PHYSICS

For Rwanda Schools

G.S KIGARAMA Senior 3 syllabus

physics

Notes, Questions, and answers

from unit 5

Prepared by IRADUKUNDA Aime

David

What you must know about the topic

• Recall the differences between heat and temperature.
• Explain modes of heat transfer.
• Explain thermal expansion of solids.
 • Explain applications of heat exchanges.
• Explain thermal expansions.
• Define the terms heat capacity and specific heat capacity.
• Describe experiments to determine specific capacity of a metal.
• Determine coefficient of expansion.

Unit Focus
• Knowledge on temperature and heat, the units of measuring temperature and
heat (that is degree Celsius/

kelvin and joules. Knowledge on thermometers and the skills of reading the values
from a thermometer. These concepts were learnt in S1. They are important for this
unit since most of the discussion therein will require the application of what the
learner have already learnt.
• Knowledge on behavior of molecules of substances when heated and the skill of
solving for unknown value in an equation. This is important because some of the
question to be encountered in the unit requires the understanding of these concepts.

5.1 Heat and Temperature

In our environment, most interactions between systems involve transfer of heat from
one system to another. For example, when we bask in the sun, we feel warmer, when
we touch a hot sauce pan, we feel the heat. In this unit, we are will discuss the
different modes through which heat is transferred from one region to another.We will
begin by reviewing the difference between heat and temperature.

When the same amount of heat energy is supplied to equal masses of two different
substances, that are initially at same temperature, they both gain equal amounts of
heat energy but their temperature rises to different values.

Heat is a form of energy that flows from a hot to a cold body while temperature is
the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance.

• Units and instruments for measuring

temperature and heat, that is,
i. Temperature-measured in Degree
Celsius or kelvin
ii. Heat- measured in joules.
iii. Thermometer is the instrument for measuring the heat and temperature.

What’s the difference?

Heat describes the transfer of thermal energy between molecules within a system and is measured in
Joules. Heat measures how energy moves or flows. An object can gain heat or lose heat, but it cannot
have heat. Heat is a measure of change, never a property possessed by an object or system. Therefore,
it is classified as a process variable.

Temperature describes the average kinetic energy of molecules within a material or system and is
measured in Celsius (°C), Kelvin(K), Fahrenheit (°F), or Rankine (R). It is a measurable physical
property of an object—also known as a state variable.

Heat is the transfer of thermal energy, whereas temperature is a property the object exhibits.`

Similarities
Heat is a transfer of thermal energy caused by a difference in temperature between molecules
5.2 Modes of heat transfer

Energy Transfer
The two ways that energy can be transferred are by doing work and by heat
transfer.

Doing Work

Work (Man Pushing Wheelbarrow)

Energy can be transferred from one object to another by doing work. To do

work requires that an agent exert a force on an object over a distance. When
work is done, energy is transferred from the agent to the object, which results
in a change in the object's motion (more specifically, a change in the object's
kinetic energy).

An Example of How Doing Work Transfers Energy from One Object to Another
Suppose that a person (the agent) exerts a force on a wheelbarrow (the object)
that is initially at rest, causing it to move over a certain distance. Recall that the
work done on the wheelbarrow by the person is equal to the product of the
person's force multiplied by the distance traveled by the wheelbarrow. Notice
that when the force is exerted on the wheelbarrow, there's a change in its
motion. Its kinetic energy increases. But where did the wheelbarrow get its
kinetic energy? It came from the person exerting the force, who used chemical
energy stored in the food they ate to move the wheelbarrow. In other words,
when the person did work on the wheelbarrow, they transferred a certain
amount of chemical energy to the wheelbarrow, causing it to move. As a result,
the person's store of chemical energy decreases and the wheelbarrow's kinetic
energy increases.

Heat Transfer
Heat is the transfer of energy from a warmer object to a cooler object. For
example, a lighted match (higher temperature object) will transfer heat to a
large pan filled with lukewarm water the water should not be hot but if you run a
hand through it, it should be warmer than your body (lower temperature object).
Note that the actual amount of thermal energy each object has doesn't matter,
as the pan of lukewarm water might have more thermal energy than the match.
What is needed for heat transfer to take place is a difference in temperature
between two objects. Without this difference, no heat transfer can take place.

Heat can be transferred in three ways: by conduction, by convection, and

by radiation.

Conduction is the transfer of energy from one molecule to another by direct

contact. This transfer occurs when molecules hit against each other, similar to
a game of pool, billard where one moving ball strikes another, causing the
second to move. Conduction is type of heat transfer that occurs in solid
materials and is caused by the vibrations of particles. When exposed to a flow
of energy the particles in a solid begin to wiggle (move or cause to move up
and down or from side to side with small rapid movement), rotate and vibrate
creating kinetic energy. A common example of conduction is the lizard warming
its belly on a hot rock.

Convection is the movement of heat by a fluid such as water or air. The fluid
(liquid or gas) moves from one location to another, transferring heat along with
it. This movement of a mass of heated water or air is called a current Water
gets heated in spite of being a poor conductor of heat due to convection. Water
at the bottom of the pot gets heated when put on a flame. Hot water being
lighter moves up and cold water moves down. The process of mixing continues
until the whole mass of water has a constant temperature.

Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves one of the many

ways that energy travels through space. When you stand in the sun, you are
warmed by the electromagnetic waves, mainly infrared radiation (and to a
lesser extent, visible light), that travels from the sun to Earth. In addition to the
sun, light bulbs, irons, and toasters also transfer heat via radiation. Note that,
unlike conduction or convection, heat transfer by radiation does not need any
matter to help with the transfer.

You can detect evidence of heat transfer. You might see the air shimmering
over a radiator (convection), put your hand on a warm spoon that's been sitting
in a hot bowl of soup (conduction), or notice that the sun shine feels warm on
your skin (radiation).
 example of modes of heat transfer
Difference between conduction and convection
Conduction :
1} It is the transfer of heat by direct contact.
2) The reason for heat transfer is temperature difference.

Convention:
1) It involves the heat movement by actual motion of the matter.
2) This process takes place due to difference in densities.

5.2.3.2 Good and bad absorbers of heat energy by radiation

If a black and shiny surface receive the same amount of heat energy by
radiation, the black surface absorbs more heat than the shiny surface.
A dull black surface is a better absorber of heat radiation than a shiny surface
Dull dark matt surfaces are good absorbers and good emitters of radiation.

The quantity of heat transferred depends on the following factors

a) The temperature difference: If two objects at different temperatures are
brought in contact with each other, energy is transferred from the hotter
object (that is, the object with the greater temperature) to the colder
(lower temperature) object, until both objects are at the same
temperature.
b) The nature of the material: The type of material also affect the thermal
energy transfer. For instance metals are good conductor of heat and their
rate of thermal energy transfer is more than the insulators.
c) The cross sectional area: For instance, heat transfer through windows of
homes is dependent upon the size ob tgg53f the window. More heat will
be lost from a home through a larger window than through a smaller
window of the same composition and thickness.
d) The length of the material: The shorter the length, the faster it will flow
e) The time taken to transfer heat
Applications of heat transfer
1. Vacuum flask
The vacuum flask popularly known as thermos flask. It is designed such that
heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation between the contents of
the flask and its surroundings is reduced to a minimum.
The three methods of heat transfer are conduction, convection or radiation. If you want to
keep something hot, you need to retain heat by minimizing the loss of heat by each of these
methods. Conversely, to keep something cool, you need to minimize the gain of heat by
each of these methods. The vacuum flask aims to achieve this. The construction of a
vacuum flask is shown below.

Transfer of heat by radiation is minimized by using a double walled glass

bottle, silvered inside and out. This means that heat infra-red radiation is
reflected back into the flask to keep liquids hot, or reflected out to keep liquids
cool. Transfer of heat by conduction is minimized by the use of insulating
materials – cork and plastic – throughout. Transfer of heat by convection is
minimized by reducing the ability of air and liquid to circulate. The warmer air
and liquid will move to the top, and by standing the flask up, convection is
reduced.

1. Windows and ventilators in buildings

As shown in Fig. 5.14, warm exhaled air of less density goes out through the
ventilator and fresh air of high density enters through the windows at a lower
level. This refreshes the air in a room.
 warm air
warm air

fresh air

Fig. 5.14: Ventilation in building

2. Natural convection currents over the earth’s surface

(a) Sea breeze
During the day, the temperature of the land rises faster than the temperature of sea
water and the air over the land becomes warmer than the air over the sea water. The
warm air of less density rises from the land allowing the cold dense air over the sea to
blow to the land. This creates a sea breeze in the daytime (Fig. 5.15).
warm air from
the land

cold air from

the sea

cold sea water

Fig. 5.15 Sea breeze

(b) Land breeze

During the night, the land cools faster than the sea water. Warm air from the sea rises
and the dense air from the land moves to the sea. This sets up a land breeze in the sea
(Fig. 5.16).
cold fresh air from the land

warm air above

the sea water rises

Fig. 5.16: Land breeze

 3. Electrical devices
An electric kettle has its heating coil at the bottom. A refrigerator has the freezing unit
at the top.

4. Domestic hot water system

A domestic hot water supply system works on the principle of convection current.
A schematic diagram of a hot water supply is shown in Fig. 5.17.
ball cock

expansion pipe C
main supply
of cold water

cold water storage tank

hot water
tap

pipe A
hot water storage tank

pipe B, cold water

boiler

heat

Fig. 5.17: Hot water system

Water is heated using fire wood, oil or electricity in the boiler. Hot water from
the boiler goes up to the hot water storage tank through pipe A. Cold water flows
down from the cold water storage tank into the boiler through pipe B (called
return pipe).
When the hot water is being drawn from the top of the hot water storage tank, it
is replaced by water from the main cold water tank built at the top of the
house. The expansion pipe C allows steam and dissolved air to escape. This
ensures that the tank does not explode due to the pressure created by the
steam produced
Exercise 5.1Exercise 5.1
1. Distinguish between heat and temperature.
2. What are the different modes of heat transfer? Explain clearly their difference using
suitable examples.
3. State three factors which affect heat transfer in metals. Explain how one of the factors
you have chosen affects heat transfer.
4. Describe an experiment to show that water is a poor conductor of heat.
5. Use particle behavior of matter to explain conduction.
6. Describe a simple experiment to demonstrate that the heat radiated from a hot body
depends upon the temperature of the body.

ANSWERS FOR EXERCISE 5.1

1. Heat is a form of energy while temperature is the degree of hotness or

coldness of a substance.
2. Conduction; transfer of heat from one substance to another there are in
direct contact. E.g. a spoon inside hot water become hot
Convention; Heat is transferred convention currents in liquids.
Radiation; Heat transfer by emission or transmission of energy in the
form of a wave or particles.
3. Conductivity of the metal, Thickness of the material, Area of the
material
Temperature difference across the material
4. Let us take some pure water in a test tube and dip a piece of wax in it
after wrapping it in wire Then we hold the test tube in an inclined
position and start heating water in the upper part of the tube we will
observe that wax does not melt even when the upper part of water starts
boiling Thus we can conclude that water being a poor conductor of heat
is unable to melt the wax

5. Refer to mechanism of conduction of heat in learners book page 111.

When a substance is heated, its particles gain internal
energy and move more vigorously. The particles bump into
nearby particles and make them vibrate more. This passes internal
energy through the substance by conduction, from the hot end to the
 cold end.
6. Refer to activity 5.9 in learners book page 116.
7. Refer to learners book page 119.

5.3 Thermal expansion

In general, nearly all substances increase in size when heated. The process in
which heat energy is used to increase the size of matter is called thermal
expansion. The increase in size on heating of a substance is called expansion.
On cooling,
substances decrease in size. The decrease in size on cooling of a substance is
called
contraction. Why is this so? Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to
change its shape, area, volume, and density in response to a change in
temperature,
5.3.1 Thermal expansion and contraction in solids
When a solid (e.g. a metal) is subjected to heat, it:
(a) Increases in length (Linear Expansion).
(b) Increases in volume (Volume Expansion).
(c) Increases in area (Surface Expansion)

a, linear expansion
On heating, there is an increase in length (linear expansion) of the rods. The
expanding rod moves the roller to the right making the pointer attached to the
roller to deflects in a clockwise direction. On cooling, the rod contracts and
decrease in length. The contracting rod moves the roller to the left hence the
pointer deflects in the opposite direction (anticlockwise direction).
When a different material e.g lead is used, the pointer deflects more to the right
(clockwise). When cooled, the pointer deflects more to the left (anticlockwise).
Different solids (e.g metals) expand and contract to different extents when heated
by the same quality of heat.
(a) Coefficient of linear expansion
Consider a thin metal of length l0. in Fig. 5.23.

l0 ∆l
Fig. 5.23: A thin rod showing increase in length.
When the rod is heated, a temperature change of ∆ occurs and its length
 increases by ∆l.
The ratio of increase or decrease in length to original length
l0
( ∆l ) is directly
proportional to the change in temperature ∆. Note
∆l  ∆  ∆l  – proportionalitity sign
∆l l =  ∆ and   l ∆  – alpha-constant symbol
θ 
l0 0

where  is a constant called the coefficient of linear expansion. It is the value

of the increase in length per unit rise in temperature for a given material. The SI
units of  is K–1
Suppose: The temperature change = ∆
l0 represents the original length of the rod
l represent the new length for a temperature rise of θ
Then, Δl = l – l0
The above expression may be expressed in terms of l0, l, θ and  as follows.

l – l0 Rearranging l – l = l0∆
= = l ∆
∆l l l = l0 + l0 ∆
∆
l = l0(1 + ∆)

Example 5.1
A copper rod of length 2 m, has its temperature changed from 15 °C to 25 °C. Find
the change in length given that its coefficient of linear expansion
 = 1.7 × 10–5 K–1.
Solution
∆   –  oC   oC
∆l = l0  ∆ = 2 × 1.7 × 10× 10–5
= 3.4 × 10–4 m
= 0.34 mm