INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

NAME: JADIE’-LEE MOODLY

COURSE CODE: COM3705
STUDENT NO.: 66292727
EXAM PORTFOLIO: 03
UNIQUE NO.: 792270
DATE: 31/05/2022

1
DECLARATION

2
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

DECLARATION ................................................................................................................................................ 2
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................. 4
1 QUESTION 1: SOCIAL NETWORKS, POLITICAL GLOBALISATION AND CONNECTIONS,
THE NETWORK SOCIETY AND DIGITAL DIVIDE ISSUES .................................................................... 5
1.1 How social media facilitates international communication .......................................................... 5
1.2 Network society and Global connectivity .......................................................................................... 5
1.3 Social Media as a panacea for all ill of international communication ....................................... 6
1.4 Role of social networks in facilitating global activism .................................................................. 7
1.5 Digital divide.............................................................................................................................................. 8
1.6 Social media on narrowing the digital divide ................................................................................. 10
2 QUESTION 2: CLOSE ENCOUNTERS WITH INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION AND
MEMBERSHIP OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY ................................................................................ 11
2.1 Information Society ............................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Technological.......................................................................................................................................... 11
2.3 Economic ................................................................................................................................................. 12
2.4 Occupational ........................................................................................................................................... 12
2.5 Spatial ....................................................................................................................................................... 12
2.6 Cultural ..................................................................................................................................................... 13
3 QUESTION 3: INTERNATIONAL FLOW OF NEWS ............................................................................ 14
4 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................. 17
5 SOURCES CONSULTED .......................................................................................................................... 18

3
INTRODUCTION

This exam portfolio covers various themes in international communication. The first theme
touches base on learning unit six - social networks, political globalisation and connections,
the network society and digital divide issues. This section begins by defining social media in
terms of how it facilitates international communication. Next, it provides an explanation of the
concepts “network society” and “global connectivity.” It also argues why social media is a
panacea for all ills of international communication, as well as providing three paragraphs on
the role of social networks in facilitating global activism, using the
#TheAfricaTheMediaNeverShows movement as a case study. Additionally, it discusses the
digital divide and identities four different ways in which the digital divide can be gauged which
are the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s access lines per 100
inhabitants, the World Economic Forum releases the Global Information Technology Report
every year, The Digital Economy Ranking (formerly the e-readiness ranking) and the
International Telecommunication Union's (ITU's) ICT Development Index (IDI). Furthermore,
it looks at whether social media narrow the digital divide.

The second theme deals with learning unit one - close encounters with international
communication and membership of the information society. Here, the information society is
defined and it discusses each of the five social changes namely technological, economic,
occupational, spatial and cultural. The last theme examines learning unit four -
international flow of news. This section focuses on the types of interactions that occur
between the "centre" and the "periphery," as well as three types of imperialism: media and
economic imperialism, communication imperialism, and cultural imperialism, all of which have
an impact on international audiences and their reception of news.

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1 QUESTION 1: SOCIAL NETWORKS, POLITICAL GLOBALISATION AND
CONNECTIONS, THE NETWORK SOCIETY AND DIGITAL DIVIDE ISSUES

1.1 How social media facilitates international communication

According to the University of South Africa (2014:190) social media, as an international
platform, offers valuable resources for expressing one's voice and interacting with national
and worldwide groups. Social networking sites and microblogs like Twitter have essentially
transformed the way in which information is disseminated, challenging traditional
gatekeepers, disrupting the relationship between experts and amateurs, and reshaping
people's ability to influence the world. Social media interactions have been used for civic
engagement, education, activism, community building, and development (University of South
Africa 2014:190).

1.2 Network society and Global connectivity

In his 1981 study, Norwegian academic Stein Braten is acknowledged as one of the primary
proponents of the concept "network society." Other researchers later adopted the term and
released other bodies of work to contribute to the understanding of the network society
concept. Such works include Dutchman Van Dijk's book The network society, which claimed
that the network society can be defined as a society in which a combination of social and
communication networks shapes its primary mode of organisation and most important
structures at all levels, including individual, organisational, and societal levels (University of
South Africa 2014:192).

This is only one of many theoretical proposals about what the network society is and what it
means for “global connectivity”. Several other scholars have addressed this idea and supplied
further interpretations. For example, Manuel Castells, a sociologist and professor from the
United States, has written extensively on the network society. Contributions from his
publications have advanced a certain strain of thought. In Castells' work, the network society
thesis is that a new techno-economic paradigm centred on information networks has resulted
in a new mode of growth (University of South Africa 2018:8).

The impact of knowledge drives this new style of development informationalism.

Informationalism is concerned with technical advancement and the creation of new
knowledge. Castells opposes the frequently used term "information society" in favour of the
phrase "information age," which is defined by the network society. The network society is one
in which information flows increasingly lead to global choices being made in real time. This
network society is distinguished by the continual flow of financial, technological, and cultural
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information, which has an impact on the way of life through influencing economic ties, politics,
and organisational structures (University of South Africa 2014:192).

Global connectivity, it is the ability for individuals all over the world to communicate with one
another or connect over the internet. It enables individuals on the other side of the world to
chat to each other at the same time through video call; for example, corporate executives
may hold a video conference rather than taking international trips, and government officials
can interact more quickly and easily than before. Furthermore, global connectivity is
described as the system through which the internet deals with the unified communication that
it provides to all areas of the world. Through global connectivity, individuals from all over the
world may connect and communicate through technology such as the internet (Worcester
2013).

1.3 Social Media as a panacea for all ill of international communication

Social networking sites (SNSs) are web-based services that allow users to create a public or
semi-public profile within a bounded system, articulate a list of other users with whom they
share a connection, and view and navigate their list of connections as well as those made by
others. In basic terms it provides computer-mediated communication to millions of users all
over the world. There are hundreds of social networking sites such as Facebook, Instagram
and Twitter that are available that cater to a wide range of interests, each with its own set of
technical affordances and behaviours (University of South Africa 2014:185).

One may argue that social media is indeed a panacea for all the ills of international
communication since it eliminates censorship and serves as a unifying force for
understanding by connecting people internationally without requiring them to leave their
homes physically. It simply allows individuals to interact and share information regardless of
where they are in the world. Control of mass media by a few elites, on the other hand, is
antagonistic to democracy since it restricts the range of messages broadcast, who may
engage in conversation, and what is discussed. However, in democratic nations, mass media
is controlled by a few, and here is where social media bridges the gap and reduces the
authority of the controlled mainstream media (Zaw 2018).

Through all of the information sharing available on social network sites, social media has also
contributed to the social, political, and cultural spheres. The concept of social media provides
valuable tools as worldwide platforms for establishing one's voice and communicating with
the national and international communities. The media plays a crucial role in informing the
public of key issues. The growth of social media networks have also made news creation
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more accessible to citizens, producing the phenomenon of "citizen journalists." When
considering the impact of social media in war such as the Ukraine-Russia conflict, the
advancements in media and news transmission, such as the internet, social media, and smart
phones, transmitting and receiving live and uninterrupted news updates has become feasible
from anywhere in the world. Smart phones and internet media platforms have essentially
made war zones more accessible by allowing news reporters to be more mobile in their
reporting (Benabid 2021).

1.4 Role of social networks in facilitating global activism

Social movements, according to University of South Africa (2014:196), are considered as a
lasting component of society. It refers to social actors such as individuals, groups, and
organisations using collective action to influence social and political change. The social
movements of the digital culture are producing new forms of political mobilisation that heavily
rely on mass self-communication. Without the tactics and tools of mass self-communication,
new movements and forms of insurgent politics could not be envisioned (University of South
Africa 2014:196). Consider the #TheAfricaTheMediaNeverShows movement as an example
of how social networks support global activism.

Parrotte (2015), states that the primary goal of #TheAfricaTheMediaNeverShows movement

was to promote a favourable picture of Africa that is both positive and challenging to Western
perceptions of the continent as destitute, undeveloped, and conflict-ridden, among other
things. The actors behind this initiative have objectives to convey positive images of "the
Africa that the media never shows," and such an ambition might profit immensely from the
usage of social networking sites (Parrotte 2015). The network technology can spread
horizontal messages that resonate with the public awareness in trustworthy ways. Thus, the
internet serves as a crucial medium for discussions for social movements as a method of
influencing people's minds and, ultimately, as their most powerful political weapon (University
of South Africa 2014:196).

However, social movements do not live solely on the internet; as a result, the space of the
new digital social movements is a composite of the space of flows and the space of places.
While not virtualising themselves to death, social movements have left their confinements in
the fragmented space of locales and seized the global space of flows. They also intervene in
the mainstream mass media in an attempt to influence public opinion at large (University of
South Africa 2014:196).

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1.5 Digital divide
According to University of South Africa (2014:203), the term "digital divide" refers to the gap
in access to information and communication technologies (ICTs) and internet usage and
resources by individuals, households, organisations, countries, and regions at various socio-
economic levels. Since 1995, experts and observers in the information and communication
technologies sector have seen large demographic gaps in computer and internet access and
usage. Thus, the digital divide refers not only to the difference between rich urban
"information haves" and destitute rural "information have-nots," but also to the digital and
information and communication technologies barrier between the African continent's
periphery and the developed world (University of South Africa 2014:203).

There are four indices to gauge the digital divide; the Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development’s access lines per 100 inhabitants, the World Economic Forum’s
Global Information Technology Report, The Digital Economy Ranking (formerly the e-
readiness ranking) and the International Telecommunication Union's (ITU's) ICT
Development Index (IDI) (University of South Africa 2014:206).

According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the
access line per 100 population is the most important indicator of the digital divide. It counts
the number of individuals in a country who have access to basic information and
communication technologies facilities and infrastructure, such as telephones, mobile phones,
computers, the internet, and so on. However, the OECD compares a variety of other statistics,
such as the number of internet hosts, the liberalisation of the national telecommunications
sector and services, average residential and business telephone charges, bandwidth prices,
the number of secure servers, household personal computers, and internet diffusion. Other
organisations compile all of these facts into a rating system (University of South Africa
2014:206). Mwangonde (2006) states that the OECD guidelines have the advantage of
serving as core ideas for persuading and promoting business and social obligations so that
people's rights are upheld in third-world countries. While the disadvantages, are that
members of these countries were not involved in the drafting of the guidelines, which were
assumed to be created by rich western countries for use by third-world countries and thus
cannot be considered impartial because leaders from these countries were not involved in
the decision-making process (Mwangonde 2006).

The World Economic Forum (WEF), which publishes the Global Information Technology
Report, is the second digital divide study measuring index. According to the Networked
Readiness Indicator, this index rates 133 developing and developed countries (NRI). The NRI
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framework tries to assess how favourable a national environment is to information and
communications technology growth and spread, while taking into consideration a variety of
characteristics of the broader business climate, some regulatory aspects, and information
and communication technologies soft and hard infrastructure. Furthermore, it seeks to assess
the extent to which the three main national stakeholders in a society such as the individual,
the business sector, and the government are included and prepared to use information and
communication technologies in their daily activities and operations, as well as the actual use
of information and communication technologies by the aforementioned three stakeholders
(University of South Africa 2014:207). The World Economic Forum, according to Kagan
(2021), has the benefit of being self-funded by its members, who include many influential
corporate and governmental figures. Its membership is made up of important CEOs,
diplomats, celebrities, government officials, union representatives, religious leaders, and
journalists from both the public and private sectors. However, while it focuses on critical global
issues, it lacks autonomous decision-making ability and instead relies on prominent
individuals to make decisions that benefit the global community (Kagan 2021).

The Economist Intelligence Unit's Digital Economy Rating (previously the e-readiness
ranking) is the third indicator used globally to gauge the digital gap. Its goal is to assess the
ability of the world's 70 largest economies to absorb information and communication
technologies and use it for economic and social benefit by examining 100 quantitative and
qualitative infrastructure indicators in six categories: connectivity and technology
infrastructure, business environment, social and cult (University of South Africa 2014:207).
The benefit of this model is that it is based on a combination of hard data and survey
responses from business and government executives, and the digital rankings help
governments and businesses decide where to focus their resources and what best practices
to implement when embarking on digital transformation (IMD 2022). The disadvantage is that
not every country is ready to become fully digital. Digitalisation will not realize its full potential
until key blind spots are addressed (Harris 2022).

The International Telecommunication Union's (ITU) ICT Development Indicator (IDI) is the
fourth index used in international communication to quantify the digital divide. The information
society (IS) measuring index is employed as a conceptual framework in this case (University
of South Africa 2014:208). The access sub-index, the usage sub-index, and the skills sub-
index are the three sub-indices that it is divided into. The access sub-index measures
information and communication technologies readiness (e-readiness) and contains five
infrastructure and access variables, including fixed and mobile telephone, international
internet bandwidth, homes with computers, and households with internet access. In contrast,
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the use sub-index measures information and communication technologies intensity and
contains three information and communication technologies intensity and usage indicators:
internet users, fixed- or wired-broadband, and mobile broadband. While the skills sub-index
assesses information and communication technologies capabilities or skills as essential input
indicators. Adult literacy, gross secondary enrolment, and gross tertiary enrolment are
included as proxy indicators (University of South Africa 2014:208). It is advantageous in that
it is becoming increasingly important as a catalyst for forging development partnerships
between government and private sector, resulting in fast developments in
telecommunications infrastructure in developing countries worldwide. The downside is that,
while wealthy countries' telecommunications growth is accelerating, many underdeveloped
countries are slipping more behind. More than half of the global population still lacks access
to a basic voice telephone (ITU 2012).

1.6 Social media on narrowing the digital divide

It is unlikely for social media to narrow the digital divide. Despite the fact that social media
applications have been the subject of extensive research and analysis, their reach and
influence are still difficult to comprehend. Social media apps such as Facebook, Instagram
and Twitter have been used by billions of people across the world as part of a rapidly
developing and changing Internet ecosystem. With such high usage rates, the potential for
positive influence on economic growth and social development is tremendous. However,
while social media has the potential to be a powerful tool to empower people, previous
research has clearly demonstrated that information and communication technologies (ICTs)
may amplify existing inequalities, it is critical that the advantages of new technologies do not
increase the current digital divide (ESCAP 2019).

For instance, consider the factors and emerging concerns Such as affordability and availability
of broadband connectivity, income, urbanisation, education and gender issues that impact
not only adoption rates of social media but also the types of activities which users undertake
through social media. The economic and social benefits of social media apps can potentially
add to inequality due to the existing digital divide, which is exacerbated by gender differences
in the use of social media technology (ESCAP 2019).

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2 QUESTION 2: CLOSE ENCOUNTERS WITH INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION
AND MEMBERSHIP OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY

2.1 Information Society

University of South Africa (2014:20) defines an information society as a society that may alter
itself through living, working, and playing through the use of information and communication
technology (ICTs). As information and communication technologies transforms the way
people live and organise their lives around the use of technology, such as mobile phones and
computers, this shift presents both immense promise and tremendous difficulties for
governments, organisations, and individuals. Padayachie (2010) gives a South African
definition of the information society as a society that provides individuals with information and
communication technologies access so that they may use it to enhance their job and
lifestyles. This definition creates a conundrum for South Africans because most individuals
who reside in South Africa do not have access to information and communication
technologies and hence cannot utilise it for employment or to enhance their life. The majority
of South Africans, however, have access to mobile phones. Perhaps mobile phones can be
used to usher in the information society in South Africa (University of South Africa 2014:20).

South Africa has led African countries in terms of information and communication technology
infrastructure development and access in recent years. However, newer information and
communication technology figures show that other African nations, such as Nigeria,
Mauritius, and Tunisia, are outpacing South Africa. According to the World Economic Forum
Global Information and Communication Report (2012), the Sub-Saharan African area still has
the world's least developed information and communication technology infrastructure and a
serious dearth of information and communication technology skills. After considering the
limitations in Southern African information and communication technology infrastructure, this
study analyses and assesses South Africa's information and communication technology
policy and regulatory measures aimed at establishing an information society (University of
South Africa 2014:26).

2.2 Technological
The first definition is the technological interpretation, which contends that technological
determinism is paramount in an information society and that everything technological is
critical to the progress of a developed society. The spread of technology and computer
hardware is essentially regarded as the most important feature of the information society.
Hence, nations with advanced technology are regarded as information societies, whilst those
without modern technology are not considered information societies. Technology is

11
considered to be an important component of development, with proponents arguing that
governments should use information and communication technologies to accelerate
development (University of South Africa 2014:20).

2.3 Economic
This related to the information and communication technologies role in education,
communication media, information services and other information services and resources.
The importance of information in the economy is viewed as proof of the presence of an
information society in terms of information and communication technologies influence in
national economic growth. The generation and transmission of information must play a
substantial role in employment creation and must significantly contribute to the gross
domestic product (GDP). This definition of the information society essentially demonstrates
that the proceeds of what are known as information industries now account for an increasing
percentage of countries' gross domestic product (University of South Africa 2014:20).

2.4 Occupational
This relates to improvement in information and communication technologies related jobs. It
refers to how information and communication technologies creates jobs and is used
productively in various occupations such as journalism, academia, secretariat, business,
educational businesses, health businesses and hospitals. The growth in the number of
individuals engaged in information-related occupations is also a proof of an information
society. Daniel Bell was a notable theorist of this information society concept. He believed
that in an information society, professional and technical occupations would dominate, with
labour organised around knowledge for the aim of societal control and guiding innovation and
development (University of South Africa 2014:21).

2.5 Spatial
This illustrates how information and communication technologies lessens time and space
while connecting individuals and organisations in far locations while becoming less
substantial hindrances to communication. Space and time have ceased to be barriers to
communication and have instead become commodities to be sold for profit for instance selling
advertising space on social media. Technology may also be used for political activism
(University of South Africa 2014:21).

Additionally, new spatial concepts have also evolved, consider "cyberspace," for an example.
Cyberspace is an imagined space formed by computer networks and visual programs, is
rapidly being seen as a "real" space. Moreover, time perceptions have shifted as well. People,
12
for example, no longer have to watch television in "real time," but can record television
programmes for later viewing on video, or they are able to watch television on their digital
devices such as laptops or mobile phones (University of South Africa 2014:21).

2.6 Cultural
This illustrates how information and communication technologies connects individuals from
many cultures all around the world, mostly through the internet. The emphasis here is mostly
on the role of information and communication technologies in developing national culture.
Information and communication become key components of culture, and new media are
integrated into it. People may communicate and share knowledge and cultures beyond
national boundaries. Foreign cultural influences become more obvious, local and foreign
cultures produce diverse glocal, meaning global plus local mixes and hybrid cultures, and
culture itself becomes a commodity that can be sold on a variety of markets (University of
South Africa 2014:21).

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3 QUESTION 3: INTERNATIONAL FLOW OF NEWS

The following discussion looks at the type of interactions between the “centre” and the
“periphery”. Here three forms of imperialism that may bear an influence on international
audiences and their reception of news are defined. Additionally, it also provides real-life
examples of these forms of imperialism. The discussion will firstly look at media and economic
imperialism, followed by communication imperialism and it will lastly discuss cultural
imperialism.

In terms of media imperialism, it is defined as a process in which the ownership, structure,

dissemination, and/or contents of the media in any country are subjected to significant
external pressure by the media interests of another country or countries with no proportional
repercussions on the country affected by such pressure. This process is argued to lead to a
one-way flow of media influence, which is vertically from the centre to the periphery
(University of South Africa 2014:110). This simply means that countries on the periphery are
exposed to the media impact and production of those in the centre. This, in turn, has an
impact on the economic growth of the media fraternity of peripheral nations, since they may
not export as much media material as their counterparts in the centre (University of South
Africa 2019:9).

For instance, in order for an incident on the periphery in a developing nation to be regarded
globally significant and newsworthy, it may first have to be reported by media in wealthier
countries with more power over the global media fraternity. This dominance carried by
countries in the centre, allows for them to direct audience preferences for specific kinds of
news. That is, a news article created by media in the centre on an event in the centre, such
as the United States president's perspective on war between certain non-American countries,
may receive greater worldwide consumption than a news piece produced inside the
peripheral about issues in the periphery. However, it is crucial to note that since the
introduction of the internet and the usage of social media for news production and worldwide
transmission, anybody from anywhere may upload their own news video and put it online to
be watched by anyone from anywhere else in the world system (University of South Africa
2019:9).

To define communication imperialism, it is pertinent to consider that this type of imperialism

can only exist if the centre has the economic ability to create and produce cutting-edge
information, communication, and transportation technologies. Galtung (1971:92) speaks to
the patterns of flow of information, for instance news; on a global scale. Dominant news
14
agencies in the centre have developed extensive networks of communication creation and
distribution (University of South Africa 2014:109). These networks are so powerful that
nations on the periphery rely heavily on them for communication output for purposes such as
information and education, among several others (University of South Africa 2019:10).

As a result, we may see situations in which considerably more news/information material from
the centre is consumed on the periphery, as opposed to content generated by nations on the
periphery for the periphery. A South African citizen, for example, may develop a larger
preference for American current events as a result of the pervasiveness of such news
throughout South African communication platforms (University of South Africa 2019:10).

The term cultural imperialism is now often used to refer to the global consumer culture's
homogenising impact, that is, the levelling and even extinction of local cultures as a result of
the worldwide spread of a Western-American lifestyle and the related ideals and consumer
products (Bornman et al. 2001). A significant consequence of this levelling process, according
to cultural imperialism discourse, is that the spaces in which local groups observe their own
cultures are getting smaller and lesser. A local community's capacity to generate and
preserve its own culture is primarily dependent on the cultural area over which it has
influence. Local initiative is stifled, and local cultural product manufacture suffers as a result
(University of South Africa 2019:115). The local culture is silenced, as it were. The process
of cultural globalisation, according to this interpretation, ultimately amounts to the dominance
of Western modernisation and a particular national culture, the American one. A dramatic,
dismal image of emerging nations is drawn, in which the cultures of these regions are
depicted as being almost fully absorbed by a homogenised, commercialised global culture
(University of South Africa 2019:115).

According to Drysén (2016), cultural Imperialism in recent times tends to manifests itself
mostly through media, particularly mainstream and mass media. One of the most obvious
and important channels of global communication is the media. The United States is a prime
example of medial Cultural Imperialism in the twenty-first century. It is regarded as a core
country and, to some extent, expands its control through media flows (Drysén 2016). Thussu
(2010), argues that media flows are closely related to economic power; the freer markets are
the more able companies from economic powers are to dominate global markets.
Consequently, the United States media and entertainment industries, like Hollywood and
Disney, are able to penetrate the global market and export United States-American cultural
products and values (Drysén 2016).

15
In summary, media imperialism was defined as a process in which the ownership, structure,
distribution, and content of any country's media are exposed to considerable external
pressure from the media interests of another country. Following that, communication
imperialism is discovered to exist only if the centre has the economic potential to generate
and produce cutting-edge information, communication, and transportation technology.
Finally, cultural imperialism refers to the homogenising influence of global consumer culture,
that is, the levelling and even extinction of local cultures as a result of the global expansion
of a Western-American lifestyle and the associated ideas and consumer items.

16
4 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this exam portfolio addressed a variety of international communication topics.

It characterised social media, for example, in terms of how it facilitates international
communication. Following that, it addressed the terms "network society" and "global
connectivity." It also argued for social media as a solution for the ills of international
communication and presented a three-paragraph overview of the function of social networks
in supporting global activism. Furthermore, it addressed the digital gap and highlighted the
four methods in which the digital divide might be measured. The second segment explored
the information society and the five social changes, which were technological, economic,
occupational, spatial, and cultural in nature. The final segment concentrated on three types
of imperialism media and economic imperialism, communication imperialism, and cultural
imperialism.

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Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Drysén, E.A. 2016. A Critical Examination of Cultural Imperialism and its Impact on Global
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