufficient oxygen for a
short stop at 3-6 m/10-20 ft.
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An exception to this exists in more remote

areas, such as certain deeper Mexican
caves, where divers may not only be using
air for back gas, but deco on back gas as
well. Under these circumstances, divers will
need to deduct estimated deco gas volume
(plus contingency) from their back gas be-
fore calculating turnaround pressures.
Managing Back Gas (Main Gas): The underlying prin-

ciple for managing back gas is that, at any point in
the dive, each diver should have at least twice the gas
he or she theoretically needs to exit the cave. This is
based on the assumption that, in an emergency, it
may take up to twice as much time to exit, and thus
require twice as much breathing gas. It also makes al-
lowances for having sufficient gas to get both yourself
and an out-of-gas buddy out of the cave.
Note that, because two divers are involved,

individual RMV or SAC rate does not enter
into the equation.
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In reality, there is no way to know for certain how

much gas will be required under such circumstances;
however, over time, staying within the Rule of Thirds
has proven adequate.
The Basic Procedure: Despite po-

tential differences between team
members in cylinder capacity and
starting pressure (and, as a con-
sequence, actual starting volume),
the basic procedure for determining each individual
team member’s turnaround point is the same.
■ Team members begin by determining who has the

least starting volume (this may or may not be the
same as starting pressure).
■ The diver with the least starting volume becomes

the controlling diver.
■ The controlling diver determines what his usable

gas is (also known as penetration gas).
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■ The diver rounds his starting pressure down to a

number easily divisible by three (unless, of course,
that number is already easily divisible by three).
■ One third of this new number represents the con-

trolling diver’s usable gas.
■ The controlling diver then deducts his usable gas

from his actual starting pressure (and not the
number he rounded down to).
■ The remaining team members then deduct this

same volume from their actual starting pressures.
Note that this may be a different number than
what the controlling diver used if team members
are using cylinders of different sizes (see later ex-
ample).
Example One (Metric): Identical cylinders, different

starting pressures.
■ Hans and Giovanni are both diving twin 15-liter

cylinders.
■ Hans is starting with 220 bar; Giovanni with 200

bar, making him the controlling diver
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■ In so far as 200 is not easily divisible by three,

Giovanni rounds his starting pressure down to 180
bar, and deducts one third of this (60 bar) from
his actual starting pressure of 200, giving a turn-
around point of 140 bar.
■ Hans deducts the same us-

able gas value (60 bar) from
his actual starting pressure
of 220 bar, for a turnaround
point of 160 bar.
Example One (Imperial): Identical cylinders, differ-

ent starting pressures.
■ Hank and George are both diving double 100-cu-

bic-foot cylinders.
■ Hank is starting with 3,400 psi; George with 3,200

psi, making him the controlling diver.
■ In so far as 3,200 is not easily divisible by three;,

George rounds his starting pressure down to 3,000
psi, and deducts one third of this (1,000 psi) from
his actual starting pressure of 3,200, giving a turn-
around point of 2,200 psi.
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■ Hank deducts the same usable gas value (1,000

psi) from his actual starting pressure of 3,400 psi,
for a turnaround point of 2,400 psi.
The Problem With Dissimilar

Cylinders: Recreational divers
often assume pressure and vol-
ume are essentially the same
thing, but they are not when us-
ing cylinders of different sizes.
A recreational diver whose gas
consumption is worse than that of his buddies may
be able to solve his problem by using larger cylin-
ders.
This doesn’t work for cave divers, as a gas-

hungry diver whose large-volume cylin-
ders suffer catastrophic manifold failure at
or near the maximum point of penetration
may discover his buddy’s much smaller cyl-
inders lack sufficient volume to get them
both out.
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When cave divers use cylinders of substantially dif-

ferent sizes, team members will need a means to
convert the controlling diver’s usable gas pressure
into an equivalent value for the cylinders they are
using. Common methods for doing so include:
■ Straight math.
■ Use of a base line multiplier.
■ Consulting a comparison chart or table.
Your instructor will cover at least one of these meth-

ods with you. Be aware that, when cylinders are sig-
nificantly different in size, the diver with the lower
starting pressure may not necessarily be the control-
ling diver.
Example Two (Metric): Different cylinder capacities

and pressures.
■ Hans is diving twin 13-liter

cylinders filled to 230 bar;
Giovanni’s twin 15-liter cylin-
ders are filled to 210 bar.
■ By multiplying starting pres-

sure by cylinder capacity, the
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

divers discover that, despite having a higher start-

ing pressure, Hans, with 5,980 liters of gas (2 x 13
x 230 = 5,980) still has less gas than Giovanni’s
6,300 liters (2 x 15 x 210 = 6,300), making him
■ Hans rounds his 230 bar starting pressure down

to 210 bar, then deducts one third of this (70 bar)
from his actual starting pressure of 230, for a
turnaround pressure of 160 bar.
■ Giovanni now must convert Hans’ usable gas pres-

sure of 70 bar to the equivalent pressure in his
cylinders.
To do so, he first calculates that Hans’ 70 bar
represents an actual gas volume of 1,820 liters
(2 x 13 x 70 = 1,820).
Dividing this value by his own cylinders’ liquid
capacity of 30 liters, he arrives at a pressure of
roughly 60 bar (1,820/30 = 60.7).
■ Giovanni deducts this value from his actual start-

ing pressure of 210 bar, for a turnaround pressure
of 150 bar.
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Example Two (Imperial): Different cylinder capacities

and pressures.
■ Hank is diving double 100-cubic-foot (13-liter) cyl-

inders filled to 3,500 psi; George’s double 133-cu-
bic-foot (16.5-liter) cylinders are filled to 3,200 psi.
■ Using one of many possible methods, the div-

ers discover that, despite having a higher starting
pressure, Hank, with 220 cubic feet of gas, still has
less gas than George’s 252 cubic feet, making him
■ Hank rounds his 3,500

psi starting pressure
down to 3,300 psi, then
deducts one third of this
(1,100 psi) from his ac-
tual starting pressure of
3,500, for a turnaround pressure of 2,400 psi.
■ George now must convert Hank’s usable gas pres-

sure of 1,100 psi to the equivalent pressure in his
cylinders. To do so, he first calculates that Hank’s
1,100 psi represents an actual gas volume of
roughly 69 cubic feet.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD
■ George further determines that this represents the

equivalent of roughly 900 psi feet in his cylinders.
■ George deducts this value from his actual starting

pressure of 3,200 psi, for a turnaround pressure of
2,300 psi.
Just Because You Can Doesn’t Necessarily Mean

You Should: Just because your plan includes a turn-
around pressure doesn’t mean you can’t call the dive
sooner. Remember that any team member can call
the dive at any time, for any reason. Examples of
times you might want to “pad” your turnaround point
include:
■ Unfamiliar cave.
■ New team mate.
■ New equipment.
■ Low or no flow.
■ Siphons.
■ Passage of signif-
icant time since
last cave dive.
■ DPV use (re-
quires additional training).
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Additional Considerations: Additional points to bear

in mind when determining turnaround points for each
team member include:
■ Many cave divers feel that, because a three-per-

son team would have two non-affected members
who could help in an out-of-gas situation, it is okay
for them to calculate turnaround pressures inde-
pendently of one another.
■ There is also the argument that, when one fac-

tors in all of the variables that may come into play
during an out-of-gas situation, it is not necessary
to worry about dissimilar starting volumes unless
they are substantially different.
■ In so far as a buddy team composed solely of side-

mount divers should never have to share gas with
one another, most such teams don’t worry about
dissimilar cylinders.
■ In a mixed team, however, sidemount divers must

ensure that, at any time, the gas remaining in the
bottle with their long hose is sufficient to get a
backmounting buddy out.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Similarly, rebreather divers need to ensure that

their open-circuit bailout bottles contain enough to
get any backmounting buddies out from their max-
imum point of penetration.
■ As there are (fortunately) no statistical data to

back up any particular point of view, this is much
like avoiding decompression illness; each diver
must decide for himself the level of acceptable
risk.

■ Managing decompression gas is generally far less
complicated in cave diving than it is in technical
deep diving.
In some places, such as much of the Yucatan,
caves are so shallow as to not require any deco.
Elsewhere, deco consists of little more than 10-
15 minutes (or less) of accelerated deco on oxy-
gen at 3-6 m/10-20 ft. How much gas do you
need for that?
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ The underlying principle for managing back gas is

that, at any point in the dive, each diver should
have at least twice the gas he or she theoretically
needs to exit the cave.
■ The basic procedure for determining each individu-

al team member’s turnaround point:
Determine who has the least starting volume
(the controlling diver).
The controlling diver rounds his starting pres-
sure down to a number easily divisible by three.
One third of this number represents the control-
ling diver’s usable gas.
The controlling diver then deducts his usable gas
from his actual starting pressure.
The remaining team members then deduct this
same volume from their actual starting pres-
sures.
■ Cylinder pressures and volumes can be deter-

mined by working a mathematical formula, or by
consulting a table.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Examples of times you might want to “pad” your

turnaround point include:
Unfamiliar cave.
New team member.
New equipment.
Low or no flow.
Siphons.
Passage of significant time since last cave dive.
DPV use (requires additional training).
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Depth and Duration

Study Question
■ What is the role depth and time play in
planning cave dives?
Depth
Depth should be part of any dive plan, whether cave,
technical deep or recreational diving. Knowing what
depth to expect ahead of time either allows divers
to more accurately estimate decompression require-
ments, or help them avoid decompression altogether.
Exactly how depth will work into a cave diving plan
may depend on a variety of factors.
■ If depth is unknown, the team may decide on a

maximum depth they do not wish to exceed (plus a
contingency depth if they accidentally go beyond it).
■ In most instances, however, maximum depth will

be known, either from prior experience in the
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD
cave, or reliable information obtained from maps

or other divers.
■ Under certain circum-

stances, however, div-
ers may need to plan
for unanticipated in-
creases in depth, such
as during periods of
higher-than-normal
water levels, or when
venturing into an unfamiliar part of a cave where
depths are not well documented.
■ In rare instances, shallow depth can have an ad-

verse effect on the dive plan
■ For example, when traversing a shallow section of

an otherwise deep cave, divers may find they need
to decompress before ascending to the shallower
depth — both entering and exiting.
■ Caves that become increasingly shallow as divers

penetrate can fool computers into thinking that the
team may have more no-stop time remaining than
they will actually have.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD
Duration (Time)
Bottom time is chiefly used in combination with
depth to determine decompression requirements —
or to avoid decompression altogether. There are oth-
er factors, however, that may cause team members
to want to establish time limits, such as:
■ A desire to avoid getting cold.

■ The need to be finished and out of the water by a
certain time.
When decompression is not

a factor, team members
may choose not to limit
their time, but rather “call”
the dive based on gas use
or other factors. Even under these circumstances,
having a rough estimate of expected turnaround and
bottom time can help reassure team members that
everything is going according to plan.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

When decompression is a factor, divers

may want to establish a turnaround time
that will either help them avoid decom-
pression or limit its duration.
Unlike diving in open water, where reaching a time

limit means it is time to ascend, a turnaround time in
cave diving only means that it is time to begin exit-
ing the cave.
■ Depending on factors such as flow, exiting the

cave may take as long — or longer — than it did to
enter.
■ In so far as cave divers primarily dive springs, exit

time is generally shorter than penetration time
when significant flow is present.

■ Bottom time is chiefly used in combination with
depth to determine decompression requirements
— or to avoid decompression altogether.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Other factors that may cause team members to

want to establish time limits include:
A desire to avoid getting cold.
The need to be finished and out of the water by
a certain time.
Distance, Direction (and More)

Study Questions
■ What is the role direction plays in planning

cave dives?
■ What are several additional components that

may be part of a cave diving plan?
The final two elements of a cave diving plan are Dis-

tance and Direction. Depending on circumstances,
there may some additional considerations as well.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Distance
Depending on circumstances, there
may be a reason why team mem-
bers might want to establish a dis-
tance limit as part of their dive plan. A distance limit
is generally not based on a certain number of feet or
meters, but rather on what happens to the cave’s to-
pography at a certain point. Examples might include:
■ A point at which the cave becomes substantially

deeper.
■ A point at which the cave passageway becomes

noticeably narrower or siltier.
■ An area of extremely fragile formations.
While a cave diving plan should never be goal ori-

ented (i.e., “We must make it to Devil’s Incinerator
regardless of air, depth or time”), it is not unusual
for divers to select a planned stopping point that
falls well within air, depth and time limits (i.e., “Let’s
go take a look at the Scaly Lizard formation — then
we’ll turn the dive, as there is little point in continu-
ing past it”).
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD
Direction
Few things are more embar-
rassing (or more dangerous)
than having team members
separate because they were
unclear as to which way the
team was supposed to go. The
direction component of your
dive plan should include:
■ Which entrance you will use (when more than one

is available).
■ Which jumps and gaps (if any) you will make, and
which direction you will head when doing so.
■ Any plans having to do with a circuit or traverse

(discussed later).
Having a clear understanding of direction helps re-

duce stress and anxiety. Even when caves have just
a single entrance and no offshoot lines, discussing
the cave’s various twists and turns helps with the vi-
sualization process — which is also an important part
of dive planning.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD
Additional Plan Elements

As circumstances dictate, there may be additional el-
ements to include in your plan — especially if you in-
tend to more than sightsee; examples may include:
■ Training activities.
■ Surveying.
■ Emergency skills practice.
■ Complex dive plans.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ The Direction component of your dive plan should
include:
Which entrance you will use (when more than
one is available).
Which jumps and gaps (if any) you will make,
and which direction you will head when doing so.
Any plans having to do with a circuit or traverse.
■ Additional elements in your plan may include:

Training activities.
Surveying.
Emergency skills practice.
Complex dive plans.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

The Team Diving Concept

Study Questions
■ What are three benefits of cave diving in
teams?
■ What is the ideal and the acceptable number of

members in a cave diving team, and why does
any more than this tend not to work?
■ Which team member establishes the limits for

the entire team?
As you have noticed thus far (and will continue to

see), planning and procedures for cave diving largely
assume you are following a team diving concept. This
means:
■ Dives are planned as a team and executed as a

team.
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■ Standard emergency procedures assume fellow

team members will be available to help.
Additionally, many dive sites allow only team diving.
Team Diving Benefits: There are, in fact, several (as

well as some potential drawbacks).
■ Buddies provide you with the one piece of equip-

ment you can’t duplicate on your own: a backup
brain. This helps in developing better dive plans,
and in seeing equipment
and other problems you may
not be able to see yourself
(trapped hoses, leaks, etc.).
Buddy confirmation also
helps ensure good decision
making under water.
■ Diving with others generally

encourages more respon-
sible behavior — but it can
also generate peer pressure
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

that encourages diving beyond an individual mem-

ber’s personal limits.
■ Repeatedly relying on one team member to per-

form a specific task can lead to a degradation of
skills among other team members. An example
would be a team leader whom others always rely
on to run reels.
■ Among the greatest benefits of team diving is the

number of people available to help in an emergen-
cy — especially one involving loss of breathing gas.
■ Diving with friends is just plain more fun.
The “Ideal” Team: What constitutes the ideal team?

■ Three persons is generally considered the ideal
team for cave diving, as it provides two people
to assist in an out-of-air emergency. Two person
teams can work as well, but team members will
need to compensate for the lack of additional gas
through gas matching.
■ Teams of four or more generally do not work.

The single-file nature of cave diving makes com-
munication and staying together difficult.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD
Four-person teams invariably break down into

two, two-person teams — or, worse, a three-
person team and a solo diver.
■ Team members need to have certain common-

sense compatibilities in terms of temperament, in-
terests, equipment, training, experience, etc.
■ Be aware that, in terms of equipment compatibil-

ity, it is increasingly common to see mixed teams
of backmount, sidemount and rebreather divers
(the implications here are discussed further in the
section on Emergency Procedures).
Important: Just as the team member with

the least starting gas volume deter-
mines the turnaround point for all
team members, the diver with the
least training and experience sets the
limit for the entire team.
■ As Inspector Calahan would say, “A man has got to

know his limitations.”
■ Remember, any team member can call the dive, at

any time, and for any reason.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Solo Diving: What about solo diving in caves?.

■ Although team diving is more prevalent, solo cave
diving is not uncommon.
■ Arguably, cave divers are better prepared and

equipped for solo diving than their open-water
counterparts.
■ Self-reliant divers also make the best team mem-
bers.
■ Solo cave diving is simply not allowed at some

sites (example: Florida State Parks).
■ Solo divers do not enjoy the benefits previously

outlined for team diving; by definition, this puts
solo divers at greater risk.
■ In so far as the chief benefit solo cave divers lose

is a redundant gas supply, they have to compen-
sate on an equipment level.
■ Back-mounting solo divers need to carry a bailout

or “buddy” bottle(s) capable of getting them out
from their maximum point of penetration. This is
standard equipment for CCR cave divers, whether
solo diving or not.
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■ The fact sidemount divers can manage their own

gas-system failures helps explain its increasing
popularity for solo and team divers alike.
■ There are a few, very limited circumstances in

which the benefits of solo diving may outweigh the
drawbacks.
■ Example: An advanced cave diver exploring a

very tight passageway would understandably
not want anyone blocking his ability to back out
of a tight spot.
■ It is important to remember that all cave diving

entails risk; there are no black-and-white rules you
can follow that will eliminate all risk.
■ If one chooses to participate in cave diving activi-

ties with greater risk factors (i.e., solo diving, vi-
sual jumps, “trust me” dives, etc.), you must, as a
minimum, take steps to mitigate those risks.
■ One thing is fairly certain, however: Solo diving is

not an appropriate activity for beginning cave divers.
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■ Team diving benefits may include:
Buddies provide you with a backup brain.
Diving with others generally encourages more
responsible behavior.
Among the greatest benefits of team diving is
having buddies available to help in an emergency.
Diving with friends is just plain more fun.
■ Three persons is generally considered the ideal

team for cave diving, as it provides two people to
assist in an out-of-air emergency.
■ Teams of four or more generally do not work.
■ Just as the team member with the least starting

gas volume determines the turnaround point for
all team members, the diver with the least training
and experience sets the limit for the entire team.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Few things would be worse than dying in a cave be-

cause you were missing a critical piece of equipment,
or an equipment item didn’t work properly. What
would make it so bad is the fact you’d have time to
think about the consequences of your stupidity be-
fore taking leave of the living.
To prevent this from happening, you do the same
thing as pilots do prior to taking off: You run check-
lists. There are checklists you run before even get-
ting wet, and checklists you run just prior to entering
the cave.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Before You Even Get Wet...

Study Questions
■ What are three different locations where cave
divers can and should conduct pre-dive checks,
and what are the steps to be followed at each?
■ What are the six questions to be answered as

part of an site assessment?
■ What is the one thing it is essential that divers

wearing back mounted cylinders do before
heading to the water?
The checklists you run before entering the water in-

clude ones you do before leaving home, ones you do
upon arrival at the dive site and ones you do while
setting up.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Before Leaving Home

Run a checklist of everything you will need. Inspect
items for damage and wear; fix or replace as need-
ed. Is equipment maintenance up to date?
Conduct a Site Assessment on Arrival

■ Are conditions conducive to diving?
Springs that are normally clear can reverse, be-
come siphons and suck in dark, tannic river wa-
ter.
Normally clear sink-
holes can develop algae
blooms during warmer
weather.
Water levels can rise or
fall, making sites inac-
cessible.
Have conditions changed
since your last visit?
■ What are the safest and

easiest entry/exit points and methods?
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Where is the best place to set up equipment?
■ How would you summon help, if needed? Many cave

sites are remote and lack cell phone coverage.
■ Where do you go to the john?
While Setting Up
Almost all experienced
cave divers have a cer-
tain way they lay out their
equipment when setting it
up on site.
■ Missing equipment will stand out by its absence.
■ Affords opportunity for final inspection.
■ Test backup lights and make sure they will not turn
on accidentally at depth.
■ Pressurize regulators, listen for leaks, test for

function.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Important: Do not head for the water

in back mounted cylinders unless both
regulators are turned on and readily
accessible. This way you are prepared
if you accidentally fall in while entering.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ Cave divers should conduct pre-dive checks:
Before leaving home (so nothing is left behind).
Just before entering the water (site assessment
and equipment check).
Just before descending (pre-dive buddy and
equipment checks).
■ The questions to answer during your site assess-

ment include:
Are conditions conducive to diving?
Have conditions changed since your last visit?
What are the safest and easiest entry/exit points
and methods?
Where is the best place to set up equipment?
How would you summon help, if needed?
Where do you go to the john?
■ One thing it is essential that divers wearing back-

mounted cylinders do before heading to the water
is to ensure that their manifold valves are turned
all the way on.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

In-Water Checks
Study Questions
■ What are two problems that can arise if divers
fail to test breathe their team mates’ primary
second stages prior to diving together?
■ Why should HID primary lights not be activated

until just before entering the cave?
Unlike technical deep diving from boats, most cave

diving sites afford the opportunity to perform a vari-
ety of checks in waist-deep or shallow water, prior to
entering the cave.
Among the things it is most important to check at
this point:
■ Are all manifold and sidemount bottle valves

turned all the way on?
■ Yes, we know you checked this before heading to

the water; now do it again.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Reaching back to check manifold turnwheel posi-

tion helps maintain the muscle memory needed to
shut down valves quickly in an emergency.
■ Breathe from all second stages while monitoring

SPGs.
■ Doing this with the second stages submerged will

help identify any second stages with a torn or de-
formed exhaust valve, diaphragm or mouthpiece.
SPG needles will move or bounce if you have ac-
cidentally turned off the corresponding valve.
Deco bottle and
any stage bottles
not being used at
the start of the
dive should be
turned off after
checking.
■ Is your long hose ready to be deployed quickly?
■ Is your dive computer(s) working and properly

set?
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Are any items trapped under hoses, cords or

straps?
■ Is anything missing?
■ Is the team carrying a sufficient number of reels

and spools?
After checking your own equipment, inspect that of

your team mates to make certain nothing is missing
or out of place.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ You should know how each of your team mates

stores and configures critical equipment items.
■ If back mounting, you should breathe from your

team mates’ long hoses before ever diving with
them to see:
Whether the mouthpiece will fit your mouth
comfortably.
Whether the second stage has any unusual
breathing characteristics you need to be aware
of before you have to breathe from it in an
emergency.
■ If you have not practiced actual gas-sharing proce-

dures with your buddies recently, do it now.
■ One of the most important aspects of inspecting

your team mates’ equipment is the bubble check.
Inspecting hoses, hose connections, first stages,
DIN connections and manifolds may help you
identify a potentially catastrophic failure before
it happens.
Fix any potential problems before the dive.
When in doubt, sit it out.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Even though you may have formulated your dive

plan ahead of time, this is a good time to review it
and make certain all team members understand and
agree on Sequence, Air, Depth, Duration, Distance
and Direction.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

The last thing to check is whether HID primary lights

will arc (turn on).
■ HID lights should not be turned on out of the wa-

ter.
■ Once activated, HID lights should be left on for the

duration of the dive.
Repeatedly turning HID lights on and off can de-
stroy expensive bulbs.
The act of simply turning an HID light on con-
sumes the equivalent of several minutes of bat-
tery “burn” time; do so only when necessary.
■ Waiting until the last minute to activate and test

HID lights helps conserve “burn” time.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ If back mounting, you should breathe from your
team mates’ long hoses before ever diving with
them to see:
Whether the mouthpiece will fit your mouth
comfortably.
Whether the second stage has any unusual
breathing characteristics you need to be aware
of before you have to breathe from it in an
emergency.
■ HID lights should not be turned on out of the wa-

ter. Once activated, HID lights should be left on for
the duration of the dive.
Repeatedly turning HID lights on and off can de-
stroy expensive bulbs.
The act of simply turning an HID light on con-
sumes the equivalent of several minutes of bat-
tery “burn” time; do so only when necessary.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

In this section, we’ll take a look at five different top-

ics. These are:
■ Buoyancy Control, Body Position and Propulsion

■ Guideline and Reel Use
■ Moving Through Caves
■ Communication
■ Deco Procedures for Cave Diving
When you think about, these five things define the

essence of what it is you do in underwater caves.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Buoyancy, Body Position, Propulsion

Study Questions
■ What is the ideal state of buoyancy for cave
diving?
■ How does making buoyancy adjustments in a

cave while diving dry differ from recreational
drysuit diving?
■ What is the ideal body position for cave diving

and what are its benefits?
■ What are the three primary propulsion

techniques used by cave divers and explain
the circumstances under which each may be
preferable?
Buoyancy Control: Cave diving requires utterly su-

perlative buoyancy control skills. These are critical
in helping to avoid deadly silt outs and important in
protecting the fragile cave environment.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Cave divers generally need to be neutrally buoyant

at all times, whether swimming or resting. An ex-
ception may exist when passing through some ex-
tremely high-flow passageways; in these instanc-
es, negative buoyancy may be required to gain
hand hold traction on the bottom.
■ Other than this, when a

cave diver stops swimming,
he should simply hover. If
you absolutely must rest on
something to deal with an
equipment issue, etc., look
for a large, well-used rock or
similar hard surface.
■ Remember that, unlike when

diving dry suits with light-
weight cylinders in open
water, most buoyancy adjustments will be ac-
complished by inflating/deflating the BC air cell as
needed.
■ Dry suits lack sufficient lift to offset the weight of

heavy doubles.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ You will generally keep just enough gas in your dry

suit to offset suit squeeze and maintain adequate
insulation; overinflated dry suits can be a problem.
■ Remember that, when ascending, you will need to
vent gas from both your BC air cell and dry suit.
■ As with deep technical diving, backup BC air cells
are only used in case of primary air cell failure;
many cave divers actually leave the inflator hose
to these air cells disconnected until needed.
Body Position: The ideal

body position for cave div-
ing is to have the knees and
shoulders in line with one
another, on the same hori-
zontal plane. Feet and fins should be well above this
plane. Benefits of good body position include:
■ Improves streamlining, efficiency of movement.
■ Helps avoid silting, guideline entanglement, envi-

ronmental damage.
Problems with maintaining ideal body position may

be solvable by adjusting/repositioning equipment.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Propulsion: Choosing the best propulsion technique

for a given set of circumstances involves a trade off
between what is most efficient and what is best for
the cave. When in doubt, preserving the cave takes
precedence. The most common propulsion tech-
niques include:
■ Modified Flut-
ter Kick: This
differs from a
standard flut-
ter or scissors
kick in that
the knees and
ankles remain
bent, and the
feet are well
above the
plane of the body. This is a good kick for covering
long distances in moderate or low flow.
■ Frog Kick: Best described by saying it looks ex-

actly like the name implies: you kick like a frog.
This is a good anti-silting kick. It is not good, how-
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

ever, around fragile formations. You can alternate

between a frog and modified flutter kick to avoid
cramping.
■ Pulling (“Pull and

Glide”): Pulling on
strategically select-
ed hand holds may
be the only effec-
tive way to move
in high flow. Pulling
carefully on existing hand holds may also be prefer-
able in tight passageways, regardless of flow, if do-
ing so helps you avoid fin contact with walls, floor
and ceiling. Avoid employing hand holds not previ-
ously used by others.
■ Alternate propulsion techniques.

Although pulling on guidelines is generally not
a good idea, a small number of high flow caves
may have sections with thicker-than-normal
guideline designed to be intentionally pulled on to
help avoid kicking or pulling on fragile formations.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Pushing on walls or ceilings with your feet is

generally unacceptable, except in a few, very
limited circumstances.

■ Cave divers generally need to be neutrally buoyant
at all times, whether swimming or resting.
■ Remember that, unlike when drysuit diving with

lightweight cylinders in open water, where you
maintain neutral buoyancy by keep suit volume
constant, most cave diving buoyancy adjustments
will be accomplished by inflating/deflating the BC
air cell as needed.
■ The ideal body position for cave diving is to have

the knees and shoulders in line with one another.
■ The benefits of good body position include:

Improves streamlining, efficiency of movement.
Helps avoid silting, guideline entanglement, envi-
ronmental damage.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ The three primary propulsion techniques for cave

divers are:
Modified Flutter Kick: Good for long distances in
moderate or low flow.
Frog Kick: Good anti-silting kick.
Pulling (“Pull and Glide”): May be the only effec-
tive way to move in high flow.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Guideline and Reel Use

Study Questions
■ What are the seven general principles that
apply to guideline and reel use?
■ What are the circumstances under which it

may or may not be necessary to run a primary
reel?
■ What are the steps involved in running a

primary reel?
■ What are the procedures for sharing primary

reels and why may doing so be beneficial?
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

General Principles
These include:
■ Buoyancy control takes precedence: Don’t get so

wrapped up in running the reel or interacting with
team mates that you lose control of buoyancy. At
any point you need to, stop and regain control of
your buoyancy before continuing with the reel.
■ Keep the guideline taut (stretched tight) at all

times: Maintaining tension on the guideline helps
prevent you and others from becoming entangled
in it (guideline entanglement being a significant
hazard).
If the guideline becomes slack, stop and tight-
en it before continuing. When reeling out, avoid
kicking; use the reel to pull yourself out (this will
help keep the guideline taut).
■ Do not hold the reel by the handle unless you

have a finger on the spool or a hand on the crank:
When tying off, hold the reel by the spool and not
by the handle. Doing so will help prevent the spool
from turning freely.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Visualize reel orientation: When reeling in to the

cave, the guide (guideline opening) should point be-
hind you. When reeling out of the cave, the guide
(guideline opening) should point in front of you.
■ Running reels is a team effort: Buddies can help by:

Providing illumination for the team leader (who
is the person running the reel) as needed.
Pulling tie-offs for the team leader on the way
out, if possible.
Not pulling placements on the way out, as this
may cause the line to go slack.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Assisting the team leader in removing the down-

stream end of temporary guidelines from where
they have been tied into permanent ones at
jumps or gaps.
Staying well out in front of a team leader who
is reeling out in high flow (so the team leader
won’t have to constantly stop to avoid running
into you — which might cause the line to go
slack).
Otherwise keeping hands off the guideline and
staying out of the way.
■ While running guidelines, be careful not to allow

the line to be pulled into
any potential line traps.
■ While running spools is

generally easier than run-
ning reels, many of the
same principles apply.
■ Think of others when running reels and spools.

Do not place guidelines in a manner that poses
a risk of entanglement to passers by; use place-
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

ments as needed to keep your guideline low to

the floor and out of the way of others.
Do not use another team’s tie offs and place-
ments, or cross another team’s line. If you ab-
solutely must cross another team’s line, do so
underneath so that they will have less difficulty
pulling their line.
Run your line in such a manner that it makes
it easy for other teams to run their line parallel
to yours (don’t zigzag your line back and forth
across the passageway).
Do not disturb another team’s stage deco bottles
or other equipment.
Running Primary Reels

You need to install a primary reel any time the main
line does not run all the way to a safe exit point; do-
ing so will most likely involve:
■ Primary tie offs.

■ Secondary tie offs.
■ Additional tie offs — or, more likely, placements.
■ Tying into permanent guidelines.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

So what is involved in each of these steps?
■ A primary tie off consists of two wraps around a

solid object. Open-ended objects are preferable,
as these make it easier to “pull” the tie off at the
end of the dive. A primary tie off in open water is
theoretically ideal, however, if you think there is a
possibility you may return to find the primary tie
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

off in water with little or no visibility, it is better to

just start by tying off at the surface.
Please Note: If running a guideline through

a narrow, high-flow entrance (in clear wa-
ter), you may be better off making your
primary tie off just inside the entrance,
rather than expose others to the risk of
entanglement in your guideline. While you
should run a primary reel any time do-
ing so could be essential to safety, bear in
mind that running any reel when it is not
really necessary just causes environmental
damage and exposes others to the risk of
entanglement in your guideline.
■ Secondary tie offs serve as a back up to the pri-

mary tie off and are made just inside the cave en-
trance. Secondary tie offs consist of two wraps
and a locking loop. They are best made on open-
ended objects to facilitate removal.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Note: Avoid making any other tie offs;

however, if you absolutely must, use just
a single wrap. Other than the primary and
secondary tie offs, it is preferable to con-
trol the guideline by using placements
(tucking or placing the line next to an ob-
ject, as opposed to wrapping an object), as
these “pull” themselves on the way out.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Tying Into the Permanent Guideline: To help keep

the guideline taut, stop just short of the perma-
nent guideline and lock your reel down Stretch the
temporary and permanent guidelines so that your
can pull them together, then wrap the reel around
the permanent guideline twice. Snap the reel clip
back on the temporary guideline so that, if you
have to come out in zero or near-zero visibility,
you will know the snap always points to the exit.
If possible, tie into the permanent guideline just
downstream of the last line arrow. Doing so helps
eliminate confusion in low visibility as to which way
is really out.
Try to tie into the permanent guideline in as close

to a 90-degree angle as possible. You may need to
make a placement to accomplish this. Doing so may
be essential to avoid other teams’ reels.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Sharing Primary Reels

In so far as the risk of environmental damage and
guideline entanglement increases in proportion to
the number of reels in
place, it is a good idea for
multiple teams to share a
single reel whenever pos-
sible.
■ The most important

part of sharing reels is that all teams must agree
to do so ahead of time, as well as on the proce-
dure that will be followed.
■ Remember than many primary reels look alike;

therefore, it is a good idea to mark your primary
reel in a distinctive manner. Whether sharing reels
or not, this will help ensure that another team does
not pull your reel by accident. When sharing reels,
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

it is important that the other team(s) be able to

recognize the reel placed by the first team in.
Reel Sharing, Method 1: Works as follows:

■ The first team in installs the primary reel in the
normal manner, but does not mark the temporary
guideline in any way.
■ The second team in places their own distinctive-

ly marked line arrow, clothespin or cookie on the
temporary guideline, next to the primary reel.
■ The first team back to the reel (and this could be

either team) pulls the line arrow, clothespin or
cookie.
■ The team that returns to the reel and finds no

temporary marker in place pulls the reel.
■ Note that this method works best with just two

teams.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Reel Sharing, Method 2: Works as follows:

■ The first team in installs the primary reel in the
normal manner, and places their own distinctive-
ly marked line arrow, clothespin or cookie on the
temporary guideline, next to the primary reel.
■ Each subsequent team also places their own dis-

tinctive marker on the guideline, next to that of
the other teams.
■ As each team returns to the reel, they pull their

marker (and only their marker).
■ The last team to pull its marker also pulls the reel.
■ This method can work for more than two teams,

and also reduces confusion over who is and is not
supposed to place a marker (because every team
is), as well as confusion over whose marker each
team is supposed to pull (as every team pulls just
their own).
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Using Reels to Explore Off the Guideline

There are often large areas in caves which have no
permanent guidelines. You can explore these ar-
eas with relative safety by tying into the permanent
guideline with a primary or other reel, and then us-
ing the reel to explore the open area. If you choose
to do so, it is important you tie your reel into a line
arrow (putting one in place if none is already there),
as doing so helps ensure:
■ The temporary guideline won’t slip back and forth

along the permanent one.
■ The direction of the exit from the intersection you

have created is clearly marked.
Using reels and spools to make jumps and gaps,

or to look for lost team members or guidelines, is
something we will cover shortly.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ The seven general principles of guideline and reel
use:
Buoyancy control takes precedence.
Keep the guideline taut at all times.
Do not hold the reel by the handle unless you
have a finger on the spool or a hand on the
crank.
Visualize reel orientation.
Running a reel is a team effort; buddies can and
should help.
Do not to allow the line to be pulled into any po-
tential line traps.
Think of others when running reels and spools.
■ If running a guideline through a narrow, high-flow

entrance (in clear water), you may be better off
making your primary tie off just inside the en-
trance, rather than expose others to the risk of
entanglement in your guideline.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Conversely, when there is poor visibility at the en-

trance (or when there is a risk of visibility loss
while in the cave), the only way you can ensure
your guideline will get you back to the surface is to
tie it off at the surface.
■ Steps in running a primary reel include:

Make a primary tie off at a safe exit point.
Make a secondary tie off just inside the cave en-
trance.
Avoid making any other tie offs unless absolute-
ly necessary.
If need be, use placements to control line.
Tie into the permanent line at as close to a 90-
degree angle as possible.
■ Methods for sharing a primary reel include:

First team in runs the reel; second team in
marks the reel with a line arrow, clothespin or
cookie. First team out pulls the marker; second
team out pulls the reel.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Each team marks the reel with their own distinc-

tive marker. The last team to pull a marker on
the way out also pulls the reel.
■ When sharing reels, it’s important that:

The procedure is agreed upon and understood
by all teams ahead of time.
The reel itself is distinctively marked to avoid
confusion.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Moving Through Caves

Study Questions
■ What are the procedures for dealing with high
flow and little or no flow?
■ What are the steps team members can take to

maintain team cohesion and avoid separation?
■ What is back referencing and why it is

important?
■ Which team generally has the right of way

when traveling in opposite directions?
Negotiating High Flow: Remember that flow is gen-

erally strongest in the center of a conduit.
■ When going against the current, hug the walls,

ceiling or floor as needed to avoid the strongest
flow. High flow usually means little or no silt; this
means you may be able to get away with being a
little further away from the guideline than usual (if
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

doing so gets you out of the current) — just don’t

risk losing track of the line.
■ When going with the current, stay in the center of

the conduit so that the flow gives you the greatest
possible “push.”
■ Use the least strenuous propulsion technique (gen-

erally pulling).
■ Remember that you may need slight negative

buoyancy to gain traction when pulling on loose,
rocky floors.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Negotiating Little or No Flow: Little or no flow gen-

erally means more silt.
■ You will want to stay closer to the guideline than

usual in high silt areas — typically within arm’s
reach.
■ You may need to maintain an even higher level of

guideline awareness.
Keep the guideline
in sight at all times.
Be aware of guide-
lines that hug ceil-
ings, make sud-
den turns, etc., as
these can be easily lost.
■ If visibility begins to deteriorate, do not hesitate to

make physical contact with the guideline (“OK the
line”) until things improve.
■ Match your propulsion technique to conditions. You

may need to use a frog kick or pull carefully on es-
tablished hand holds while keeping your fins per-
fectly still.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Maintaining Team Cohesion: Which is important be-

cause:
■ Team members need to remain in close proximity

to one another in order to:
Avoid separation.
Communicate effectively.
Respond to emergencies.
■ How far apart will depend on conditions; however,

as one cave diver said, “No further apart (as mea-
sured in time) than it takes to deploy my long hose
while swimming to you as fast as I can.”
■ One commonly used rule is no more than three

body lengths apart.
■ You should periodically cover your light to make

sure you can clearly see the light of the diver be-
hind you shining on the floor beneath you or the
walls next to you.
■ Do not, however, slow things down by constantly

asking fellow team members to stop and “Okay”
one another.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

There are times when it is appropriate to do so,

such as before making jumps or passing through
restrictions, however...
If the team is moving along smoothly and no
one appears to be having any problems, why
slow things down? Remember that every time
you stop unnecessarily, you increase the poten-
tial for silting and cave damage.
■ Don’t be afraid to ask

other team members to
slow down.
■ You want to move

through the cave effi-
ciently — but not at the
expense of added stress
or exhaustion.
■ The team member in the lead (going in or out)

should take primary responsibility in making sure
other team members are aware of a change in di-
rection at intersections or sharp bends in the lines.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ This is especially important at “blind” intersections

or tees, where one of the lines may be obscured
by rocks, formations or walls.You can further help
avoid this problem by making certain, going in,
that the line you do not want to take during your
exit is marked with a line arrow that points the
way you do want to go.
Back Referencing: As you move into the cave, peri-

odically look over your shoulder to establish a mental
picture of what the cave will look like on the way out.
■ This is especially important at jumps, gaps and

tees.
■ Remember that the guideline is there primarily to

back up your own mental picture of which way is
out; it should not be your sole means of naviga-
tion.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Right of Way: The exiting team, by default, has the

right of way. They are the team with less air, less re-
maining bottom time (or a decompression obligation
they may be trying to minimize). The exiting team
may even be dealing with a severe problem or emer-
gency.
Be prepared to temper this general rule with com-

mon sense. Even though yours is the exiting team,
you may still want to give way to task-loaded teams;
examples might include:
■ Teams running reels.

■ Teams burdened by stage bottles and/or DPVs.
■ Teams fighting to negotiate a narrow opening in
high flow.
You can further avoid problems by striving to not

block entrances, restrictions or other potential bot-
tlenecks — or shining lights in others’ eyes.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ Flow is generally strongest in the center of a con-
duit.
■ When going against the current, hug the walls,

ceiling or floor as needed to avoid the strongest
flow
■ When going with the current, stay in the center of
the conduit so that the flow gives you the greatest
possible “push.”
■ Little or no flow generally means more silt.

Stay closer to the guideline than usual.
Keep the guideline in sight at all times.
Be aware of guidelines that hug ceilings, make
sudden turns, etc., as these can be easily lost.
If visibility begins to deteriorate, make physical
contact with the guideline.
Match your propulsion technique to conditions.
Remain close together.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Periodically cover your light to make sure you can

see the light of the person behind you.
Don’t be afraid to tell others to slow down.
It is the team leader’s responsibility to ensure
other team members are aware of changes in
direction and that all team members are on the
exit side of an intersection before pulling the
reel.
■ Back referencing is periodically look over your

shoulder to establish a mental picture of what the
cave will look like on the way out. This helps you
avoid depending solely on the guideline to get you
out.
■ The exiting team, by default, has the right of way.

They are the team with less air, less remaining
bottom time (or a decompression obligation they
may be trying to minimize).
The exiting team may even be dealing with a se-
vere problem or emergency.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Communication
Study Questions
■ What are the three command signals and what
is their significance?
■ What are two additional light signals and what

■ What are ten additional hand signals and what

■ What are two additional methods of cave

communication that do not involve light or
hand signals?
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Command (Demand-Response) Signals: These are

signals that require a very specific response which
must be answered by all team members and include:
■ Okay? Okay! This can be either a light signal or

a hand signal. You make a light Okay by point-
ing your light in the same direction as your team
members are looking and moving it in a circle. You
can also use the standard hand Okay; however,
your team mates must already be looking in your
direction, and you must illuminate your hand with
your light.
The first team member to initiate this signal is
asking, Are you okay? or Is it okay to proceed?
Team members who respond in kind are saying,
Yes I am okay, or Yes it is okay to continue.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

If a team member is not okay, or does not agree

to proceed, you need to either identify and rec-
tify the problem (getting a final Okay from all
team members that things are now truly re-
solved), or call the dive.
If the team member at either end of a three-
person team asks the person in the middle Are
you okay?, the middle team member should con-
firm that the person at the opposite end of the
team is also okay before answering back affir-
matively.
■ Stop (Hold): This hand signal

is made by shining a light on
your raised, closed fist. The
person initiating this signal
is telling his team mates to
stop; by returning the same
signal, the team mates sig-
nify that they are agreeing to
stop.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Note that an Okay is not an acceptable re-

sponse to this signal. As with all command
signals, team mates must respond with the
exact same signal to indicate agreement
and show that there is no confusion. Once
the situation is resolved, a mutual Okay
signal will indicate the team can proceed
— otherwise it is time to call the dive.
■ Surface (Call the Dive): This hand signal is made

by shining a light on a hand displaying the tradi-
tional “thumbs up” Surface signal.
As with all command signals, each team mem-
ber needs to respond with the exact same signal
to signify agreement.
The Surface signal means the dive is over; it is
time to proceed directly to the exit, without any
side trips or significant delays.
Remember that the golden rule of cave diving is,
any diver can call any dive, at any time, for any
reason.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Other Light Signals: These include Attention and

Emergency!
■ Attention: Before you can use any hand signal, you

must first get your team mates’ attention; this is
how you do so:
The Attention signal is made by moving your
light beam back and forth (or up and down)
slowly, in a relatively narrow arc.
Obviously, your light must be pointed in the
same direction as your team mates are looking.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Emergency! The Emergency! signal is made by

moving your light beam back and forth rapidly, in a
wide arc.
Bear in mind that, while there are several prob-
lems that might require team mates’ atten-
tion, the most likely emergency is being without
air. If you think you see the Emergency! signal,
look for a confirming Out of Air! signal and start
moving toward the affected buddy while prepar-
ing to deploy your long hose.
Other possible situations that might cause you
to use or see an Emergency! signal are getting
stuck or entangled.
It is sometimes difficult to tell Attention and
Emergency! apart. Don’t be surprised if a team
member was just having difficulty getting your
attention and started moving his light faster.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Line Signals: Signals pertaining specifically to guide-

line and reel use.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Other Hand Signals: Often the same as their recre-

ational counterparts.
Slates/Wet Notes: Used when light or

hand signals will not suffice (although
this is rare). It’s important to remem-
ber that communicating this way will
require team members to stop and not
be as focused on buoyancy control, movement, etc.
Thus, doing this more often than is absolutely neces-
sary can lead to silting and environmental damage.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Touch-Contact and “Bump and Go:” These are com-

munication methods used to avoid buddy separation
during loss of visibility or loss-of-air situations. Their
use is covered in the section on Emergency Proce-
dures.

■ The three command signals are:
Okay.
Surface (“Call” the Dive).
Hold.
■ Other light signals include:

The Attention signal is made by moving your
light beam back and forth (or up and down)
slowly, in a relatively narrow arc.
The Emergency! signal is made by moving your
light beam back and forth rapidly, in a wide arc.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Additional hand signals common used by cave div-

ers include:
Tie off.
Reel out.
Entanglement.
Cut the line.
Silt.
Question?
Bubbles.
Backup light.
Stuck!
Slow down.
■ Additional means of communication include:

Slates/Wet Notes: Rarely used — and only when
no other means of communication will suffice.
Touch Contact/Bump-and-Go: A means of com-
municating and maintaining team cohesion in
zero visibility.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Deco Procedures for Cave Diving

Study Question
■ What are three ways in which decompression
diving in caves may differ from decompression
diving in open water?
Decompression procedures for cave diving are large-

ly the same as they are for technical deep diving.
Some notable exceptions are:
■ Deco bottles can be staged at or near the cave

entrance, and do not have to be carried through-
out the dive. Bear in mind, however, that the cave
configuration may require you to stage some deco
bottles deeper than they can safely be used.
■ Decompression for nearly all but the most ad-

vanced cave dives is done using pure oxygen at 3-
6 m/10-20 ft.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ It would be unusual to use a stage bottle with a

higher concentration of oxygen to increase no-stop
time (or reduce eventual decompression time) in
shallower portions of the cave — although it does
happen.
■ As mentioned
earlier, there
are a very small
number of situ-
ations in which
divers might
need to decom-
press during the
dive itself, before safely negotiating a very shallow
portion of an otherwise deep cave. Such situations
are to be avoided, as these greatly complicate
both the planning and execution of dives — not to
mention greatly increasing risk factors.
■ Very deep caves may require multiple decompres-

sion mixtures, just as a technical deep dive in
open water could. Such dives would be considered
very advanced, even by cave diving standards.
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There are many, many caves to be explored that

require little or no decompression; a new cave
diver could, quite literally, make hundreds of dives
before having to do such decompression in order
to see new cave passageway.

■ Decompression procedures for cave diving often
differ from those for technical deep diving.
■ Deco bottles can be staged at or near the cave en-

trance, and do not have to be carried throughout
the dive.
■ Decompression for nearly all but the most ad-
vanced cave dives is done using pure oxygen at 3-
6 m/10-20 ft.
■ There are a very small number of situations in
which divers might need to decompress during the
dive itself, before safely negotiating a very shallow
portion of an otherwise deep cave.
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In this section we look at finding your way around

the cave — beyond simply getting on a guideline and
following it. Topics we will cover include:
■ Simple Navigation
■ Complex Navigation
■ Questionable Navigation Practices
■ Using Cave Maps
Some of these are widely accepted practices. Others

are controversial. You need to be aware of all these
practices and their associated risks and benefits.
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Simple Navigation
Study Questions
■ What does the term linear dive mean and what
are four potential benefits such dives may offer
over more complex cave navigation?
■ What is the difference between jumps and

gaps?
■ What are some common conventions used in

marking jumps on permanent guidelines?
■ What is the procedure for making a gap?
■ What is the procedure for making a jump?
■ What is the procedure for negotiating tees?
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Linear Dives: These are dives in which divers return

to their original entrance along the exact same route
as they used to enter. They are by far the most com-
mon type of cave navigation and the only type of
cave dive that any diver really needs to do. Linear
dives offer several benefits over more complex dive
plans.
■ Simplicity means fewer opportunities for confusion,

errors.
■ Linear dives provide the opportunity for divers to

familiarize themselves with how passageways ap-
pear going in both directions.
■ Less temptation to do “visual” jumps or gaps, as

doing so will not save the need to make additional
dives to retrieve reels later.
■ Linear dives may actually provide the opportunity

to see more new cave passageway than an equal
number of complex dives would.
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Gap and Jump Definitions and Line Markings: Re-

viewing what was discussed earlier:
■ A gap is when divers make a connection between

the ends of two permanent guidelines (typically
joining the upstream and downstream lines at a
sinkhole or cenote).
■ A jump is when divers make a connection between

the middle of a permanent guideline and the mid-
dle or end of another.
■ Popular jumps are generally marked by two line

arrows positioned roughly one handspan apart.
■ Less popular jumps may be marked by a single line

arrow — or none at all.
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Making Gaps: Making a gap is something that should

be planned for and agreed upon by all team mem-
bers ahead of time.
■ To make a gap, the team leader should use a reel

or spool to tie into the end of the first guideline —
ideally between the last line arrow and the end of
the line. Keep in mind the points discussed earlier
regarding being considerate of other teams.
■ Tie into the next permanent guideline exactly as

you would if running a primary reel.
■ Upon returning, the team leader pulls the reel or

spool only after all other team members have gone
ahead of him and are on the exit side of the gap,
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

so that no one gets left behind without a continu-

ous guideline.
■ The next-to-last team member can assist the team

leader by providing illumination and helping with
reel/spool removal at the end of the first line.
■ If the ends of both guidelines terminate at an en-

trance (i.e., meet the criteria for a “safe exit”) it is
technically not necessary to run a reel for safety;
however, doing so will help ensure that the team
has no difficulty finding the return line on their exit
and thus avoid being stuck in an open sinkhole or
cenote.
Making Jumps: As with gaps, making a jump is

something that should be planned for and agreed
upon by all team members ahead of time.
■ As the team approaches the planned jump, the

team leader can save time by having a jump reel
or spool out and ready.
■ Before installing any reels, it is a good idea to get

an Okay from all team members to confirm that
this is, in fact, the right jump.
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■ If the jump is marked by two line arrows:

Tie in between the two line arrows if no other
reels are present.
If the space between the line arrows is already
occupied by another team’s reel, tie directly into
one of the two line arrows.
If both line arrows are occupied, add your own
line arrow and tie into it.
■ If the jump is marked by a single line arrow, tie di-

rectly into it.
■ If there is no line arrow, put one of your own on

the line and tie into it (remember that it, too, must
point to the closest exit).
■ If you later plan to exit the cave in a direction oth-

er than the one indicated by the line arrows, place
a nondirectional marker (clothespin or cookie) on
the guideline, on the side of the intersection you
intend to go. Retrieve it when you exit.
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■ The reel or spool is then run in the normal fash-

ion across the intervening space. Keep in mind the
points discussed earlier regarding being consider-
ate of other teams.
■ Tie into the offshoot line exactly as you would if

running a primary reel.
■ Upon returning, the team leader pulls the reel or

spool only after all other team members have gone
ahead of him and are on the exit side of the jump,
so that no one gets left behind without a continu-
ous guideline.
■ The next-to-last team member can assist the team

leader by providing illumination and helping with
reel/spool removal at the intersection.
Tees: Tees are negotiated in much the same manner

as jumps — the primary difference being that you
don’t run a reel or spool.
■ As with jumps, it is a good idea to get an Okay

from team members regarding the direction you
intend to go.
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Important: If the exit side of the tee

is not already clearly and securely
marked with a line arrow, put one in
place and leave it there for others.
■ If you later plan to exit the cave in a direction oth-

er than the one indicated by the line arrow, place a
nondirectional marker (clothespin or cookie) on the
guideline on the side of the intersection you intend
to go. Retrieve it when you exit.
■ Many divers elect to mark the direction they plan

to return with a clothespin or cookie, regardless of
whether the line arrow points in that direction or
not.
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■ Linear dives are those in which divers return to
their original entrance along the exact same route
as they used to enter. Their benefits include:
Simplicity means fewer opportunities for confu-
sion, errors.
Linear dives provide the opportunity for divers
to familiarize themselves with how passageways
appear going in both directions.
There is less temptation to do “visual” jumps or
gaps.
Linear dives may actually provide the opportu-
nity to see more new cave passageway than an
equal number of complex dives would.
■ A gap is when divers make a connection between

the ends of two permanent guidelines.
■ A jump is when divers make a connection between

the middle of a permanent guideline and the mid-
dle or end of another.
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■ Popular jumps are generally marked by two line

arrows pointing in the same direction.
■ Less popular jumps may be marked by a single line

arrow — or none at all.
■ To make a gap:
The team leader should use a reel or spool to tie
into the end of the first permanent guideline.
He then ties into the next permanent guideline
exactly as you would if running a primary reel.
Upon returning, the team leader pulls the reel or
spool only after all other team members are on
the exit side of the gap.
■ To make a jump:
The team leader should use a reel or spool to
tie into or between line arrows on the starting
guideline.
He then ties into the next permanent guideline
exactly as you would if running a primary reel.
Upon returning, the team leader pulls the reel or
spool only after all other team members are on
the exit side of the jump.
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■ Tees are negotiated in much the same manner as

jumps (but without using a reel or spool).
If the exit side of the tee is not already clearly
and securely marked with a line arrow, put one
in place and leave it there for others.
If you later plan to exit the cave in a direction
other than the one indicated by the line arrow,
place a nondirectional marker (clothespin or
cookie) on the guideline on the side of the inter-
section you intend to go.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Complex Navigation
Study Questions
■ What do the terms complex navigation, circuit
and traverse mean?
■ What are several potential drawbacks

associated with complex navigation?
■ What do the terms set-up dive and point of no

return mean?
■ What are the procedures for making circuits

and traverses, including set-up dives,
completion dives and, if necessary, clean-up
dives?
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

What is Complex Navigation? A dive involving com-

plex navigation is any one that does not meet the
criteria discussed earlier for a linear dive, such as
traverses and circuits.
■ A traverse is when divers en-

ter at one cave entrance but
exit at another.
■ A circuit is when divers en-

ter and exit at the same cave
entrance, but do not retrace
their exact route back to that
entrance from the turnaround
point.
Degrees of Complexity: Complex navigation entails

more risk than simple navigation; this risk is general-
ly in direct proportion to the complexity of the dive.
■ The most complex dives involve multiple jumps

and/or gaps.
■ Less complex dives may involve just one or two

jumps and/or gaps.
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■ The simplest circuits and traverses are those that

can be completed before any team member reach-
es his turnaround point on air.
Please Note: While every cave diver should

understand the theory behind making cir-
cuits and traverses, there is no reason to
feel you are somehow obligated to actually
make such dives.
Risks and Hazards: There can be

some fairly significant drawbacks
to making circuits and traverses,
including:
■ There are more opportunities for confusion, errors.
■ Complex dives do not necessarily provide the op-

portunity for divers to familiarize themselves with
how passageways appear going in both directions.
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■ Complex dives are generally not the most efficient

way to explore caves.
Two linear dives that crisscross the same area
that could be covered during a circuit or traverse
may enable divers to actually see more unex-
plored cave than they would otherwise.
Circuits and traverses may require that divers
make additional dives (beyond the set-up and
completion dives) to install or retrieve reels.
Complex dives increase the temptation to make
“visual” jumps or gaps, in order to save the need
to make additional dives to retrieve reels later.
Complex dives may also require that teams
leave a certain number of reels/spools in the
cave between dives; this can inconvenience or
interfere with the plans of others.
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Set-Up Dives: Unless a circuit

or traverse can be completed
before any team member hits
“thirds” (gas turnaround), it will
require at least one set-up dive.
■ A set-up dive is one in which

team members install any
reels and/or spools they will need when completing
the circuit or traverse, as well as mark the point of
no return.
The point of no return is simply the point at
which the first team member hit his gas turn-
around point during the set-up dive.
This point should be marked with a distinctive
marker, such as a cookie with one of the team
member’s initials on it.
The significance of this marker is that team
members will know that, should they reach the
marker while coming from the opposite direc-
tion, before reaching “thirds,” they should have
sufficient gas to make it safely to the original
exit.
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Bear in mind, however, this point of no return

will only work if team members use cylinders
that are equal or greater in starting volume on
their completion dive as they did on their set-up
dive.
■ Additional considerations.
In so far as any reels left in the cave between
dives may inconvenience others, the completion
dive should be planned to take place as soon af-
ter the set-up dive as possible.
It is not acceptable to litter the guideline with
personal “hero” markers in anticipation of the
fact you might one day return to complete a cir-
cuit or traverse.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Making a Traverse:
■ As with all complex dives, a traverse needs to be
thoroughly discussed and reviewed by team mem-
bers ahead of time. Unless team members are al-
ready familiar with the route being covered, refer
to maps and talk to other divers to gain more in-
formation.
The set-up dive will
proceed in the same
manner as a linear
dive, with the excep-
tion that:
The team will mark
the point of no return, as discussed previously.
Any reels or spools will be left in place for the
team to pull during the completion dive.
■ During the completion dive:

The team may need to install additional reels
or spools, as needed, on their way to the point
of no return. Recalling the earlier discussion on
Sequence, the team will need to decide ahead
of time whether the same team member will
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD
remain in the lead during the entire dive, or

whether the team will reverse sequence at the
point of no return.
The last person to pass the point of no return
should also pull the team’s distinctive marker.
Whichever team member is in the back, once
the team passes the point of no return, will be
responsible for pulling any reels installed during
the set-up dive.
■ If required, the team will need to make one more

dive to retrieve any reels installed during the com-
pletion dive; this is known as a clean-up dive.
■ Note that if the traverse can be completed be-

fore any team member hits “thirds,” the team may
elect to return to their starting point, making the
two traverses, in effect, the equivalent of one sin-
gle linear dive.
■ Don’t forget the logistical necessity of having a ve-

hicle or some other means of getting back to your
starting point waiting for you when you complete
your traverse.
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Making a Circuit: The pro-

cedure for making a circuit
is largely the same as it
is for making a traverse;
the chief difference is that
the team will be using
the same entrance to en-
ter and exit the cave. Note that if the circuit can be
completed before any team member hits “thirds,” the
team may elect to either retrace their original route
(making it, in effect, a linear dive), or just complete
it as a circuit. If the team anticipates completing the
circuit before hitting “thirds,” they should have a reel
or spool installed and waiting for them at the circuit’s
end.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Additional Considerations: Although making a cir-

cuit or traverse is an interesting intellectual exercise
(which some divers genuinely enjoy), doing so is in
no way essential to the exploration or enjoyment of
caves.
■ Complex dives increase risk while not providing

any real benefits other than, possibly, enjoyment.
■ Complex dive plans can easily end up inconve-

niencing others by tying up guideline real estate at
jumps or gaps.
■ Installing reels and spools when not absolutely

necessary (such as might be required by a com-
plex dive plan) causes additional damage to the
cave, no matter how minute.
■ Beginning cave divers, in particular, have no com-

pelling reason to be making anything other than
the simplest circuits or traverses (i.e., those which
can be completed within “thirds”).
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Before planning any complex dive, ask yourself:

Is this really necessary?
Do the benefits outweigh the risks?
Is this kind of dive really within the limits of my
abilities — and those of my team mates?
■ Any time you make a circuit or traverse that cov-

ers unfamiliar territory, you owe it to yourself to
make a subsequent dive in which you see what the
passageway you previously explored only in one
direction looks like going both ways. Of course, at
this point you are making a third or fourth dive to
accomplish what you could have easily done with
just two linear dives.
■ When in doubt, stick with linear dives.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ A dive involving complex navigation is any one that
does not meet the criteria discussed earlier for a
linear dive, such as traverses and circuits.
■ A traverse is when divers enter at one cave en-

trance but exit at another.
■ A circuit is when divers enter and exit at the same
cave entrance, but do not retrace their exact route
back to that entrance from the turnaround point.
■ There can be some fairly significant drawbacks to

making circuits and traverses, including:
More opportunities for confusion, errors.
May not provide the opportunity for divers to fa-
miliarize themselves with how passageways ap-
pear going in both directions.
Complex dives are generally not the most effi-
cient way to explore caves.
Complex dives increase the temptation to make
“visual” jumps or gaps.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Complex dives may also require that teams incon-

venience others by leaving reels and spools in the
cave between dives.
■ A set-up dive is one in which team members install

any reels and/or spools they will need when com-
pleting the circuit or traverse, as well as mark the
point of no return.
■ The point of no return is simply the point at which

the first team member hit his gas turnaround point
during the set-up dive.
■ During a set-up dive:

The team will mark the point of no return, as
discussed previously.
Any reels or spools will be left in place for the
team to pull during the completion dive.
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■ During the completion dive:

The team may need to install additional reels or
spools, as needed, on their way to the point of
no return.
The last person to pass the point of no return
should also pull the team’s distinctive marker.
Whichever team member is in the back, once
the team passes the point of no return, will be
responsible for pulling any reels installed during
the set-up dive.
■ If required, the team will need to make one more

dive to retrieve any reels installed during the com-
pletion dive; this is known as a clean-up dive.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Questionable Navigation Practices

Study Question
■ What are the risks and hazards associated with
“visual” jumps/gaps and “trust me” dives, and
what factors would have to be present to at
least somewhat mitigate these risks?
Some navigation practices are questionable in terms

of safety. Some experts say these are things you
should never do. Other experts say these are things
you should never do — while regularly doing these
things themselves.
The obvious hypocrisy notwithstanding, “visual”
gaps and jumps, and “trust me” dives, are something
to be aware of. While clearly inappropriate activities
for beginning cave divers, should you some day de-
cide that the benefits of such practices may outweigh
the risks, you a need a clear understanding of what
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

these risks are — and of the extent you would need

to go to even partially offset those risks.
“Visual” Gaps and Jumps

A “visual” is a jump
or gap made with-
out installing a reel
or spool. Although
making this sort
of jump or gap ap-
pears to violate one
of the most funda-
mental rules of ac-
cident analysis, the fact remains it is something you
will see many highly experienced cave divers (includ-
ing many instructors) do. The question is, is it some-
thing you should be doing?
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Failure to maintain a continuous guide-

line to a safe exit is the number one di-
rect cause of recreational diver fatalities in
caves. Its role in certified cave diver fatali-
ties is less clear. If anything, it is perhaps
more likely to be a contributing cause (part
of a chain of events) rather than a direct
cause.
Divers make visual jumps and gaps for both positive

and negative reasons. Negative reasons include:
■ Laziness.
■ Lack of competence in running reels and spools.
■ Failure to grasp the risks associated with doing so.
Less-than-negative reasons for doing so include:
■ Convenience.
■ A desire to protect the cave from the damage as-

sociated with running reels/spools.
■ A desire to not inconvenience others.
■ A desire to protect others from a potential source

of entanglement.
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■ A desire to keep
certain little known
and highly frag-
ile sections of the
cave hidden from
others.
■ A desire to save the time and gas that would other-

wise be expended installing reels/spools and, thus,
keep more of both in reserve for emergencies.
Divers sometimes make visual jumps or gaps by ac-

cident because they weren’t paying sufficient atten-
tion to the guideline.
What to do when this happens is covered

in the section on emergency procedures.
The best way to deal with any such emer-
gency, though, is to prevent it by maintain-
ing a high level of guideline awareness.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Assuming, for the moment, that one could justify

making visual jumps and gaps, what sort of factors
would have to be present to mitigate the added risk?
■ All team members would have to be not only very

experienced cave divers, but extremely familiar
with the intersection being “visualed,” having per-
sonally run reels or spools there numerous times.
■ The distance involved would have to be relatively

short — say, little more than the distance a team
member would normally be away from a guideline
he was following.
■ The risk of a catastrophic loss of visibility at that

intersection would have to be all but nonexistent.
■ Nevertheless, all team members would have to be

highly confident in their ability to find their way
quickly from one guideline to the other in little or
no visibility.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

About the only certainty concerning the practice of

making visual jumps or gaps is that they are some-
thing no beginning cave diver should even consider.
If you want to be absolutely certain you never die in
a cave because you lacked a continuous guideline to
a safe exit, never go without one.
“Trust Me” Dives

A “trust me” dive is
one in which the team
leader acts as a guide,
compensating for other
team members’ lack of
familiarity with a par-
ticular cave system,
and conducts a dive
that involves visual jumps and/or “blind” circuits and
traverses.
■ The concerns with visual jumps/gaps have already

been discussed.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ A “blind” circuit or traverse is one in which the

team relies on the leader to tell them where the
point of no return is (or they simply assume they
will recognize it, without actually having estab-
lished it by making a set-up dive).
Despite the obvious risk factors involved, “trust me”

dives are not entirely without merit.
■ They can help to increase divers’ overall familiarity

with a particular cave — in fact, such increased fa-
miliarity may be a helpful when lost.
■ “Trust me” dives can be a lot of fun, and very ex-

citing (just not always in the way one would want).
Assuming again, for the moment, that there were

circumstances in which one could justify participating
in a “trust me” dive, what factors would need to be
present to mitigate the risk?
■ The knowledge, experience and judgement of the

team leader/guide would have to be beyond ques-
tion — particularly as it pertains to the dive being
planned.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ The team members would need to clearly under-

stand all aspects of the dive plan, so that nothing
comes as a surprise.
■ The team members would have to be totally com-

fortable with the dive as outlined, so that they
could participate in it without undue stress.
■ The plan would have to include contingencies in

case of loss of or separation from the team leader,
so that team members would be able to exit safely
without the leader’s guidance.
■ Ideally, the dive would involve just a single, short

visual jump or gap, and there would be a continu-
ous guideline to a safe exit on both sides of that
jump or gap.
Remember that, in Hollywood, the most common

way of saying “F___ You!” is Trust me...
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ “Visual” jumps and gaps and “Trust Me” dives:
■ Deprive team members of the safety of having a

continuous guideline to a safe exit.
Can easily lead to confusion and team separa-
tion.
Are clearly inappropriate activities for new cave
divers.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Cave Maps
Study Question
■ What are the sources and uses of cave maps
and list commonly used cave map symbols?
Sources of Maps: Maps may be published by orga-

nizations or individuals. Organizations that publish a
variety of maps include:
■ National Association for Cave Diving (NACD).

■ National Speleological Society Cave Diving Section
(NSS-CDS).
■ Quintana Roo Speleological Survey (QRSS).
Some cave maps may be available at dive centers

that cater to cave divers, or from the individuals who
made them. Additionally:
■ Sale and distribution of maps is frequently restrict-

ed to certified cave divers.
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■ The complete survey of even a moderately sized

system can take hundreds or even thousand of
hours; therefore, maps often reflect the work of
dozens of volunteers.
■ Small versions of some maps may be available for

download on the Internet.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Using Maps: Here is what you need to know:

■ Cave maps are not intended for primary naviga-
tion; nevertheless, they can be helpful in showing:
The relationship between various tunnels and
passageways.
Anticipated depths and prominent features.
Approximate distances.
■ Consulting a cave map prior to a dive is no substi-

tute for a having a guideline, consulting dive com-
puters and back referencing as you enter.
■ Actually seeing a cave generally paints a very dif-

ferent mental picture than what you imagine look-
ing at a map first.
■ Cave maps usually have more meaning after you

have seen the actual cave in person.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Common Cave Map Symbols: These include:

■ Depth at ceiling, floor.
■ Sidewall configuration.
■ Domes and pits.
■ Breakdown and slope.
■ Restriction type/size.
■ Direction of flow.
■ Edge of daylight zone.
■ Guidelines.
■ Penetration distance.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ Cave maps are available from a variety of sources,
including organizations, individuals and dive cen-
ters.
■ Common cave map symbols include:

Depth at ceiling, floor.
Penetration distance.
Sidewall configuration.
Domes and pits.
Breakdown and slope.
Restriction type/size.
Direction of flow.
Edge of daylight zone.
Guidelines.
Penetration distance.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

This is a big section and it covers a lot of ground —

all of it important.
■ We start by looking at panic which, ultimately, is

what really kills most divers in underwater caves.
■ We then examine several sources of both physio-

logical and psychological stress — and the cumula-
tive effect of too much stress.
■ Finally, we look at the best responses to eleven

different problems and emergencies that might be-
fall cave divers.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Panic, the Ultimate Killer

Study Questions
■ What does the term panic mean, what is its
role in cave diving accidents and what is the
only effective way of dealing with panic?
■ What are five ways of helping prevent panic?
Panic is a sudden, unreasoning response to fear,

stress, pain or other stimuli that we associate with
danger. A person in a state of panic will tend to re-
act to his situation instinctively; unfortunately, such
responses are frequently not what the person should
be doing to save himself. Panic is the ultimate killer
of divers in caves.
■ A panicky diver often loses the ability to make the

rational decisions needed for survival.
■ Many cave diving accident victims would have, in

fact, survived — had they not succumbed to panic.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

The only real “treatment”

for panic is prevention.
Once a diver enters a state
of panic, recovery is diffi-
cult, if not impossible. Thus,
the only reliable way to
overcome panic is to pre-
vent it from occurring in the
first place. Effective ways to help prevent panic can
include:
■ Thorough planning.
The better the plan, the less opportunity for er-
ror and confusion. The best plans are the sim-
plest.
Experience shows that teams with good dive
planning skills tend to have fewer problems.
■ Pre-dive visualization.
See the dive in your mind and, odds are, that’s
exactly how it will happen.
Visualizing your response to potential problems
is equally as important.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Clear communication.
■ “Over learning” skills. With sufficient practice and

repetition, the correct responses to problems can
replace instinctive ones.
■ As experienced combat veterans will tell you, when

you are able to “let your training take over,” the
outcome is generally positive.
“Why did we win? Our training was better.”
“The more you sweat in training, the less you
bleed in combat”.
Recognizing the signs and symptoms of stress,
and responding to them appropriately.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ Panic is a sudden, unreasoning response to fear,
stress, pain or other stimuli that we associate with
danger.
■ Many cave diving accident victims may have sur-

vived had they not succumbed to panic.
■ The only real “treatment” for panic is prevention.
■ Effective ways to help prevent panic can include:

Thorough planning.
Pre-dive visualization.
Clear communication.
“Over learning” skills.
Recognizing the signs and symptoms of stress,
and responding to them appropriately.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Sources of Stress
Study Questions
■ What are seven sources of physiological stress
in cave diving?
■ What are five sources of psychological stress in

cave diving?
Physiological Stress: Sources can include:

■ Cold: Cold can lead to discomfort, degradation of
motor skills and perceptual narrowing. This is why
adequate thermal protection is vital.
■ Exertion: Exhausted divers tend not to think clear-

ly. They may even succumb to the fear that they
will not be able to “keep up” and, thus, be left be-
hind. Avoid exhaustion by pacing yourself, avoiding
the center of conduits, and by not being afraid to
tell team members to Slow Down!.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Lack of rest: Ironically, divers who would never

dream of violating any of the Five Rules sometimes
think nothing of driving through the night to get to
cave country, then diving without adequate rest.
The fact is, we all need adequate rest to think
clearly.
■ Being sick: As with lack

of rest, being sick can be
a constant source of dis-
traction. Dive only when
feeling well.
■ Being injured: It’s difficult

to focus when in pain.
The more serious the in-
jury, the greater the po-
tential for anxiety.
■ Ill-fitting equipment: It’s difficult to focus on the

dive when all you can think about is how much
something hurts or chafes.
■ Narcosis: Diving beyond the safe operational limits

of your breathing media is among the chief causes
of death among certified cave divers.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD
Psychological Stress: Sources can include:

■ Time pressure: In a cave, breathing
gas is time. In so far as our gas supply
is limited, we know that so is the time
available to solve problems. The desire
to avoid lengthy decompression further
contributes to time pressure.
■ Peer pressure: “Friends” who say things like Of

course you can do this..., Don’t wimp out on us...,
or Trust me... are not really your friends — espe-
cially when you know that your skills and abilities
aren’t up to the challenge.
■ Self doubt: Lack of confidence in your training, ex-

perience, judgement and ability can be deadly — if
you are foolish enough to ignore it. Frequent prac-
tice and application of skills can do much to over-
come self doubt.
■ Equipment not working perfectly: When you have

to spend the dive focusing on a piece of equipment
that is not working properly, your attention is not
where it should be. Regular, professional equip-
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

ment maintenance is important for all diving; in

cave diving it is vital.
■ Difficulty controlling buoyancy (and similar prob-

lems): Difficulty performing routine tasks can be
highly distracting.
Accumulation of Stress: The accumulation of psy-

chological and/or physiological stress is what we re-
fer to as task loading.

■ Sources of physiological stress include:
Cold.
Exertion
Lack of rest.
Being sick.
Being injured.
Ill-fitting equipment.
Narcosis.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Sources of psychological stress include:

Time pressure.
Peer pressure.
Self doubt.
Equipment not working perfectly.
Difficulty controlling buoyancy (and similar prob-
lems).
Difficulty performing routine tasks can be highly
distracting.
Recognizing and Responding to Stress

Study Question
■ What are several common signs and symptoms
of stress and how should you respond to
them?
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Signs and symptoms of stress can include:
■ Perceptual narrowing.
■ Being overly focused on

the guideline, instru-
ments, etc.
■ Lack of awareness of fel-

low team members.
■ Lack of response to hand

and light signals.
■ Agitation, loss of concen-

tration or obsessive be-
havior.
■ Obvious signs of pain or discomfort.

Shivering.
Favoring a limb or other body part.
Obvious equipment problems.
A certain level of stress is actually beneficial, as it

helps keep divers alert and focused. The best re-
sponse to anything other than a manageable level of
stress, however, is to “call” the dive (which any team
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

member can do at any time, and for any reason).

Bear in mind that while cave divers may encounter
any of a variety of problems, there is only one true
emergency — being totally without air.
■ So long as you have air to breathe, most other

problems are solvable (and the fact you have air to
breathe gives you the time needed to solve them).
■ Even being without air can be solvable through

manifold manipulation, carrying redundant gas
(sidemount or bailout bottles) — or just having a
competent buddy with a long hose.
So long as you have air to breathe, the best short-

term response to stressful situations may be to sim-
ply stop, breathe, think and then act — just as you
learned in your beginning scuba course. Once things
are under control, you can decide whether to contin-
ue or “call” the dive.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ Common signs and symptoms of stress include:
Perceptual narrowing.
Lack of response to hand and light signals.
Agitation, loss of concentration or obsessive be-
havior.
Obvious signs of pain or discomfort.
Obvious equipment problems.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Problem Solving: Jammed Reels

Study Questions
■ What is the correct response to jammed reels?
Among the most common of cave diving problems, it

is not a matter of whether you will ever jam a reel,
but simply how soon.
■ With practice, you may be able to unjam a reel

under water. Do not spend more than a minute or
two attempting to do so, however. Be aware of the
risk loose guideline poses to yourself and others.
■ If you have a spare reel, you may be able to tie off

to the jammed reel and continue, dealing with the
jammed reel on the way out. Do not give up your
personal safety reel to do so. Do not leave loose
line floating in the cave, where it could entangle
others.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ If ultimately unable
to unjam the reel
within a minute or
two, exit the cave by
wrapping the guide-
line around the out-
side of the locked
down reel.
Problem Prevention: You can help prevent this prob-

lem from occurring in the first place by:
■ Maintaining tension on the guideline at all times.

■ Periodically unwinding and rewinding the reel be-
tween dives to clear internal “birds nests.”
■ Using spools for short distances.
■ Practicing reel skills regularly.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ Dealing with jammed reels:
Practice on land. See why and how reels jam
and how you can “unjam” them under water.
If you can’t fix the jammed reel quickly, you
may be able to tie another reel into it and con-
tinue.
If you must exit with a jammed reel, do so by
wrapping the line around it.
Remember the best way to deal with a jammed
reel is to prevent it from jamming in the first
place.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Problem Solving: Primary Light Failure

Study Question
■ What is the correct response to primary light
failure?
Although not as common a problem as it was in the

early days of cave diving, this is something you can
be assured will happen to you sooner or later (most
likely because you neglected to adequately charge
your light ahead of time). Here is what to do when it
happens:
■ Immediately activate backup light.

■ Signal buddies.
■ “Call” the dive.
■ Exit the cave with the affected diver in front,
where other team members will have no difficulty
seeing his much weaker light.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

You can help prevent

this problem from oc-
curring in the first
place by:
■ Keeping actual light

use well within ex-
pected “burn” times.
■ Conscientious bat-
tery charging and light maintenance.
■ Testing batteries with volt meter prior to diving.

■ Dealing with primary light failure:
Immediately activate backup light.
Signal buddies.
“Call’ the dive.
Exit the cave with the affected diver in front.
Remember: Prevention beats dealing with it.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Problem Solving: Loss of Visibility

Study Question
■ What is the correct response to loss of
visibility?
Given adequate backup lights and conscientious light

maintenance, loss of visibility will, in all likelihood, be
the result of a silt out and not catastrophic light fail-
ure. Although a “sudden silt out” is within the realm
of possibility, the greater likelihood is that visibility
will become increasingly worse over some interval of
time (short or long) and then, when the cause of the
poor visibility has been addressed, steadily improve.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Common sense dictates that, upon enter-

ing an area with the potential for severe
silting, you move to within arm’s reach
of the line and not lose sight of it. Then,
should visibility begin to deteriorate, you
should, as a precaution, make physical
contact with the line (“Okay” the line). Do-
ing so will help ensure that, should visibil-
ity go straight to Hell, you will not be in the
unenviable position of having to search for
the guideline in zero or near-zero “vis.”
Whether or not to “call” the dive under such circum-

stances depends on a variety of factors:
■ First, be aware that all of the gyrations involved in

“calling” the dive (signaling, turning in place, etc.)
can easily make visibility worse, not better.
■ If you are diving into current, “calling” the dive

may simply mean that you get to exit with your
own silt, rather than get out of it.
■ Nevertheless, if you are close to turnaround, or

believe that visibility will only get worse if you con-
tinue, “calling” the dive may be best.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD
■ If you are already exiting the cave, and have plen-

ty of gas left in reserve, you may want to opt to
wait for several minutes over a relatively silt-free
area, to give the bad visibility the opportunity to
be carried away or disperse before you continue.
■ If you are swimming into current, and believe the

bad vis is only temporary, continuing on should get
you back into clear water; by the time you exit,
the bad visibility may have gone.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Maintaining team cohesion in zero or near-zero vis-

ibility is essential. You don’t want to become separat-
ed from your backup brain and emergency breathing
gas supply. You certainly don’t want to have to deal
with the psychological consequences of exiting the
cave alive, only to have your buddy brought out later
in a body bag.
There are two methods for maintaining team cohe-

sion in zero or near-zero visibility: bump-and-go and
touch-contact.
Bump and Go: This is a

natural extension of what
happens when visibility
gradually worsens, then
improves. The lead diver
stops every 5-10 m/15-30
ft, and waits for the next team member to “bump”
him from behind (best to keep one hand on the
guideline and one hand out in front under such cir-
cumstances). Upon being “bumped” by the diver be-
hind, the lead diver then sprints ahead another 5-10
m/15-30 ft.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

If need be, the second diver waits until “bumped” by

the third team member before continuing. Commu-
nication, if needed, can be accomplished using the
same signals as discussed next under touch-contact.
The benefits of the “bump and go” method include:
■ It is a natural extension of what is already happen-

ing.
■ It gets divers out of low-visibility areas faster,

without tending to make the visibility worse.
■ The need to cross over guidelines does not compli-

cate matters or slow divers down.
Nevertheless, the fact remains that divers using the

“bump and go” method will not be in contact with
one another for much of the time.
Touch-Contact: The touch-contact method allows

team members to remain in physical contact with
one another at all times, but has a few serious draw-
backs.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

It starts by having all team members grasp the

guideline with the same hand (right or left). The
team member in the rear then uses his free hand
to grasp the upper arm of the diver ahead of him.
The diver in front will keep his free arm extended
to prevent bumping into things. There are a number
of special touch-contact signals divers need to know
how to use; these include:
■ Go!
■ Stop! (Hold).
■ I’m stuck! (or entangled).
■ Emergency!
■ Share air!
■ We need to cross the line...
The line-crossing procedure associated with touch-

contact is complicated and time consuming; it is also
difficult to remember correctly unless practiced reg-
ularly.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Drawbacks of the touch-contact method include:
■ It is complicated and time consuming (at a time

when you really want to move).
■ It increases the potential for further silting.
■ It is not well suited for narrow passageways or

ones where the guideline zigzags from side to side
(requiring repeated line crossings).
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Nevertheless, touch contact may be preferable in

situations where divers do not want to lose contact
with one another, however briefly. There is a varia-
tion on touch-contact used when divers need to
share air in bad visibility (covered shortly); ironically,
it eliminates some of the drawbacks associated with
“regular” touch contact.

■ Practicing good buoyancy control.

■ Using the best possible propulsion technique.
■ Controlling potentially dangling equipment.
■ Being aware of the potential for percolation (silt on
the ceiling dislodged by divers’ bubbles).
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ Dealing with loss of visibility:
Get close to the line as visibility begins to dete-
riorate;
Okay the line before it is gone completely.
Maintain team cohesion and communication
through touch-contact or bump-and-go.
If diving into current, you may be better off con-
tinuing on through bad viz, than turning and ex-
iting with it.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Problem Solving: Valve Roll Off

Study Questions
■ What is the correct response to valve roll off?
There is a single, significant flaw in the design of the

modern isolation manifold.
■ Repeated contact with the ceiling, while moving

forward, can cause the left-hand valve turnwheel
to “roll off” (or even roll off and then break off).
■ Unfortunately, because we normally breathe from

the regulator on the right-hand post, the fact this
valve has rolled off may not be immediately appar-
ent.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Warning signs of a roll off can include:
■ An SPG needle that does not indicate a drop in

pressure. (Even this can be masked by the fact a
regulator that is shut down may still slowly depres-
surize, causing the needle to drop.)
■ A drysuit or BCD inflator

connected to the left-hand
regulator that ceases to
function.
■ While sharing air as donor,

and breathing from the left-
hand (short) hose, the regu-
lator ceases to deliver air.
This is most likely to happen
while sharing air through a
restriction, limiting the receiver’s ability to help
turn the affected valve back on.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

The correct response to this situation is, of course,

to simply reach back and turn the affected valve
back on.
To be able to do this, however, divers need

to regularly practice reaching behind them
and manipulating valve turnwheels. One
must also accept the possibility that the
affected turnwheel may be jammed shut or
broken off.

■ Avoiding contact with the ceiling.
■ Responding immediately to any of the warning

signs.
■ Reaching back and checking turnwheel position af-

ter passing through any low, tight areas.
■ Regularly practicing valve manipulation.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ Dealing with valve roll off:
Know the warning signs.
Regularly practice turning all manifold turn-
wheels on and off.
Think about how you will deal with a turnwheel
that rolls off and breaks off.
Best dealt with through prevention.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Problem Solving: Regulator/Valve/

Manifold Failure
Study Question
■ What is the correct response to regulator,
valve or manifold failure?
Although a failure of any of these items is not likely

to cause an immediate loss of breathing gas, failure
to respond immediately to the problem can result in
loss of breathing gas in a matter of minutes. The na-
ture of, and appropriate response to such an equip-
ment failure will depend on whether or not the prob-
lem can be solved by shutting down gas flow to the
affected regulator.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Problems that can be solved by shutting outboard

valves include:
■ Regulator free flow.

■ Burst hoses.
■ Damage to or failure of the DIN connector.
Problems that cannot be solved by shutting outboard

valves include:
■ Burst disk failure.

■ Tank neck O-ring failure.
■ Leaky or damage manifold joints or connections.
■ Damaged or sheared off valve turnwheel that is
also leaking.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Sudden gas system failure is often accompanied by a

loud, “popping” noise and the sound of rapidly escap-
ing gas (as if the situation was not exciting enough
already). If the affected diver can see the damage
(i.e., second stage free flow, burst hose), solving the
problem should involve little more than reaching back,
shutting down flow to the affected reg, then switching
to the other second stage (if need be) and “calling”
the dive. If the affected diver cannot see the damage,
the best course of action may not be as clear.
A close by and attentive buddy can most

likely identify the problem and deal with
it correctly faster than the affected diver
can. If this is the case, allow the buddy to
do so, and then communicate to the af-
fected diver what the problem is and the
action taken (this will most likely require
slates).
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

If a buddy is not present or able to assist, do the fol-

lowing:
■ Reach back and im-

mediately close the
isolator. This way,
it does not matter
what happens next,
you have just saved
at least half you air
— enough to theo-
retically exit.
■ Next, attempt to
shut down both
outboard valves
(and, yes, you can continue to breathe until the
second-stage hoses depressurize).
■ If the noise stops, turn the valves on one at a time

to determine which one is damaged.
■ If the noise does not stop (or you find a turnwheel

broken off and leaking), it means the manifold it-
self has failed; turn both outboard valves back on
if possible.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD
■ At this point you have already separated your dou-

bles into two independent cylinders; one “good,”
one leaking. The gas in the “good” side should be
sufficient to get you out of the cave; nevertheless,
breathe from the “leaky” side until exhausted,
rather than let it go to waste.
Needless to say, you should be “calling” the dive at

the first sign of difficulty.
Sidemount divers are not susceptible to manifold
damage; nevertheless, the same principle applies —
if a valve is leaking, breathe from the affected side
until exhausted before switching to the “good” bottle.
While exiting, the affected diver should be in front
so other team members can monitor and respond
to problems. Fellow team members should also be
ready to share gas instantly, if need be.

lem from occurring (or becoming worse than need
be) by:
■ Avoiding contact with walls and ceilings.

■ Regularly practicing manifold valve manipulation.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ Dealing with regulator and/or manifold failure:
Immediately shut off gas supply to any free-
flowing second stages.
Isolating a damaged manifold will help ensure
you save at least half your remaining gas.
If need be, breathe from the “leaky” side of iso-
lated doubles or sidemount bottles, rather than
letting all the gas go waste.
Again, prevention beats dealing with it; regular
practice beats discovering you are ill prepared to
deal with it.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Problem Solving: Total Loss of Gas

Study Question
■ What is the correct response to total loss of
breathing gas?
It is unlikely that a diver who regularly monitors his

pressure gauge will simply run out of air without
warning. More likely causes of losS of breathing gas
include:
■ Lost mouthpiece.
■ Isolator accidentally closed.
■ Failure to respond quickly or correctly to manifold/
valve failure.
■ Being the first buddy to run out of air after the
team becomes lost or separated.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Loss of breathing gas is the only true cave diving

emergency; a critical situation requiring an immedi-
ate response. In some instances, total loss of breath-
ing gas can be addressed simply by switching to the
non-affected second stage; examples include:
■ Lost mouthpiece.
■ Isolator accidentally closed.
If simply switching second stages will solve the prob-

lem, you now have time to replace the lost mouth-
piece or open the isolation valve — and, if need be,
“call” the dive.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

If simply switching second stages will not solve the

problem, immediate buddy assistance is required.
■ The affected diver signals Attention!/Out of Air!
■ The donor will then need to quickly pass his long-

hose second stage, unwrapping it from around
the neck, if need be. Make sure the second stage
is passed right side up, with the purge button un-
blocked.
■ Once the second stage is passed, deploy the full

length of the long hose.
■ The receiver should take up a position in front of

the donor, holding tightly to the regulator hose
with one hand to help prevent it from accidentally
being pulled from his mouth.
■ Assuming good visibility, the donor should hold on

to the receiver by the upper arm, thus enabling
the donor to signal using the touch-contact proto-
cols.
■ Bear in mind that, if visibility remains good, there

is no need to slow the exit down by maintaining
physical contact with the guideline.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

In zero or near-zero visibility, there is a variation

on touch-contact that will still enable divers to exit
quickly, while causing minimal silting.
■ The receiver Okays the guideline using the same

hand with which he is holding on to the donor’s
long hose.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ The donor takes up a position immediately behind

the receiver and also Okays the guideline with one
hand.
■ Because the divers are physically connected by the

long hose, there is no compelling reason for the
donor to hold on to the receiver’s arm to prevent
buddy separation; touch-contact signals can be
exchanged as needed, by reaching out and touch-
ing the receiver’s leg.
■ In this position, there is no need to go through a

complex, time-consuming process to cross guide-
lines; the receiver simply moves the long hose and
guideline back and forth from one hand to the oth-
er as needed, the donor follows suit.
■ A donor and receiver passing through a restriction

in good visibility may also want to use this meth-
od, as it works equally well.
In a three-person team, the two potential donors

may want to switch off half way to the exit, so that
each keeps the greatest possible gas in reserve. It is
also possible that you may want to share air with a
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

diver who is simply low on air, in an effort to get him

close enough to the exit that he can safely get out
on his own.
It is important for all divers to understand

how differences in equipment configuration
affect gas sharing.
■ Sidemount divers
will, in all likeli-
hood, never need
to be the receiv-
er in an out-of-
gas situation; the
nature of their
equipment means
sidemount divers should be able to solve their
own gas problems. Nevertheless, a sidemount div-
er who teams with backmounting buddies should
equip at least one bottle with a long hose.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Sidemount divers generally do not worry about gas

matching with similarly equipped buddies; how-
ever, a sidemount diver needs to make sure that,
at any time, he has sufficient gas in his long-hose
bottle to get any backmounting buddy out of the
cave.
■ Rebreather divers carry open-circuit bailout bottles

to cover themselves in case of rebreather failure.
Nevertheless, the rebreather diver’s “OC” bailout
should also be sufficient to get any backmounting
buddies out of the cave as well.

■ Remembering that a backmounting diver who un-

derstands his manifold and routinely practices
valve shutdown procedures should never have to
depend on a buddy for air. This makes practice of
valve manipulation as important or more important
than practicing gas sharing procedures.
■ Developing conservative gas turnaround points

and monitoring SPGs religiously.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Avoiding situations that could cause valve or mani-

fold damage.
■ Maintaining a high level of guideline awareness to

help avoid situations in which team members could
become lost.

■ Dealing with total loss of breathing gas — if
switching second stages or valve manipulation
doesn’tsolve the problem:
Signal Attention/Out of Air/Share Air.
Take donor’s long hose; get in position to share
while swimming.
Head for the exit,
Remember: You most likely won’t have to share
air all the way out — just far enough so that
there is no doubt you can make it out on the gas
remaining.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Problem Solving: Team Separation

Study Question
■ What is the correct response to team
separation along the same guideline?
Loss of team cohesion along the same guideline can

occur for a variety of reasons, including:
■ Team members failing to periodically cover their

lights and look for the lights of their buddies.
■ Lead members moving at a pace that is too fast

for others to comfortably maintain.
■ Trailing members failing to signal lead members to

Slow Down!
■ Trailing members stopping to look at something

without signaling others to Stop!
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

If a lead member realizes his buddy(s) are no longer

behind him, the correct procedure is:
■ Immediately stop and proceed no further.
Wait for one minute for other team members to

catch up.While waiting:
■ Look for buddy(s) with your light; they may, in

fact, be right behind you, but be experiencing pri-
mary light failure.
■ Cover your light and look for signs of your

buddy(s) lights approaching.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

If your fellow team members do not show up after

one minute:
■ Mark the point on the guideline where you first re-

alized your buddy(s) were missing with a distinc-
tive marker (it is unlikely your team mates could
somehow have gotten past this point).
■ Search backwards along the guideline for one min-

ute, looking for any signs that your team mates
may have gotten off the line by accident (i.e., evi-
dence of silting, an offshoot line they may have
gotten on by mistake, etc.).
■ If not reunited with your team mates within one

minute of searching, follow the procedures outlined
next for a diver lost off the guideline.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

If a trailing member realizes his buddy(s) can no lon-

ger be seen ahead of him, the correct procedure is:
■ Mark the point on the guideline where you first re-

alized your buddy(s) were lost from sight with a
distinctive marker (it is unlikely your team mates
could somehow have gotten past this point going
the other way).
■ Continue along the guideline for one minute.
While doing so:

■ Look for your buddy(s) with your light; they may,
in fact, be right in front of you, but be experienc-
ing primary light failure.
■ Cover your light and look for signs of your

buddy(s) lights in the distance.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ Look for any signs that your team mates may have
gotten off the line by accident (i.e., evidence of
silting, an offshoot line they may have gotten on
by mistake, etc.).
If not reunited with your team mates within one min-

ute of searching, follow the procedures outlined next
for a diver lost off the guideline.

■ Periodically covering your light and making certain

you see your team mates’ lights where they should
be.
■ Move at a pace that makes it easy to keep up with

others.
■ If need be, signal lead members to Slow Down!
■ Do not pause to look at anything without signaling

others to Stop!
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD


■ Dealing with team separation along the same
guideline:
As soon as you realize separation has occurred,
stop. Do not leave this point without putting a
distinctive marker on the line.
If in the lead, wait one minute for your buddies
to catch up.
If trailing, swim for no more than one minute to
see if you catch up.
If not reunited within one minute, decide wheth-
er the situation is best dealt with by initiating a
lost-diver search or simply exiting the cave on
your own.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Problem Solving: Lost Diver

Study Question
■ What is the correct response to a diver lost off
guideline?
It is extremely unlikely that a fellow team member

would simply swim off the guideline for no reason;
nevertheless, such feces can occur for a variety of
reasons, including:
■ Loss of guideline in bad visibility.
■ Loss of guideline because “somebody wasn’t pay-

ing attention” (a significant hazard with DPVs).
■ Getting on an offshoot line by accident (in which

case, if the “lost” team members simply follow the
steps outlined under Team separation along the
same guideline, they will likely reunite with their
buddies).
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Assuming you have followed all of the initial steps

outlined above under Team separation along the
same guideline, your next step is to determine how
much gas you have available to search for lost bud-
dies.
■ While you should never do anything that puts your

own survival at risk, remember that you are not
necessarily constrained to abandon the search
when you reach your original, agreed-upon turn-
around point.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

■ If you in fact know how much gas you consumed

getting from the entrance to the point at which your
buddy(s) were lost, you do not have to begin your
exit until you have twice this amount remaining.
In other words, if it took you 40 bar/600 psi to reach

this point from the entrance, you theoretically do not
have to abandon your search and start exiting until
you reach 80 bar/1,200 psi — although you can bail
sooner if you think doing so is essential to your own
safety.
■ The difference between the gas

you have now and your theoreti-
cal “must exit” point is the gas
you can allocate to conducting
your search.
■ The search procedure you will

follow next will depend on your
best guess as to what may have
happened to your missing team
mates.
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■ It may involve following standard “jump” pro-

cedures to an offshoot line you think your team
mates may have gotten on to by accident.
■ It may also involve tying your safety reel into a

line arrow and conducting a sweeping search for
missing buddy(s) off the line — possibly in reduced
visibility.
Leaving a slate, note or distinctive marker (i.e., one

bearing your initials) on the guideline, where you
have tied off, may alert team mates who stumble
across it that you are out there looking for them.
Remember, above all, that you are of no

use to your “lost” buddies if you kill your-
self trying to “save” them; divers have
died because they went beyond safe limits
searching for a “lost” buddy who was, in
fact, waiting for them on the surface.
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■ Following the preventative procedures previously

outlined under Team separation along the same
guideline.
■ Maintaining a high level of guideline awareness.
■ Taking steps to prevent silting.

■ Dealing with a team member lost off the line:
First, follow the procedures previously outlined
for buddy separation. Never do anything that
puts your own safety in jeopardy. (You are no
good to your buddy dead.)
Calculate how much gas you can use to search.
Conduct the type of search dictated by circum-
stance (and never search off the guideline with-
out using a reel).
Call off the search before hitting your safe gas
limit; leave a note for your buddy, if need be.
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Problem Solving: Loss of Guideline

Study Question
■ What is the correct response to loss of
guideline?
As mentioned earlier, it is very unlikely you would

choose to swim off a guideline for no reason; there-
fore, should you (and, possibly one or more team
mates) find yourself with no guideline in sight, poor
visibility — coupled with not paying attention — is
likely the culprit.
■ The first thing you need to do

under such circumstances is
to Stop. Doing so helps ensure
you won’t get any more lost
than you are right now.
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■ The next thing to do is to wait for one minute —

during which the silt may clear or you may see the
guideline or the lights of your team mates.
While you are waiting, there are a variety of other

helpful things you can do, such as:
■ Sweep your light to look for your buddies or the

guideline.
■ Cover your light to see whether doing so will help

you locate your team mates’ lights.
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■ Look for other clues as to which way will lead you

back to safety, such as a silt trail across the floor,
a bubble trail across the ceiling or the presence of
flow (which generally — but not always — points
the direction to the exit).
If you don’t see your buddies’ lights or the guideline

after looking for one minute, you are going to need
to leave your present location and begin searching
for the guideline.
The single most important thing to do at

this point is to ensure, that if you are not
successful, you can be guaranteed of re-
turning to your present location (so as to
not be any more lost than you are right
now).
This means tying off and searching with your safety

reel or spool. To do so, tie off to the closest secure
formation. If none is available, tie to a backup light
and bury it in the mud as an anchor; turn the back-
up light on for reference. You will likely be searching
in zero or near-zero visibility so, as you do:
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■ Sweep your free hand up and down between the

floor and as high up as you can reach, as you may
feel the guideline this way before you ever see it.
Try not to make matters worse by stirring up more
silt.
■ You may miss

the guideline by
passing under it,
therefore, if you
hit a wall, try
moving upwards
and then, if need
be, back across the ceiling; there is a good possi-
bility you may snare the guideline you are seeking
with your reel.
■ If you are not successful in finding the guideline

on your first attempt, return to your starting point
and try a different direction.
Assuming you do find the guideline, do not succumb

to the temptation to go back and retrieve your safety
spool unless the visibility has cleared, and you are
confident you can do so without losing the guideline
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again. If you have team mates who may be search-

ing for you, leave some indication that you have
found the guideline and are heading for safety; ex-
amples can include:
■ Wrap your safety reel/spool (which should have

your initials or distinct marking on it) around the
guideline, but snap the clip to the guideline you
found in the direction you intend to travel.
■ Leave a slate or note explaining the situation to

your buddies (something brief, i.e., Found line,
heading for exit).


■ Taking steps to prevent silting.
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■ Dealing with loss of guideline:
Stop as soon as you realize you have lost sight
of the guideline.
Wait one minute while looking for clues as to
which way to go (i.e, glow of buddies’ lights in
distance, silt or bubble trail, current, etc.).
Do not leave this spot without first tying off
safety reel.
Use your safety reel to search for the lost guide-
line. If you hit a wall, try going up and across
the ceiling; you may snare the missing guideline
with your line.
If need be, search in different directions.
If you find the guideline, leave your reel tied into
it, along with some sort of indicator telling your
buddies which way you went next.
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Problem Solving: Entanglement

Study Question
■ What is the correct response to entanglement
in guideline?
It can happen, so what do you do?
■ Get your team mates’ attention immediately —

even if you are confident you can free yourself.
This way, if you are wrong, it won’t be too late to
signal your buddies.
■ Remember the entanglement signal: Crossed fin-

gers moving in a figure 8.
■ Don’t struggle (which can make things worse);

make no more than one attempt to free yourself,
then just relax and let your team mates free you.
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■ Remove equipment, if needed (but watch out for

silting).
■ If forced to cut the guideline, re-tie or repair it —

using line from one of your own reels, if need be.If
the damage to the guideline is serious, alert those
responsible for guideline maintenance.


■ Streamlining equipment.
■ Keeping temporary guidelines taut.
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■ Dealing with guideline entanglement:
Get your team mates’ attention immediately —
even if you are confident you can free yourself.
Don’t struggle make no more than one attempt
to free yourself, then just relax and let your
team mates free you.
Remove equipment, if needed (but watch out for
silting).
If forced to cut the guideline, re-tie or repair it.
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Problem Solving: Stuck in a Restriction

Study Question
■ What is the correct response to being stuck in
a restriction?
Another problem better prevented than “solved.”
■ Never enter a restriction without having your

hands out in front of you. Doing so enables you
to push your way back out of the restriction, if
need be; it also gives you access to regulators and
valves.
■ If you can’t extract yourself,

wiggle your fins to signal your
buddies to Pull me out!
■ Always have the biggest diver

negotiate the restriction first; that way he isn’t as
likely to become the “human cork,” trapping small-
er buddies on the wrong side of the restriction.
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■ In extreme cases, equipment removal may be nec-

essary to extract the diver.

■ Using some common sense! Is this type of diving

really within your team’s ability level?
■ If you really like diving tight spaces (or that is all

that is available to you), get out of backmount and
into sidemount — and get some advanced training
at pushing tight spaces.

■ Dealing with being stuck in a restriction:
Never enter a restriction without having your
hands out in front of you (to push yourself back
out)
If you can’t extract yourself, wiggle your fins to
signal your buddies behind you to Pull me out!
In extreme cases, equipment removal may be
necessary to extract the diver.
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As with any beginning diver certification, a beginning

Cave Diver certification is just that — a license to
learn. As with recreational diver training, continuing
education opportunities for cave divers exist. Unlike
recreational diver training, however, continuing edu-
cation courses in cave diving are not intended to be
taken one right after another.
Many cave diving ConEd courses have a

prerequisite of 50 cave dives following
Cave Diver certification.
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In this section we will look at what you need to be

doing following certification — and at classes and ac-
tivities you may want to consider further down the
road.
After You Are Certified

Study Question
■ What are three ways (other than by taking
additional courses) by which beginning cave
divers can expand their knowledge and skill
set?
Cave divers are always encouraged to gain experi-

ence slowly, and not dive beyond the limits of train-
ing and experience. Additional ways in which begin-
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ning cave divers can expand their knowledge and

skill set include:
■ Guided dives.
■ Mentoring.
■ Workshops, conferences and seminars.
Enhancing Your New Skills

Certification classes appropriate for fairly new cave
divers may include:
Sidemount Equipment Orientation: Once viewed as

an advanced specialty, sidemount as an equipment
configuration choice is gaining popularity very rapidly
among cave divers. Sidemount’s gas redundancy and
low profile make it particularly well suited for cave
diving. Many new cave divers learn to cave dive in
sidemount. Opportunities to learn sidemounting in-
clude:
■ Open water sidemount courses.

■ Sidemount orientation courses designed specifi-
cally for certified cave divers wanting to make the
transition.
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What is important to understand, however, is the dif-

ference between programs that teach the sidemount
equipment configuration, and those intended to
teach advanced techniques for pushing tight spaces.
Survey and Cartography: Survey is the art of gath-

ering the data needed to make underwater maps.
Cartography is the art of interpreting this data on
paper
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Continuing Education for Experienced Cave Divers

Advanced and specialty cave diver courses typically
have a prerequisite of 50 cave dives past full Cave
Diver certification.
DPV Pilot: The other way to

extend range is through the
use of diver propulsion ve-
hicles (DPVs or “scooters”).
DPV use in caves requires
managing several additional
risk factors; many dive sites either ban DPV use or
require this specialized training. In addition to plan-
ning, techniques and procedures, DPV Pilot training
covers theory and practice of several potential prob-
lems, such as dead scooters and gas sharing while
on DPVs.
Technical Sidemount/Technical No Mount: Not to be

confused with an orientation to the sidemount equip-
ment configuration, this course specifically addresses
maneuvering through tight spaces (very, very tight
spaces). Not for the claustrophobic.
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Technical Cave Diver: Combining the knowledge and

skills covered in both the NASE Cave and Techni-
cal Diver courses, this program teaches divers how
to plan and execute dives in the 40-45 m/130-150 ft
range. May even include depths beyond this, if stu-
dents have the prerequisite gas training (i.e., Trimix).
CCR (Closed Circuit Re-

breather) Cave Diver: In so far
as “extended range” cave div-
ing involves distance as much
(or more) than depth, CCR use
is very well suited to longer
cave dives. When using CCRs
in caves, however, risk factors
increase almost geometrically;
hence the need for specialized training.
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Recovery Diver: Feces occur and, unfortunately,

when they do, local law enforcement generally lacks
the specialized training and experience needed to
find and extract cave diving accident victims. Fortu-
nately, training is available that prepares volunteer
cave divers to function as part of the Internation-
al Underwater Cave Rescue and Recovery (IUCRR)
team. Although the course does cover finding and
extracting bodies, primary emphasis is on managing
the scene and interfacing with local law enforcement.

■ Additional ways in which beginning cave divers can
expand their knowledge and skill set include:
Guided dives.
Mentoring.
Workshops, conferences and seminars.
DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

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NASE CAVE DIVER MANUAL nin

NASE Cave Diver Manual

DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

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Knowledge Development: In this course, you will

The topics the course will cover include:

■ Accident analysis and the limits of training.

Skill Development and Practical Application: This

this down into two or more segments, giving you

Using This Course

■ At the beginning of each

■ The Subject Matter provides the answers to the

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■ At the end of each subsection is a summary of Key

■ Mask and ﬁns suitable for cave

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■ Exposure protection adequate for local cave envi-

■ Either double cylinders with an isolation manifold,

■ Two totally independent regulators, each with its

■ A backmount or sidemount harness and air cell

■ Adequate instrumentation to consist of either two

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■ One primary dive light, consistent in power and

■ At least one underwater slate or “wet notes” with a

■ At least two safety reels/spools per diver, plus ad-

■ At least two cutting tools, one of which must be

If you are ﬂying to the area in which you will do your

You should discuss all equipment purchas-

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In this section we look at two things:

■ Accident Analysis: In almost every instance, cave

■ Limits of Training: Your beginning Cave Diver

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■ What are the ﬁve Rules of Accident Analysis

■ What are at least two ways in which accident

Cave diver training is unique in that, rather than be-

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causes (and two contributing causes) of recreational

Direct Causes: The direct causes of recreational div-

■ Failure to maintain a continuous guideline to a safe

■ Failure to keep at least twice the theoretically re-

■ Exceeding the safe operational limits of the breath-

DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Contributing Causes: The contributing causes of rec-

The “Rules” of Accident Analysis: The ﬁve rules de-

■ Be trained for cave diving and remain within the

■ Maintain a continuous guideline to a safe exit.

■ Always keep at least twice as much gas in reserve

■ Stay within the safe operational limits of your

■ Carry at least three sources of light.

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These rules are represented by

How Does This Apply to Certi-

■ Where recreational divers often

■ Exceeding the safe operational limits of the breath-

■ As the certiﬁed cave diver population ages, we

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health issues may have been a contributing or di-

Key Points to Remember

■ Contributing causes include: exceeding the limits

■ The ﬁve Rules of Accident Analysis can be summa-

DIVE THE UNDERWORLD

Stay within the safe operational limits of your