06 Research Methods Topic Companion Digital Download

Research Methods
Page 2 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic companion: RESEARCH METHODS
Contents
Topic
Experimental Methods 3
Observational Techniques 8
Self-Report Techniques 15
Correlations 20
Case Studies [A-Level Only] 23
Aims, Hypotheses, IVs And DVs 25
Sampling 28
Pilot Studies and Experimental Design 34
Control, Demand Characteristics, and Investigator Effects 38
Ethical Guidelines, Peer Review and The Economy 41
Types of Data 47
Descriptive Statistics 50
Presentation and Display of Quantitative Data 57
Distributions: Normal and Skewed Distributions 59
Content Analysis [A-Level Only] 60
Features of Science [A-Level Only] 63
Reliability [A-Level Only] 66
Validity [A-Level Only] 69
Reporting Psychological Investigations [A-Level Only] 72
The Sign Test [As And A-Level] 77
Levels of Measurement [A-Level Only] 80
Probability and Significance [A-Level Only] 83
Statistical Tests [A-Level Only] 85
Appendices 90
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AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic companion: RESEARCH METHODS Page 3
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Specification: Experimental method. Types of experiment: laboratory and field
experiments; natural and quasi experiments.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW
 Outline and evaluate laboratory experiments.
 Outline and evaluate field experiments.
 Outline and evaluate natural experiments.
 Outline and evaluate quasi experiments.

Introduction
Experimental methods all have one thing in common: they are attempting to find a cause and effect
relationship between an independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV), and to measure the
extent of this effect. There are four different types of experiment:
1. Laboratory experiment
2. Field experiment
3. Natural experiment
4. Quasi experiment

Summary of Experimental Methods
SETTING IV DV
LABORATORY Controlled conditions Manipulates the IV Measures the DV
FIELD Natural conditions Manipulates the IV Measures the DV
IV is naturally occurring
NATURAL Natural conditions (e.g. unemployment and an Measures the DV
earthquake)
IV is a difference between
Controlled conditions
QUASI people (e.g. gender and Measures the DV
/Natural conditions
age)

Laboratory Experiments
Laboratory experiments are conducted under specified controlled conditions in which the researcher
manipulates the independent variable (IV) to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV). The
conditions are heavily controlled in order to minimise the effect of any extraneous variables, to prevent
them from becoming a confounding
variable which might adversely affect
the DV. Participants will be aware
that they are taking part in an
investigation due to the contrived
nature of the situation which may
feel unlike real‐life.

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Evaluating Laboratory Experiments
 A strength of laboratory experiments is the high degree of control over extraneous variables which can
be achieved. A researcher is therefore able, in most cases, to prevent extraneous variables from
becoming confounding variables which negatively affect the DV. This provides a high degree of internal
validity allowing for conclusions about cause and effect to be drawn between the IV and DV.

 A limitation of laboratory experiments is that they can lack external validity. The artificial nature of the
environment in which the investigation is taking place means that the study can lack ecological validity.
This means that the findings of the study cannot always be generalised to settings beyond the
laboratory as the tasks often lack mundane realism and would not be everyday life occurrences. Since
participants know they are being investigated their behaviour can also change in an unnatural manner
resulting in demand characteristics being seen.

Field Experiments
Field experiments are carried out in natural conditions, in which the researcher manipulates the
independent variable (IV) to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV). The ‘field’ is considered
any location which is not a laboratory. Participants in a field experiment typically do not know that they are
taking part in an investigation with a view to observing more natural behaviour.

Evaluating Field Experiments
 The natural setting means that field experiments often have a higher level of ecological validity, in
comparison to laboratory studies. This means that the results are more likely to be representative of
behaviour witnessed in everyday life. However, because the setting is more natural, there is less
control over extraneous variables. These can then become confounding variables and distort the
findings meaning a firm cause and effect relationship cannot be drawn since other factors could have
had an impact on the DV, other than the IV.

 There are important ethical issues associated with field experiments. Since participants are often
unaware that they are in fact participants in a psychological investigation, they cannot give informed
consent to take part. As such, the research may involve a breach of their privacy rights and a cost‐
benefit analysis will need to be conducted before proceeding with any study to ensure the perceived
outcomes from the research will outweigh any personal costs to those involved.

Natural Experiments
In a natural experiment, the researcher does not manipulate the IV and instead examines the effect of an
existing IV on the dependent variable (DV). This IV is naturally occurring, such as a flood or earthquake,
and the behaviour of people affected is either compared to their own behaviour beforehand, when
possible, or with a control group who have not encountered the IV. It is important to note that it is the IV
which is natural in this type of experiment, and not necessarily the context in which the investigation is
taking place since participants could be tested in a laboratory as part of the study.

Evaluating Natural Experiments
 The naturally occurring IV means that natural experiments often have a higher level of external validity
compared to laboratory and field experiments. These types of investigations are considered high in
ecological validity given the real‐life issues that are being studied rather than manipulated artificially.
However, natural experiments have no control over the environment and subsequent extraneous
variables, which means that it is difficult for the research to accurately assess the effects of the IV on
the DV. It may be that a confounding variable has affected the results so a cause and effect
relationship must be drawn with extreme caution, if at all.

 A strength of using natural experiments is the unique insights gained into real‐life situations from using
this methodology. Investigating a naturally occurring IV allows for research to be conducted into areas
of psychology that could not be generated for ethical reasons or because of logistical and practical
constraints. However, a naturally occurring event that interests researchers may only occur very rarely.
This limits the opportunity to generalise the results to other similar events or circumstances.

Quasi Experiments
Quasi experiments also contain a naturally occurring independent variable (IV), but one which already
exists. However, in this instance the IV is a difference between people such as gender, age or a personality
trait. The researcher examines the effect of this IV on the dependent variable (DV). Quasi experiments do
not have to be conducted in a natural setting, although they often are. They may also be conducted in a
laboratory setting, under controlled conditions.

Evaluating Quasi Experiments
 A limitation of quasi experiments is that participants cannot be randomly allocated to research
conditions to remove the issue of bias in the procedure. Since the IV is a naturally occurring difference
between the participants, the level of IV to which they belong is predecided. This means the
psychologist will be less certain that the IV alone will have caused the effect which is measured through
the DV as other dispositional or environmental factors may have played a role in the outcome. That
being said, quasi experiments allow researchers to compare different types of people easily to provide
insight into similarities or differences between these groups which could not be ethically generated
otherwise.

 There are methodological issues associated with conducting quasi experiments. When quasi
experiments take place under natural conditions, there is no control over the environment and
subsequent extraneous variables, making it difficult to be sure that factors such as age, gender or
ethnicity have affected the DV. On the other hand, when quasi experiments take place under
laboratory conditions the high level of control means that the research often lacks ecological validity,
and the findings cannot always be generalised to a real‐life setting since behaviour may not translate
outside of the research environment.

Comparison of Experimental Methods
ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES REPLICABILITY
LABORATORY Low Controlled High
FIELD High Not controlled Low
NATURAL High Not controlled Low
QUASI *Low/High *Controlled/Not controlled *High/Low
*The level of each factor depends on whether the quasi experiments are carried out in a laboratory setting
or under natural conditions.

Possible Exam Questions
1. Dr Helpful was interested in studying expectations when meeting a new work colleague for the first
time. Each participant who volunteered to take part was taken to the same room where they listened
to a description of their new potential work mate called ‘Ms B’. The participants were randomly
allocated to one of two groups in the experiment. Dr Helpful gave each participant exactly the same
background information about ‘Ms B’, but the order of the information varied depending the
experimental condition as follows:

Group 1 Three strengths of Ms B’s CV were followed by three negative comments.
Group 2 Three negative comments about Ms B’s CV were followed by three strengths.

After listening to the excerpt from Ms B’s CV, each participant was asked to state whether they thought
Ms B would be a competent colleague to have on their work team or not. Dr Helpful recorded how
many participants in each group stated that Ms B was ‘competent’.

Identify which type of experiment that was conducted by Dr Helpful. (1 mark)

2. What is meant by the term ‘quasi experiment’? (2 marks)
Exam Hint: It is important for students to remember that quasi experiments can be conducted in either a
laboratory or a natural setting.

3. Identify two features of an experiment. (2 marks)

4. Outline what is meant by a laboratory experiment. (2 marks)

5. Identify and explain one difference between a laboratory and a field experiment. (2 marks)

6. A psychologist was interested in investigating whether people with phobias were more aware of their
own heartbeat than people who do not suffer with a specific phobia. A matched pairs design was
adopted. The sample included eight individuals with a phobia and eight people without a phobia. The
investigator asked each participant to make an estimation about how fast their heart was beating (in
beats per minute). This figure was compared to their actual heartbeat measurement. Results showed
that people with a phobia were more accurate at estimating their own heartbeat than people who did
not suffer with a phobia at all.

Explain why this study is considered a quasi experiment. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Many students often recognise that quasi experiments do not involve manipulation of the IV,
but in questions like this can struggle to apply this understanding to the context of the question; that
phobias could be pre‐existing (evolutionary/biological origin) or naturally occurring (learned from the
environment).

7. Describe one difference between a natural experiment and a field experiment. (2 marks)

8. Donald, a middle‐aged male politician, approached an adult in a busy street and asked for directions to
the nearest bus stop. He repeated this with 14 other adults in the same city.

Each of the 15 adults asked were then approached by a second researcher, called Melania, who
showed each of them six photographs of different middle‐aged politicians, including a photograph of
Donald. Melania asked the 15 adults to choose the image of the individual who had asked them for
directions to the bus stop.

Melania estimated the age of each of the 15 adults and noted whether each participant had chosen the
correct photograph of Donald.

Suggest one reason why the researchers decided to use a field experiment rather than a laboratory
experiment. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Students can gain marks here for responses referring to the benefits in terms of validity or
fewer demand characteristics but must elaborate their point fully to achieve the second mark.


9. What is meant by an extraneous variable? (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Students need to avoid vague definitions of extraneous variables such as, ‘something that
cannot be controlled’ or ‘something that must be controlled’. Answers must be specific by referring to
the fact that an EV is a variable that is not manipulated by the experimenter but may have an effect on
the dependent variable making it difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship.

10. Explain why it is important to control extraneous variables in experimental research. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Stronger answers to this question will refer to ‘confounding variables’ in their answer.

11. Eleanor was interested in investigating the impact of caffeine on memory.

Discuss advantages of carrying out an experiment like this in a laboratory. (4 marks)
Exam Hint: If students write about disadvantages here no marks will be awarded as the question clearly
asks for ‘advantages’. Answers which refer to specific advantages (e.g. higher control of extraneous
variables) and link it appropriately to the scenario (e.g. strength of caffeinated drink assured) will be
able to access the full range of marks available.

12. Outline and evaluate the use of laboratory experiments in psychological research. Refer to specific
examples in your answer. (8 marks)


OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES
Specification: Observational techniques. Types of observation: naturalistic and controlled
observation; covert and overt observation; participant and non‐participant observation.
Observational design: behavioural categories; event sampling; time sampling.

 Outline and evaluate observational techniques, including:
o Covert and overt
o Participant and non‐participant
o Naturalistic and controlled
o Structured and unstructured
 Outline and evaluate the factors involved in the design of observational research, including:
o Behavioural categories
o Event sampling and time sampling

Introduction to Observational Techniques
When conducting an observation, the researcher has the choice between:
 Covert and overt
 Participant and non‐participant
 Naturalistic and controlled
 Structured and unstructured

It is important to note that these techniques are not mutually exclusive: it is quite possible for an
observation to be naturalistic, unstructured, participant and covert all at the same time, as these terms
refer to different aspects of the methods.

Covert Observations
A covert observation is also known as ‘undisclosed’ observation and consists of observing people without
their knowledge; for example, using a one‐way mirror (covert non‐participant) or joining a group as a
member (covert participant). Participants may be informed of their involvement in the study after the
observation has taken place.

Evaluating Covert Observations
 A strength of covert observation compared to overt
observation is that investigator effects are less likely. Since
the investigator is hidden in this type of observation there
is less chance that their direct or indirect behaviour will
have an impact on the performance of the participants. As
a result, there is less chance of demand characteristics
occurring whereby the participant tries to guess the aim of
the investigation and act accordingly, since they are
unaware that they are being observed. This means that the
participants’ behaviour seen will be more natural and
representative of their everyday behaviour.

 There are ethical issues associated with the covert method
of observation inherent within its design. As participants
are not aware they are taking part in an investigation, they

cannot give fully informed consent nor exercise their right to withdraw. That being said, it is perfectly
acceptable to observe human behaviour in a public place such as a shopping centre. This means that an
assessment is made by the investigator before the observation begins to ensure that no privacy laws
are being violated.

Overt Observations
An overt observation is an observational technique where the observations are ‘open’ and the participants
know/are aware that they are being observed. For example, filming publicly (overt non‐participant) or
joining a class and informing the other students that you are carrying out an observation (overt
participant).

Evaluating Overt Observations
 A strength of the overt method is that it is often more ethical than the covert method. Since the
participants are aware that their behaviour is being observed for the purposes of a psychological
investigation, it is possible to inform them in advance of the aims and thus obtain informed consent.
This awareness of participation also allows participants to exercise their right to withdraw themselves
or their data from the investigation, before, during or after the observation is conducted. As a result,
the reputation of psychological research as being ethical is protected.

 A drawback of using an overt style of observation is the possibility of investigator effects. It is possible
for a bias to occur whereby what the investigator does influences the behaviour of the participants in a
way which was not intended (e.g. body language or facial expressions). As a result, the participants may
change their behaviour through demand characteristics and act in accordance with their perception of
the research aims. Therefore, authentic and natural behaviour is not being observed, thus reducing the
internal validity of the observation because it is overt.

Participant Observations
In a participant observation, the person who is conducting the observation also takes part in the activity
being observed. It can be either covert (a group member quietly observing others without their knowledge)
or overt (a group member using a camera to record the behaviour of other members with their full
knowledge).

Evaluating Participant Observations
 A strength of using participant observations in psychological research is that the researcher can obtain
in‐depth data. Since the observer is in close proximity to the participants, they are able to gain a
unique insight into the phenomenon in question. In addition, through participating they are unlikely to
overlook any behaviour that, as an external observer, would be missed due to nuances only seen by
becoming a participant of the activity itself. This means that a comprehensive understanding of human
behaviour can be achieved using this method of observation.

 A disadvantage of using the participant observation method is the possibility of investigator effects
and the impact of the researcher on the other participants’ behaviour. The mere presence of the
investigator as a member within the group might influence the participants’ behaviour in a way which
was not intended. Consequently, the participants may change their behaviour through demand
characteristics and act in accordance with their perception of the research aims. Consequently, natural
behaviour is not being observed, thus reducing the internal validity of the observation because the
investigator is a participant.

Non‐Participant Observations
In a non‐participant observation, the person who is conducting the observation does not participate in the
activity being observed. This type of observation is quite common in educational settings, as in teacher
evaluations, for example, when an observer sits in the corner of the room and watches the lesson. The aim
is for the observer to be as unobtrusive as possible and not engage with any of the activities happening.

Evaluating Non‐Participant Observations
 An advantage of using a non‐participant observation method is that investigator effects are less likely
compared to a participant observation. The researcher is often observing at a distance from the
participant(s) and in some situations, not visible to them at all. As a result, the behaviour of the
investigator is unlikely to have a negative impact on the behaviour of the participants. This means that
behaviour observed is more likely to be representative of natural and unaltered human conduct.

 There are disadvantages associated with the non‐participant method of observation. Due to a lack of
proximity to the participant behaviour being studied, the researcher might miss behaviours of interest.
This means that unique insights which contribute to the understanding of the human behaviour being
observed will be overlooked because of not being involved personally.

Naturalistic Observations
A naturalistic observation is an observation carried out in an unaltered setting in which the observer does
not interfere in any way and merely observes the behaviour in question as it happens normally. An example
of this would be an observation carried out in a shopping centre as people go about their daily business.

Evaluating Naturalistic Observations
 A strength of using naturalistic observations is that a higher level of ecological validity can be achieved.
In an observation of this design, the researcher records naturally occurring behaviour in the original
environment in which it ordinarily occurs. This means that the behaviour being recorded is likely to be
more representative of everyday activities and reflect spontaneous actions that sometimes occur
incidentally.

 There are issues of ascertaining reliability with naturalistic observations. Since observations of this kind
record behaviours which are occurring naturally as they unfold it is difficult, if not impossible, for the
exact same conditions to be replicated. Consequently, the test‐retest method of checking reliability
cannot be used with this type of observational design, as the researcher is not in control of variables.
This means that research attempting to understand human behaviour using naturalistic observations
often lacks replicability.

Controlled Observations
A controlled observation is conducted under strict conditions, such as in an observation room or
laboratory setting where extraneous variables (such as time of day, noise, temperature and visual
distractions) can be controlled to avoid interference with the behaviour being observed. Sometimes one‐
way mirrors can be used for these types of observations. If the participants know they are being observed,
this is an overt method which is most commonly the case for controlled observations.

Evaluating Controlled Observations
 A strength of controlled observations is that they can be replicated to check for reliability. By their very
nature, the variables are highly controlled in this type of observational design. This means that
standardised procedures, the manipulation of the independent variable and control over extraneous

variables can be repeated by the same, or different, researchers to assess the reliability.

 A criticism of controlled observation is that they have a lower level of external validity. The researcher
records behaviour in an artificial environment with variables subject to strict manipulation. This high
level of control comes at a cost with the setting of the observation feeling quite unnatural as a result.
Therefore, the participants’ behaviour may alter in response meaning that the observation no longer
represents real‐life occurrences causing the ecological validity of the findings to be questionable.

Structured Observations
In structured observations, the researcher uses coded ‘schedules’ according to a previously agreed formula
to document the behaviour and organise data into behavioural categories. A behavioural category is when
psychologists must decide which specific behaviours should be examined. This involves breaking the target
behaviour (e.g. aggression) into components that can be observed and measured (e.g. hitting or kicking).

Evaluating Structured Observations
 A strength of structured observations is that the researcher can compare behaviour between
participants and across groups. The use of operationalised behavioural categories makes the coding of
the data more systematic. When there is more than one observer, the standardised behaviour
schedule results in greater inter‐observer reliability. It is important for research methodologies to be
consistent so that accurate comparisons can be made.

 However, there may be problems with ascertaining high internal validity in a structured observation.
This is because the researcher may miss some crucial behaviours during the observation which is
pertinent to the aim of the investigation. As a result, the findings portrayed may not provide the full
picture about the behaviour in question, as they could lack the finer details. This is a problem because
what was intended to be measured was not achieved in its entirety.

Unstructured Observations
An unstructured observation involves every instance of the observed behaviour being recorded and
described in as much detail as possible. This is useful if the behaviour that researchers are interested in
does not occur very often and is more usual with naturalistic observation.

Evaluating Unstructured Observations
 A strength of unstructured observation is the richness of data obtained. Since behaviour is recorded in
great detail, researchers are able to obtain a comprehensive view of human behaviour. This adds to the
internal validity of the observational technique.

 Additionally, this type of observation is also prone to observer bias due to the lack of objective
behaviour categories. This is a problem because the observer may then only record behaviour which is
of subjective value to them, and not a valid representation of what is being displayed. As a result, there
may be a problem with inter‐observer reliability as there will be a lack of consistency in the
observations recorded.


Comparison of Observational Techniques
OVERVIEW STRENGTHS LIMITATIONS
Investigator effects and
COVERT Undisclosed: Participant is Less ethical: lack of
demand characteristics
OBSERVATION not aware informed consent
are less likely
OVERT More ethical: informed
Participant is aware demand characteristics are
OBSERVATION consent obtained
more likely

PARTICIPANT Researcher takes part (close In‐depth data is gathered
demand characteristics are
OBSERVATION proximity) due to close proximity
more likely
Investigator effects and Researcher might miss
NON‐PARTICIPANT Researcher does not take
demand characteristics behaviours of interest due
OBSERVATION part (not close proximity)
are less likely to lack of proximity

NATURALISTIC Takes place in naturalistic Higher level of ecological Issues with replication and

OBSERVATION (unaltered) setting validity ascertaining reliability
CONTROLLED Takes place in artificial Can be replicated to check Lower levels of ecological
OBSERVATION (controlled) environment reliability validity

Less rich data can lack
STRUCTURED Behaviour is coded using Higher levels of inter‐ internal validity as
OBSERVATION behavioural categories observer reliability researchers miss important
behaviours
UNSTRUCTURED Every instance of behaviour Rich data leads to greater Lower levels of inter‐
OBSERVATION is recorded and described internal validity observer reliability

Exam Hint: Although there are many strengths/limitations of observations, you will notice that for each
pair of observations (i.e. covert and overt) the strength of one type (i.e. covert observations have a lower
chance of investigator effects) is the limitation of the opposite type (i.e. overt observations have a higher
chance of investigator effects).

In observations, the observer generally has the choice of two methods: time sampling or event sampling.
TIME SAMPLING EVENT SAMPLING
This is where an observer records This is where an observer records the
behaviour at prescribed intervals, e.g. number of times that the target behaviour
every 10 seconds. occurs, e.g. using a tally.
Every behaviour of interest to the
Time sampling methods allow for a better
researcher, in theory, will be counted from
STRENGTH use of time since fewer observations are
the beginning through to the end of the
made.
observation.
There is the possibility that some
Not every behaviour of relevance to the
behaviours could be missed if there is too
LIMITATION investigation will be counted if it occurs in
much happening at the same time,
between the time frames allocated.
resulting in some not being coded.


1. Explain how observational research can be enhanced through the use of operationalised behavioural
categories. (2 marks)

2. Explain what is meant by ‘overt observation’. (2 marks)

3. Describe what is meant by ‘participant observation’. (2 marks)

4. Explain what is meant by ‘event sampling’ in relation to observational research in psychology. (2 marks)

5. Controlled observation techniques have been used in the Strange Situation to investigate cultural
variations in attachment. Suggest one advantage of using controlled observation in psychological
research. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: It is important for students to only express one advantage of using a controlled observational
method for this question using the ‘name and explain’ method of elaboration.

6. Briefly explain how a psychologist could improve her research by conducting observations in a
controlled environment. (4 marks)

7. Explain the difference between a participant observation and a non‐participant observation. You may
use an example to support your point. (4 marks)
Exam Hint: Note that this question is asking for a difference and not a definition of each observational
method, so the response must be tailored accordingly.

8. Identify and explain one strength and one limitation of conducting naturalistic observations. (4 marks)

9. A developmental psychologist was interested in investigating the effects of early and late adoption on
future aggressive behaviour in children. She compared the behaviour of children who had been
adopted before the age of two with children who had been adopted after the age of two. The children
were observed in their primary school playground when they were seven years old.

Suggest two operationalised behavioural categories that the developmental psychologist could use in
her observation of aggressive behaviour in children and explain how the psychologist could have

carried out this observation. (4 marks)
Exam Hint: This is a context based question so explicit reference to the scenario is required to gain full
credit. Note that behavioural categories such as ‘verbal aggression’ and ‘physical aggression’ would not
be awarded any marks as they are not operationalised. Suggestions such as ‘kicking’ or ‘swearing’ would
be creditworthy as they are specific and measurable. To answer the second component of this question,
most students will refer to the use of a tally chart for recording behaviours observed on an event
sampling basis.


10. Read the item below and then answer the question that follows.

Dr Fox was interested in the differences between male and female communication skills. Past research
has investigated gender differences in this field of psychology through focusing on fluency in spoken
word communication and non‐verbal communication such as body language and facial expressions.

Design an observational study for Dr Fox to be able investigate differences between males and females
in non‐verbal communication when they are giving a presentation to a large audience. (12 marks)

In your answer, you must refer to:
a. the task used for the participants to complete
b. the behavioural categories to be implemented and how the data will be recorded
c. how reliability of the data collection might be established
d. ethical issues to be considered.


SELF‐REPORT TECHNIQUES
Specification: Self‐report techniques. Questionnaires; interviews, structured and
unstructured. Questionnaire construction, including use of open and closed questions;
design of interviews.

 Outline and evaluate the use of questionnaires, including: open and closed questions.
 Outline and evaluate interviews, including:
o Structured
o Unstructured

Introduction to Questionnaires
Questionnaires are a type of ‘self‐report’ technique, where participants provide information relating to
their thoughts, feelings and behaviours. They can be designed in different ways, and can comprise of open
questions, closed questions or a mixture of both.

Open Questions
Open questions allow participants to answer however they wish, and thus generate qualitative data since
there is no fixed number of responses to select from. Responses to these types of questions provide rich
and detailed data which can provide insight into the unique human condition.

Evaluation of Open Question Questionnaires
 A strength of using open questions is that there is less chance of researcher bias. This is especially true
if the questionnaire is also anonymous, since the participant can answer the questions in their own
words, without input from the researcher providing a set number of responses. Consequently, there is
less chance of the responses being influenced by the researcher’s expectations.

 However, there are limitations of using questionnaires in psychological research. Participants may
answer in a socially desirable way, where they try to portray themselves in the best possible light to
the researcher. This means that the open response may lack validity as it is not their natural response.

Closed Questions
Closed questions restrict the
participant to a predetermined set of
responses and generate quantitative
data. There are different types of
closed questions, including: checklist,
Likert response scale and ranking
scale.

 Checklist: This is a type of question
where participants tick the
answer(s) that apply to them. For
example: What is the highest
academic qualification you hold?

 GCSEs  A‐levels  Bachelor’s Degree  Postgraduate Degree

 Likert Response Scale: This is a type of question where participants rate on a scale their views/opinions
on a question. For example: Psychology is the most interesting A‐Level subject. (Circle the number that
applies).
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Agree Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly Disagree

 Ranking Scale: This is where participants place a list of items in their preferred order. For example: Rank
the following activities according to how much time you spend on them each day. (1 = most time, 4 =
least time).
 Talking face‐to‐face
 Talking on the telephone
 Text messaging
 Other (e.g. Snapchat or Instagram)

Evaluation of Closed Question Questionnaires
 An advantage of using closed questions is the nature of the data collected which is quantitative. This
type of data makes it easy to analyse the results statistically or in a graphical format. This is useful
because direct comparisons can be made between groups of individuals. This means the researcher can
look for patterns and trends in the data that can lead to further research being conducted.

 There are limitations to adopting a closed question format in questionnaire research. By sticking to a
predetermined list of questions, the researcher is unable to pursue and explore responses that are of
particular interest. Additionally, closed questions often produce a response bias. This can happen
because the participant doesn’t take the time to read all the questions properly and, for example,
selects ‘yes’ for each of their answers. This means that the data generated may lack internal validity.

Questionnaire Design
The following factors should be considered when designing questionnaires:
 Keep the terminology simple and clear.
 Keep it as short as possible.
 Be sensitive; avoid personal questions. If you must, collect personal information at the end.
 Do not use leading questions.
 Do not use questions that make assumptions or sweeping statements.
 Pilot and modify the questionnaire.

Comparison of Open Question and Closed Question Questionnaires
STRENGTHS LIMITATIONS
OPEN Less chance of researcher bias, and detailed Participants may answer in a socially

QUESTION answers obtained. desirable way, making answers less valid.
Predetermined list of questions limits
CLOSED Easy to analyse quantitative data, discover
responses ability to explore interesting
QUESTION trends and replicate research.
answers. Response bias.


Introduction to Interviews
Interviews are another type of self‐report technique which predominantly take place on a face‐to‐face
basis, although they can also happen over the telephone.

There are three different interview designs: interviews can take the form of participants just answering a
predetermined list of questions (structured interviews); they can be more like a relaxed conversation
between friends (unstructured interviews); and, although it is not on the specification, it is also important
to recognise that many fall between the two (semi‐structured interviews).

Responses are usually recorded, with the use of an interview schedule that the interviewer completes
and/or audio or video recording, with the informed consent of the interviewee(s).

Structured Interviews
Structured interviews have the questions decided on in advance and they are asked in exactly the same
order for each interviewee taking part. The interviewer uses an interview schedule and will often record
the answers to each question by taking notes/ticking boxes on their schedule.

Evaluation of Structured Interviews
 An advantage of using structured interviews in psychological research is that the quantitative
(numerical) data is easier to statistically analyse. This is useful because direct comparisons can be made
between groups of individuals meaning that the researcher can look for patterns and trends in the
data. Additionally, because the questions are standardised and asked in the same sequence every time
to all participants, the interview is easily replicable to test for reliability.

 There are disadvantages of using the structured interview method. It is possible that over the course of
running several interviews following the same schedule with different participants, that investigator
effects may play a role. This is where the interviewer may, unconsciously, bias any responses given to
the questions they ask by their tone of voice, intonations, body language and so on. Likewise,
investigator effects can also occur between researchers where there is more than one researcher
conducting the interviews.

Unstructured Interviews
Unstructured interviews are conducted more like a conversation, with the interviewer only facilitating the
discussion rather than asking set questions. Very little is decided in advance (only the topic and questions
needed to identify the interviewee). Therefore, this type of interview typically produces a large amount of
rich qualitative data. Answers will usually be audio or video recorded, as to write them all down as quickly
as they were spoken would be impossible for the interviewer, and would also spoil the relaxed atmosphere
of the unstructured interview.

Evaluation of Unstructured Interviews
 The use of unstructured interviews can increase the validity of findings by significantly reducing the
possibility of investigator effects. The open question schedule in unstructured interviews means that
the investigator does not control the direction of the conversation to meet their own preconceived
agenda. Participants can justify their answers in their own words with opinions rather than trying to
guess the aim of the study through any clues given. This is useful because it reduces the possibility of
participants displaying demand characteristics in their interview responses.

 Unstructured interviews generate large quantities of rich and interesting qualitative data. This allows
the interviewer to clarify the meaning and gain further information from the participant if required to

full understand complex human behaviour. However, unstructured interviews are more time
consuming and costly, as this type of interview requires a trained psychologist to administer them. A
further issue with this method is that statistical analysis can be challenging, as the data collected is
qualitative, making it more difficult to identify patterns and trends without undergoing a content
analysis first.

Semi‐Structured Interviews
Semi‐structured interviews comprise of mostly prepared questions that can be supplemented with
additional questions as seen fit by the interviewer at the time. As with unstructured interviews, the
interviewer can deviate from the original questions and consequently this type of interview also typically
produces rich qualitative data.

Evaluation of Semi‐Structured Interviews
 The use of semi‐structured interview can increase the validity of findings. The open questions in semi‐
structured interviews may encourage the participant to be honest in their answers, thus reducing
social desirability bias as participants are able to justify their answers in their own words with
opinions. However, the interviewer still retains control over the semi‐structured interview schedule
compared to an unstructured interview, which can result in investigator effects which can affect the
behaviour of the participants negatively.

 Semi‐structured interviews generate rich and interesting qualitative data. As with unstructured
interviews, this allows the interviewer to clarify the meaning of the participants’ responses and gain
further information if required. This provides a unique insight into explaining human behaviour.
However, as a result, analysis of such data can be more difficult, time consuming and expensive to
conduct compared to quantitative data which is easier to statistically analyse without undergoing
further processing beforehand.

Comparison of Different Interview Designs
Easier to analyse quantitative data;
STRUCTURED Increased risk of investigator effects.
discover trends; replicability.
Less chance of demand characteristics Difficult to analyse qualitative data; time
UNSTRUCTURED
and investigator effects. consuming and expensive.
Higher chance of demand characteristics
SEMI‐ Rich and interesting qualitative data; less
in comparison to unstructured
STRUCTURED chance of social desirability bias.
interviews.

1. Suggest one closed question that a researcher could use in a structured interview investigating religion.
(2 marks)

2. Explain one disadvantage of using open questions in an interview rather than closed questions. (2
marks)

3. Explain what is involved in self‐report. (3 marks)
Exam Hint: This question requires students to explain that self‐report often involves questionnaires
and/or interviews with suitable elaboration thereafter on how this would be conducted.


4. Dr Clamp was interested in investigating attitudes towards Brexit. She is unsure about which
methodology to select for her study.

Explain the difference between a structured interview and an unstructured interview. (3 marks)

5. Two psychology undergraduates are interested in devising a questionnaire to collect data on their
campus about attitudes towards student tuition fees.

Briefly discuss the benefits for the researchers of using both closed and open questions on their
questionnaire about attitudes to tuition fees. (4 marks)

6. Outline two differences between an interview and a questionnaire. (4 marks)

7. Evaluate the use of questionnaires as a research method. (4 marks)
Exam Hint: Answers for this type of question need to clearly explain the strength or limitation rather
than merely state them. So, to state that questionnaires are ‘quick’ gains no credit because there is no
explanation as to why they are quick. Better answers will compare questionnaires to other methods such
as interviews. So, to say that a questionnaire is quick in comparison to an interview because a trained
researcher does not need to be present becomes a creditworthy comment.

8. Evaluate the use of self‐report techniques, including both questionnaires and interviews, in
psychological research. (8 marks)
Exam Hint: Whilst this is an eight‐mark question, it is worth unpicking the demands to consider the
different elements required for a successful answer to be produced. For example, this question could be
interpreted as: 1) Evaluate questionnaires (4 marks); and 2) Evaluate interviews (4 marks).


CORRELATIONS
Specification: Correlations. Analysis of the relationship between co‐variables. The
difference between correlations and experiments. Analysis and interpretation of
correlation, including correlation coefficients.

 Outline and evaluate correlational techniques.
 Outline the difference between correlations and experiments.
 Interpret correlation coefficients.

Introduction to Correlational Techniques
Correlational techniques are non‐experimental methods used to measure how strong the relationship is
between two (or more) variables. In an experiment, the effect of an independent variable upon the
dependent variable is measured; however, in correlational studies the movement and direction of co‐
variables in response to each other is measured. There is no claim of a cause and effect relationship,
although after a correlational study has been conducted, further research will often be conducted to
determine if one variable is in fact affecting the other.

A real‐world example of this is seen with cigarette‐smoking and lung cancer: first it was noticed that there
was a positive correlation between the number of cigarettes smoked and the likelihood of developing lung
cancer. Later, this research was extended and a cause and effect relationship was discovered between
cigarette‐smoking and lung cancer.

There are different types of correlation:
 Positive correlation: As one variable increases the other variable increases. For example – height and
shoe size.
 Negative correlation: As one variable increases the other variable decreases. For example – the GCSE
grades of students and the amount of time they are absent from school.
 Zero correlation: occurs when a correlational study finds no relationship between variables. For
example – the amount of rainfall in Wales and the number of people who have read the Lord of the
Rings trilogy.
Correlation Coefficient
A correlation coefficient is used to measure the strength and nature (positive or negative) of the
relationship between two co‐variables. The correlation coefficient number represents the strength of the
relationship and can range between ‐1.0 and +1.0. The nearer the number is to +1 or ‐1 the stronger the
correlation. A perfect positive correlation has a correlation coefficient of +1 and for a perfect negative
correlation it is ‐1.


Scattergram
A scattergram (sometimes called a scattergraph) is a graph that shows the correlation between two sets of
data (co‐variables) by plotting points to represent each pair of scores. It indicates the degree and direction
of the correlation between the co‐variables, one of which is indicated on the X‐axis and the other on the Y‐
axis.

Evaluation of Correlational Techniques
 Correlational studies are an ideal place to begin preliminary research investigations. Since they
measure the strength of a relationship between two (or more) variables, this can provide valuable
insight for future research. This type of analysis can be used when a laboratory experiment would be
unethical as the variables are not manipulated, merely correlated. In addition, secondary data can also
be used in correlational studies which alleviates the concern over informed consent as the information
is already in the public domain, e.g. government reports.

 There are limitations associated with using the correlational method. It is not possible to establish a
cause and effect relationship through correlating co‐variables. This means a researcher cannot
conclude that one variable caused the other variable to increase/decrease as there could be other
factors which influenced the relationship – referred to as the third variable problem. Moreover,
correlations only identify linear relationships and not curvilinear. For example, the relationship
between temperature and aggression is curvilinear, that is the relationship is positive to a point;
however, at very high temperatures aggression declines.


Summary of Correlational Techniques
Can be used when a laboratory
experiment would be unethical as the Not possible to establish cause and effect
CORRELATIONAL
variables are not manipulated, only relationships through conducting a correlation.
TECHNIQUES
correlated.
Measure the strength of a relationship
Can only identify linear relationships and not
between variables, allowing for further
curvilinear.
research to be conducted.

1. A psychological study recorded the number of hours that children spent in a day care setting from birth
to three years old, and asked each child’s primary care giver to rate their child for aggression. The study
found that, as the number of hours spent in day care went up, the parents rating of aggression also
went up. What type of correlation is this research indicating? (1 mark)
Exam Hint: Most students will be able to identify correctly that this is in fact a positive correlation
because as one variable increases, so does the other.

2. Discuss why it might be more appropriate for a researcher to use a correlation study rather than an

experiment. (3 marks)
Exam Hint: Answers which simply state that a correlational study looks for a relationship and
experiments investigate differences will only gain one mark here. In order to access further marks,
students must be able to explain issues around manipulation of variables and ethics.

3. Outline one strength and one weakness of using correlational methods in psychological research. (4
marks)
Exam Hint: Many students can consider the main weakness of correlations but struggle to correctly
outline a strength. Strengths include the ability to study the relationship between variables that occur
naturally, or to measure things that cannot be manipulated experimentally.


CASE STUDIES [A‐LEVEL ONLY]
Specification: Case studies.

 Outline and evaluate the use of case studies in psychology.

Case Studies
The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of an individual, establishment or real‐life
event. A case study does not refer to the way in which the research was conducted, as case studies can use
experimental or non‐experimental methods to collect data. For example, a researcher may want to
interview the participants, provide a questionnaire to their family or friends and even conduct a memory
test under controlled conditions to provide a rich and detailed overview of human behaviour.

Case studies are often used where there is a rare behaviour being investigated which does not arise often
enough to warrant a larger study being conducted. A case study allows data to be collected and analysed
on something that psychologists have very little understanding of, and can therefore be the starting point
for further, more in‐depth research.

Examples of famous case studies in psychology include: HM, Phineas Gage, Little Albert and Little Hans.
Likewise, psychologists have studied important world events such as the 9/11 terrorist attack in America
and the riots which began in London and spread throughout the UK in 2011.

Evaluation of Case Studies
 There are methodological issues associated with the use of case studies. By only studying one
individual, an isolated event or a small group of people it is very difficult to generalise any findings to
the wider population since results are likely to be so unique. This therefore creates issues with external
validity as psychologists are unable to conclude with confidence that anyone beyond the ‘case’ will
behave in the same way under similar circumstances, thus lowering population validity.

 An issue in case studies, particularly where qualitative methods are used, is that the researcher’s own
subjectivity may pose a problem. In the case study of Little Hans, for example, Freud developed an
entire theory based around what he observed. There was no scientific or experimental evidence to
support his suggestions from his case study. This means that a major problem with his research is that
we cannot be sure that he objectively reported his findings. Consequently, a major limitation with case
studies is that research bias and subjectivity can interfere with the validity of the findings/conclusions.

 A strength of the case study approach is
that it offers the opportunity to unveil rich,
detailed information about a situation.
These unique insights can often be
overlooked in situations where there is
only the manipulation of one variable in
order to measure its effect on another.
Further to this, case studies can be used in
circumstances which would not be ethical
to examine experimentally. For example,
the case study of Genie (Rymer, 1993)
allowed researchers to understand the
long‐term effects of failure to form an

attachment which they could not do with a human participant unless it naturally occurred.

1. Researchers often use a range of techniques to gather information in case studies of individuals,
institutions or events. Suggest one technique which the psychologist could use in a case study. (1 mark)
Exam Hint: Referring to the use of meta‐analysis here would not be appropriate: be specific and name an
experimental or non‐experimental research method (e.g. interview).

2. Define the key term ‘case study’. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Better answers will refer to the fact that a case study is an in‐depth investigation of a single
person, usually over a period of time, using a range of methods to collect data. Students can also
illustrate their answers with relevant examples, such as Freud’s Case Study of Little Hans.

3. Explain one limitation of using a case study as a method of investigation. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Most students will explain a lack of population validity here: since a case study is of a unique
person this means that it is difficult to generalise the results to the wider population as they may not
behave in the same way.

4. Explain one strength of using a case study methodology in psychology. (3 marks)

5. Scarlett has an incredible memory. She can see a pack of playing cards only once and then recall the
order correctly. A psychologist was interested in investigating this phenomenon further by focusing on
Scarlett and her amazing memory in different situations and contexts.

The scenario illustrated above is an example of a case study methodology. Explain one strength and
one weakness of this research method. (4 marks)
Exam Hint: For this question, there is one mark each for identifying one appropriate strength and one
appropriate weakness, and the third and fourth mark come from suitable elaboration of these points.
For example: a strength of using a case study to study memory is that the data gathered will be rich in
detail which will give a unique insight into the individual case of Scarlett and her memory.

6. Evaluate the use of case studies in psychological research. Refer to evidence in your answer. (6 marks)


AIMS, HYPOTHESES, IVS & DVS
Specification: Aims: stating aims, the difference between aims and hypotheses.
Hypotheses: directional and non‐directional. Variables: manipulation and control of
variables, including independent and dependent.

 Outline the aim for a psychological investigation and differentiate between an aim and a hypothesis.
 Identify the independent and dependent variables in a psychological investigation.
 Outline operationalised hypotheses for psychological investigations, including:
o Directional
o Non‐directional hypotheses

Writing Aims for Investigations
Before a researcher considers the aim of the experiment, there is always a research question they are
trying to answer. For example: ‘Does hunger affect memory for food‐related words?’ Thereafter, the
researcher creates their aim: To examine the effect of hunger on memory of food‐related words.
Exam Hint: Always start the wording of an aim with ‘To examine the effect of…’

Identifying Independent and Dependent Variables
The independent and dependent variables are the vital components of any experiment. Their presence is
how you identify whether a study is following an experimental methodology or not. If there is no
independent variable or dependent variable then the study is non‐experimental.
 Independent Variable (IV) – The variable that the researcher manipulates and which is assumed to
have a direct effect on the dependent variable (DV).

 Dependent Variable (DV) – The variable that the research measures. The variable that is affected by
changes in the independent variable (IV).

Exam Hint: It is unlikely that you will be asked to define what is meant by the terms IV and DV. You are
more likely to be asked to identify the IV and DV within a scenario.

For example: A psychologist showed participants 50 different cards, one at a time. Each card had two
unrelated words printed on it, e.g. balloon or rabbit. Participants in one group were instructed to form a
mental image to link the words. Participants in the other group were instructed to simply memorise the
words. After all the word pairs had been presented, each participant was shown a card with the first word
of each pair printed on it and asked to recall the second word.

What is the independent variable (IV) in this study? (2 marks)
Answer: Whether participants were instructed to form a mental image to link the unrelated word pairs
or simply instructed to memorise the word pairs without a memory strategy.

What is the dependent variable (DV) in this study? (2 marks)
Answer: The number of word pairs correctly recalled by the participants in each condition.

Exam Hint: Before answering any question where you are required identify the IV and DV, read the
extract carefully and underline the IV and DV. Once you have identified what you think the IV is, ask
yourself the following question: “Is it possible for the experimenter to manipulate this variable?”. If your
answer is ‘yes’ then this is likely to be your IV. If your answer is ‘no’ then this is unlikely to be the correct
IV.

Writing Operationalised Hypotheses for Experiments
A hypothesis is a clear and precise prediction about the difference or relationship between the variables in
the study. Operationalisation is the term used to describe how a variable is clearly defined by the
researcher. The term operationalisation can be applied to independent variables (IV), dependent variables
(DV) or co‐variables (in a correlational design).

The hypothesis should always contain an operationalised independent variable and dependent variable.
For example, if the aim of a study was: to examine the effect of hunger on the memory of food‐related
words, the IV is hunger levels (hungry vs. not hungry) and the DV might be the number of food‐related
words correctly recalled.

There are two types of experimental hypotheses:
 Directional hypothesis: predicts the specific nature (direction) of the difference between two or more
variables. This prediction is typically based on past research, accepted theory or literature on the topic.
A directional hypothesis is sometimes called one‐tailed. Examples of key words used in a directional
hypothesis are: higher, lower, more, less, increase, decrease, positive and negative.
Example: There will be a significant increase in the number of food‐related words correctly recalled by
the participants who are hungry, in comparison with those who are not hungry.

 Non‐directional hypotheses: predicts that a difference will exist between two or more variables
without predicting the exact direction of the difference. This is usually because previous research has
been inconclusive, and the specific nature (direction) of the effect of the IV on the DV cannot be
predicted confidently. Non‐directional hypothesis are sometimes called two‐tailed. The key word used
in a non‐directional hypothesis is difference.
Example: There will be a significant difference in the number of food‐related words correctly recalled for
participants who are hungry, in comparison with those who are not hungry.

Note: In the above non‐directional hypothesis, the IV (hunger levels) is shown to have an effect on the DV
(number of food‐related words correctly recalled) BUT we have not said if the effect will be more/less.

1. Identify the directional hypothesis from the list below. (1 mark)
a) There will be a difference in the driving ability of male and female drivers.
b) There will be a relationship between number of hours sleep and concentration levels.
c) There will be no difference between the amount of pasta eaten each month and ability to speak a
foreign language and any difference seen will be due to chance.
d) There will be a significant increase in the happiness rating of students who can leave lessons five
minutes early each day compared to those who are kept behind.

2. A researcher is interested in studying the influence of caffeine on attention span through conducting a
laboratory experiment. Identify the most likely independent variable (IV) for this investigation. (1 mark)
a) Gender of the participant
b) Ability to stay focused on a task
c) Drinking a cup of coffee or a glass of water
d) Location of the memory test

3. Suggest one reason why a psychologist might choose a non‐directional hypothesis over a directional
hypothesis. (2 marks)

4. Explain the difference between a directional and a non‐directional hypothesis. (2 marks)

5. A psychologist is interested in studying the effects of staying up late and not getting the recommended
eight hours sleep per night, compared to having an early night to get lots of rest on student
performance in a maths test at school the next day.

a) Identify the dependent variable (DV) in this investigation. (1 mark)
b) What is the difference between an aim and a hypothesis? (2 marks)
c) Explain what is meant by the term ‘operationalisation’. (2 marks)
d) How does a researcher decide whether to select a directional or a non‐directional hypothesis? (2
marks)

6. A cognitive psychologist was interested in investigating whether memory for words presented with a
visual representation alongside it, such as a picture, was better than memory for words presented
alone. The researcher used an independent groups design with participants recruited through
opportunity sampling at a university campus open day.

Group A: participants will be given two minutes to learn a list of 15 words before being asked to recall
them freely in any order.

Group B: participants will be given two minutes to learn the same list of 15 words, but this time each
word will presented with a visual representation alongside it. For example, the word ‘banana’ will have
a picture of a banana next to it. Participants will then be asked to recall the 15 words freely in any
order.

Suggest an appropriate non‐directional hypothesis for this experiment. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Students are required to operationalise the IV and DV to score full marks, for example: ‘There
will be a difference in the number of words correctly recalled when words are presented with pictures in
comparison to without pictures’.

‘There will be a difference in words recalled in condition one and condition two’ is not operationalised
and would therefore only receive one mark. Students must also make sure that their hypothesis does not
refer to a correlation by using the term ‘relationship’ or ‘link’ when this is clearly an experiment of
difference.

7. Research suggests that the cognitive interview technique can increase the accuracy of eyewitness
testimony compared to the standard police interview. Lakin et al. wants to test the accuracy of
eyewitness testimony following a real‐life bank robbery where staff and customers were held at gun
point, to increase the chances of prosecuting the correct perpetrators. Twelve of the individuals
present on the day of the crime agreed to take part in the study. The researchers decide to use an
independent measures design.

Suggest a suitable hypothesis for this investigation. (3 marks)
Exam Hint: To achieve full marks here the answer must show understanding of what was being
manipulated by the researcher (IV – cognitive interview or standard police interview) and what was
being measured in this study (DV) which was an increase in accuracy of eyewitness testimony.


SAMPLING
Specification: Sampling: the difference between population and sample; sampling
techniques including: random, systematic, stratified, opportunity and volunteer;
implications of sampling techniques, including bias and generalisation.

 Identify the difference between a population and a sample.
 Outline and evaluate the following sampling techniques:
o Random
o Systematic
o Stratified
o Opportunity
o Volunteer
 Evaluate the sampling techniques in relation to bias and generalisation.

Introduction to Sampling Techniques
Sampling involves selecting participants from a target population. The target population is the particular
subgroup to be studied, and to which the research findings will be generalised. A target population is
usually too large to study in its entirety, so sampling techniques are used to choose a representative
sample.

For example, a sample could be 20 A‐level students from a school that has 500 A‐level students in total.

Sampling Techniques
Psychologists use sampling techniques to choose people to represent the target population. If the sample
is representative then psychologists can generalise the results to the target population with more
credibility.

There are five common types of sampling:
 Random
 Systematic
 Stratified
 Opportunity
 Volunteer

Random Sampling
With random sampling, every member of the target
population has an equal chance of being selected. This
involves identifying everyone in the target population and then
selecting the number of participants you need in a way which
gives everyone an equal chance of being selected, such as
pulling names from a hat, or using a computer software
package which generates names/number randomly and
without bias.

If a researcher was trying to achieve a random sample from
500 A‐level students in a school, they would place the name of
each student on role into a hat/computer name generator and

then select the first 20, for example, to be participants in their study.
Evaluation of Random Sampling
 A strength of obtaining a random sample is that it is free from researcher bias. Since the sample is
generated by a computer generator or by selecting names from a hat the researcher does not have any
input into who is selected. This significantly reduces the possibility of them choosing a biased sample of
participants who would serve to support their aims. This means that the sample is likely to be
representative so can be generalised to the target population.

 There are drawbacks associated with the random sampling procedure. Ensuring that everyone in the
target population has an equal chance of being selected is a difficult and time consuming task. It is also
a possibility that individuals who are picked may be unwilling to take part. This results in the sample
being more akin to a volunteer sample.

Systematic Sampling
With systematic sampling, a predetermined system is used to select participants.

For example, every fifth person is chosen and the same interval is then consistently applied to the whole of
the target population such as the 10th, 15th, 20th person and so on.

If a systematic sample of 500 A‐level students in a school was required, a researcher would list every
student on role against a number, perhaps listed in alphabetical order, and then chose every 10th person to
achieve a sample of 20 participants for their study (e.g. person 10, 20, 30, etc.)

Evaluation of Systematic Sampling
 An advantage of using a systematic sampling system is that it is free from researcher bias. Since the
researcher is not selecting participants by choice, but by following a predetermined system, this
reduces any potential influence that the investigator may have over obtaining the sample.

 However, the systematic sampling method may not be truly unbiased. It might be that every Nth person
has a particular characteristic in common, for example being right‐handed. Although it would be fairly
unlikely and unlucky to get a sample who were all similar on a particular trait, it remains a possibility
with using this technique. Therefore, the sample generated may not be representative meaning
generalisation to the target population would be more difficult.

Stratified Sampling
In stratified sampling, subgroups within a population are identified. Participants are obtained from each
stratum (‘layer’ or category) in proportion to their occurrence within the population.

For example, if a class of A‐level psychology had 20 students: 18 males and 2 females, and a researcher
wanted a sample of 10 to participate in their study, the sample would consist of 9 males and 1 female, to

represent this population proportionally.

Evaluation of Stratified Sampling
 A strength of obtaining a stratified sample is that it is largely free from researcher bias. In this
technique, the sample is generated randomly once the subcategories/strata have been identified. This
significantly reduces the possibility of the researcher choosing a biased sample of participants who
would serve to support their aims. This means that sample is likely to be representative because each
particular subgroup, if selected appropriately, will be represented within the sample. This means that
any findings generated from research with a stratified sample can be generalised to the target
population with greater confidence.

 There are limitations associated with the stratified sampling method. Ensuring that the
subgroups/strata in target population are all accurately identified is sometime a difficult and time‐
consuming task. Furthermore, stratification is not a perfect process since the subgroups identified
cannot possibly reflect all the individual differences that exist between those in the target population.
Therefore, a truly representative sample would be extremely difficult to obtain using this technique.

Opportunity Sampling
Opportunity sampling consists of
selecting anyone who is available and
willing to take part in the study at the
time. This is a technique which is often
used in psychological research due to its
ease of application.

For example, an opportunity sample from
a school that has 500 A‐level students in
total would involve approaching the
students who were, for example, in the
sixth form centre during their free period
to ask them to participate in a study. The
first 20 who agree to take part would
form part of the sample.

Evaluation of Opportunity Sampling
 A strength of opportunity sampling is the convenient nature of the technique. In comparison to all
other sampling methods, obtaining an opportunity sample is quicker and easier since it requires less
effort on behalf of the researcher. As a result, it is likely to save money and is therefore favoured as the
most economical technique.

 There are issues of bias, however, with an opportunity sample. As the sample is drawn from a very
specific area or location, e.g. university, this means that it is likely only students will be available to take
part who are not representative of the target population. In addition, there in an increased risk of
investigator bias as the researcher has complete control over who they approach. This means that they
may select particular individuals or avoid others according to their own subjective preferences.

Volunteer Sampling
Volunteer sampling consists of participants self‐selecting to take part in a study by either volunteering
when asked or by responding to an advert.


For example, a psychologist could place posters in various locations around a school asking for A‐level
students to volunteer to take part in their study, providing an email address to reply to or a time, date and
venue to attend for participation. The first 20 volunteers would form part of their sample.

Evaluation of Volunteer Sampling
 There are strengths of choosing to use a volunteer sample in a psychological investigation. In this way,
participants generally approach the researcher rather than the other way around. This means that the
technique requires minimal effort and input on behalf of the researcher. As a result, this makes
obtaining a sample quicker and easier, in comparison to other methods.

 There are issues of bias associated with volunteer sampling. Very often it is a particular type of person
that is likely to take part in research as only those who see the advert will come forward to participate.
Furthermore, those individuals who are more curious or inquisitive by nature may volunteer more
readily. Therefore, the sample is likely to be biased and not representative of the target population
which makes generalisation of the findings more difficult.

Comparison of Sampling Techniques
METHOD TO OBTAIN
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
SAMPLE
Difficult and time consuming
Every member of the target Likely to be representative so to get the full details of the
RANDOM
population is identified and can be generalised to the target population.

the sample is randomly target population.
selected. People that are selected may
be unwilling to take part.
Not subject to researcher bias
as a numerical value is Not truly unbiased as every
SYSTEMATIC
assigned to each person on a Nth person selected may have
Every Nth person (e.g. 10th,
given list and then selected a similar trait in common and
15th, 25th…) is selected from
according to their Nth position; therefore will not be
a register, phonebook, etc.
without any personal representative of the wider
preference from the population.
researcher.
A subgroup within the
Likely to be representative as
population is identified (e.g. Difficult and time consuming
each subsection of the target
STRATIFIED
gender or ethnic origin). to identify subgroups.
population is proportionally
Participants are obtained in
represented, so results can be
proportion to their People that are selected may
generalised to the wider
occurrence within the be unwilling to take part.
population with more
population.
confidence that they apply.

High chance that sample will
OPPORTUNITY
Selecting participants who be biased, e.g. often use
Quicker and easier to obtain,
are available and willing to available university students,
in comparison to other
take part. who are not representative of
methods.
the target population.


VOLUNTEER A particular type of person is
likely to take part in research
Participants self‐select by Quicker and easier to obtain,
(and also only those who see
responding to an advert. in comparison to other
the advert). Therefore, the
They offer to take part. methods.
sample is likely to be biased.

1. Identify, from the descriptions below, which scenario represents a systematic sampling method. (1
mark)
a) A psychologist places an advert in a local newspaper, asking for participants.
b) A psychologist uses lists of undergraduates from the nearby university and selects every fifth
student to take part.
c) A psychologist asks some of her mathematics students to take part in the research.
d) A psychologist gives a number to all students in the psychology class then selects participants in an
unbiased way.

2. A criminal psychologist adopted an independent groups design to research the effectiveness of the
cognitive interview compared to the standard police interview. For this research study, participants
were gathered by placing an advert on Facebook. The advert told the prospective participants that, as
part of the procedure, they would be required to watch a short film of a violent crime. Afterwards, they
would then be interviewed about what they saw by a female police officer.

After twenty participants completed the study, ten in each condition, the criminal psychologist
compared the average number of items recalled in the cognitive interview with the average number of
items correctly recalled in the standard police interview.

Name the sampling technique used in this experiment. (1 mark)
Exam Hint: Most students will be able identify volunteer / self‐selected sampling since the Facebook
advert was used to encourage users of the social media site to apply for participation in the
investigation.

3. Explain one strength of random sampling. (2 marks)

4. Suggest one limitation of volunteer sampling in psychological research. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: One mark is available here for identifying a suitable limitation and the second mark is
achieved by elaborating on this successfully. For example: One limitation of using a volunteer sample in
psychological research is that it can be biased. This is often the case because some people, with certain
characteristics, are more likely to volunteer than others. Consequently, these characteristics will be
overrepresented, making the sample biased.

5. Explain how stratified sampling might be used to select participants. (3 marks)
Exam Hint: Note that this question is asking how stratified sampling is conducted, and does not require
any strengths or limitations to be offered. To achieve full credit, students must logically explain the
process a psychologist would undergo in achieving a stratified sample so they can generalise the results
to the target population.

6. Explain at least one difference between random and opportunity sampling. (4 marks)

7. Evaluate the use of opportunity sampling as a technique for gathering participants to take part in an

investigation. (4 marks)

8. Outline and evaluate one or more sampling technique used in psychological research. (8 marks)
Exam Hint: Whilst this is an eight‐mark question, it is worth unpicking the structure to consider the
different elements required. For example, this question could be interpreted as: 1) Outline and evaluate
sampling method 1 (e.g. random); and 2) Outline and evaluate sampling method 2 (e.g. opportunity).
This would then allow a student to consider this as two four‐mark questions, rather than one larger one.


PILOT STUDIES AND EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Specification: Pilot studies and the aims of piloting. Experimental design: repeated
measures, independent groups, matched pairs.

 Outline the aim and purpose of pilot studies and piloting.
 Outline and evaluate types of experimental design:
o Repeated measures
o Independent groups
o Matched pairs

Pilot Studies
Pilot studies are small‐scale prototypes of a study that are carried out in advance of the full research to
find out if there are any problems with the following:
 Experimental design – do the participants have enough time to complete the tasks?
 Instructions for participants – are the instructions clear?
 Measuring instruments – including the behavioural categories in observational research and
questions when using questionnaires. They allow for categories and questions to be checked and
modified where necessary.
Carrying out a pilot study beforehand is a way to ensure time, effort and money are not wasted on a
flawed methodology. It is important that a pilot study uses a sample that (although smaller) is
representative of the target population that will be used in the main research.

Experimental Design
The three main types of experimental design are:
 Repeated measures
 Independent groups
 Matched pairs

Repeated Measures
Repeated measures is a design where the same participants take part in each condition of the experiment.
The data obtained from both conditions is then
compared for each participant to see if there
was a difference.

Evaluation of Repeated Measures
 There are strengths associated with using
the repeated measures design. Since the
same participants are taking part in all
conditions of the experiment, fewer
participants are required. This makes the
design less costly and time consuming, as
fewer participants need to be recruited. In
addition, the use of the same participants
across conditions reduces the possibility of
participant variables such as individual

differences playing a part in the different results obtained, meaning that the effect on the DV can be
attributed to the IV with more confidence.

 There are issues with adopting a repeated measures design in psychological research. As the same
participants take part in both conditions of the experiment, order effects can occur. Participants who
experience practice effects may perform better in the second conditions as they know what is
expected of them. Participants who experience fatigue (boredom) may perform worse in the second
condition, because they give up. To address this issue, researchers can use counterbalancing which
offsets any order effects as half the participants take part in ‘Condition A’ followed by ‘Condition B’
while the other half complete the ‘Condition B’ followed by ‘Condition A’. Any order effects
experienced by those who started in Condition A should be offset by those who started in Condition B.
Furthermore, repeated measures experiments are also prone to demand characteristics as participants
are more likely to guess the aim of the experiment when they take part in both conditions.

Independent Groups
An independent measures design uses of
two separate groups of participants; one
group in each condition of the experiment.
Participants should be allocated to their
group (condition) by random allocation,
which ensures that each participant has an
equal chance of being assigned to one group
or the other. This is important to reduce
investigator effects, resulting in a biased
sample being placed into the two conditions,
and the influence of individual differences
whereby participant variables influence the
measurements taken in the DV (dependent
variable).

Evaluation of Independent Groups
 A strength of using independent groups design is that it avoids order effects. As participants only take
part in one condition of the experiment, they are less likely to become bored and give up reducing the
impact of order effects. In addition, this research design also reduces demand characteristics, as
participants are only taking part in one condition of the experiment. This means that they are less likely
to guess the aim of the experiment and display demand characteristics, making the results higher in
validity.

 There are disadvantages of using an independent groups design. More participants are required as
different people take part in the different conditions of the experiment. This makes the design more
expensive and time consuming for the researcher who must recruit more individuals to take part.
Additionally, participant variables may affect the results. For example, differences in age, sex or social
background may affect the results by acting as an extraneous variable on the DV which means that
psychologists cannot be certain that the IV caused the changes measured.

Matched Pairs
Pairs of participants are matched from the sample, in terms of key variables such as age or IQ. After
matching takes place, the participants are treated much like those in independent measures. One member

of each pair is placed in the experimental group
and the other member in the control group.

Evaluation of Matched Pairs
 There are benefits of adopting a matched
pairs research design in psychological
research. Because the researcher pairs up
the participants so that each condition has
people with similar abilities and
characteristics, this reduces participant
variables. In addition, order effects (such as
practice or fatigue) are less of an issue
compared to a repeated measures design as
the participants only take part in one
condition of the experiment and therefore
they are less likely to become bored and
give up.

 There are issues involved with creating a
matched pairs research design. More participants are required, as different participants take part in
the different conditions of the experiment, making the design more expensive and time consuming for
the researcher. Furthermore, it is very difficult, if not impossible, trying to find close or exactly matched
pairs. This means that individual differences may still play a role in the measurement of the DV
reducing the certainty that the IV affected the change.

Summary of Experimental Design
METHOD OF ALLOCATION TO
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
CONDITION
Fewer participants are
required, so this is less costly
MEASURES
Issues with order effects, such
REPEATED
The same participants take and time consuming.
as practice effects or fatigue,
part in each condition of the
as participants take part in
experiment. Reduces participant variables,
both conditions.
as the same participants take
part in both/all conditions.
Two separate groups of
INDEPENDENT
participants; one group in Avoids order effects and More participants are

GROUPS
each condition. Participants reduces demand required and participant

are allocated to their characteristics, making the variables may affect the
condition by random results more valid. results.
allocation.
Pairs of participants are
matched from sample, in Impossible to match people
MATCHED PAIRS
terms of key variables such as Avoids order effects and exactly, unless using identical

age and IQ. One member of reduces participant variables twins.
each pair is then placed in the and demand characteristics,
experimental group and the making the results more valid. More participants are
other member in the control required.
group.

1. Explain the purpose of a pilot study. (2 marks)

2. A psychologist, Dr Lees, was interesting in studying the behaviour of infants once they had been
reunited with their mothers following a stay in hospital. Dr Lees decided to study the behaviour of the
infants who had experienced a disruption to their attachment in this manner using a naturalistic
method. It was decided to video record the caregiver–infant interactions in their own home for a three‐
hour period both before and after the hospital admission.

Explain why Dr Lees might want to conduct a pilot study before the main observation is carried out. (2
marks)
Exam Hint: Often students fail to provide sufficient elaboration to achieve both marks on questions such
as this. One possible reason that could be presented is that Dr Lees will carry out a pilot study prior to the
main observation to make sure that the video cameras were suitably located to document the
observations. A second creditworthy response would be to explain that the pilot study would enable Dr
Lees to check how appropriate the behavioural categories were to examine the caregiver–infant
interactions accurately.

3. Explain what is meant by matched pairs design. (2 marks)

4. Other than repeated measures design, identify and explain one other research design. (2 marks)

5. Suggest one advantage of an independent measures design. (2 marks)

6. Explain one limitation of a repeated measures design and how a researcher may attempt to address
this issue within their research. (3 marks)

7. Evaluate the use of the independent measures design in psychological research. You may refer to
strengths and/or limitations in your response. (4 marks)


CONTROL, DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS AND INVESTIGATOR
EFFECTS
Specification: Control: random allocation and counterbalancing, randomisation and
standardisation. Demand characteristics and investigator effects.

 Outline the process and importance of control within psychological investigations, including:
o Random allocation
o Counterbalancing
o Randomisation
o Standardisation
 Outline the issue of demand characteristics and investigator effects within psychological
investigations and identify how to avoid these issues.

Control
It is important that researchers know how to control/eliminate extraneous variables through the following
measures: random allocation, counterbalancing, randomisation and standardisation.

Extraneous variables are any variable other than the IV that might affect the DV and thus affect the
results.

Where extraneous variables are important enough to cause a change in the DV, they become confounding
variables. There are many different types of extraneous variables that psychologists need to take account
of when designing their investigations:
 Situational variables – variables connected with the research situation. For example, the temperature,
time of day, lighting, materials, etc. They are controlled though standardisation, ensuring that the only
thing which differs between the two groups is the IV. For example, making sure that the temperature is
the same for both groups, the time of day is the same, etc.

 Participant variables – variables connected with the research participants. For example, age,
intelligence, gender, etc. They are controlled through the experimental design, such as matched pairs
design, or by randomly allocating participants to conditions, which helps to reduce bias.

Random Allocation
Random allocation of participants to their groups, for example in an independent measures design, is an
extremely important process in psychological research. Random allocation greatly decreases the possibility
that participant variables in the form of individual differences, such as mathematical ability, will adversely
affect the results.

Counterbalancing
To combat the problem of order effects with repeated measures design, researchers can counterbalance
the order of the conditions. The sample is split in half with one half completing the two conditions in one
order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order. Any order effects should be
balanced out by the opposing half of participants.

For example, the first ten participants would complete condition A followed by condition B but the

remaining ten participants would complete condition B then A.

Exam Hint: It is important to note that counterbalancing does not ‘remove’ or ‘get rid of’ order effects; it
works to nullify the order effects, as the participants take part in different conditions in different orders.

Randomisation
This is when trials are presented in a random order to avoid any bias that the order of the trials might
present.

Standardisation
This is the process in which all situational variables of a procedure used in research are kept identical, so
that methods are sensitive to any change in performance. Under these circumstances changes in data can
be attributed to the IV. In addition, it is far more likely that results will be replicated on subsequent
occasions when research is standardised.

Demand Characteristics and Investigator Effects
Both demand characteristics and investigator effects can act as confounding variables which affect the
results of the research. Therefore, the researcher needs to exercise as much control over them as possible
to maintain internal validity.

Demand characteristics occur when the participants try to make sense of the research and change their
behaviour accordingly to support what they believe are the aims of the investigation. Demand
characteristics are a problem as the participants act in a way to support the hypothesis rather than
displaying natural behaviour, making the results lack validity. Conversely, the participant may deliberately
try to disrupt the results, a phenomenon known as the ‘screw‐you’ effect.

Demand characteristics are controlled by not allowing the participants to guess the aim of the research or
the identity of the IV which can be achieved by using a single‐blind experimental technique. This is when
only the researcher knows the true aim of the experiment, and a measure of deception has been used so
that the participants cannot easily guess the aim. Therefore, they are unable to try to either support or
undermine the research on purpose. An example of this is in medical tests when comparing the effects of a
therapeutic drug with a placebo, where only the researcher knows which is which.

Investigator effects are where a researcher (consciously or unconsciously) acts in a way to support their
prediction. This can be a problem when observing events that can be interpreted in more than one way.
For example, one researcher might interpret children fighting as an act of violence, while another might
observe this as rough and tumble play.


Investigator effects are best controlled by not allowing either the participants or the researcher
(investigator) to know the aim of the research and/or identity of the IV. This is achieved by using a double‐
blind experimental technique. In this instance, only the person who originally designed the experiment
knows the true aim, and a measure of deception has been used so that the participants and researcher are
not aware. Therefore, either consciously or unconsciously, the investigator is unable to influence the
participants. An example of this is in medical tests comparing the effectiveness of a therapeutic drug with a
placebo, where neither the researcher nor the participants knows which is which.

1. Explain what is meant by the term demand characteristics. (2 marks)

2. Define what is meant by random allocation. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Students need to be aware that once the researcher has selected the participants using
names in a hat or a computer generator they also need to explain what would happen next. Specifically,
that the researcher will then allocate people to one of the conditions in a random fashion to reduce bias.

3. Mary Ainsworth devised the Strange Situation methodology to observe caregiver–infant interactions.
She classified the attachment type of the child through observing them in different situations with both
their mother and a stranger.

Explain possible demand characteristics in Ainsworth’s research. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: To achieve full credit for this question, a response must correctly identify that it is the
mother’s behaviour that will be subject to demand characteristics for the first mark, and then
successfully elaborate on this for the additional mark. For example, the mothers may try to guess what
Ainsworth was interested in observing and then act in a more sensitive manner towards their child than
they would do ordinarily.

4. Suggest one way a researcher might try minimise the impact of demand characteristics. (2 marks)

5. Define what is meant by the term investigator effects, referring to a suitable example in your response.
(2 marks)

6. Explain what is meant by counterbalancing in reference to psychological research. (3 marks)

7. Explain what a psychologist might do to ensure that their methodology follows standardised
procedures. (3 marks)
Exam Hint: Note that this question is asking for the response to address what the psychologist will do,
rather than provide a definition of standardisation.


ETHICAL GUIDELINES, PEER REVIEW & THE ECONOMY
Specification: Ethics, including the role of the British Psychological Society’s code of ethics;
ethical issues in the design and conduct of psychological studies; dealing with ethical
issues in research. The role of peer review in the scientific process. The implications of
psychological research for the economy.

 Outline the purpose of ethical guidelines within psychological research.
 Outline how to deal with ethical issues in psychological research.
 Outline the role of peer review in psychology.
 Outline the implication of psychological research for the economy.

Introduction
Ethical issues are considerations that researchers need to consider before, during and after the research is
conducted. Ethical issues take into consideration the welfare of the participants, the integrity of the
research and the use of the data.

The British Psychological Society (BPS) code of ethics sets out a series of guidelines that researchers need
to consider when undertaking psychological research. Six of the main ethical guidelines include:
 Deception
 Right to withdraw
 Informed consent
 Privacy and confidentiality
 Protection from harm
Exam Hint: An easy way to remember six of the main ethical guidelines is to use the acronym DRIPP.

WHY IS IT UNETHICAL? HOW TO DEAL WITH THE ISSUE?
OVERVIEW
(IF BROKEN) (IF BROKEN)
When information is It prevents participants from At the end of the study the
deliberately withheld from giving fully informed consent participants should be fully
participants or they are which means that they might debriefed and told the true aim
knowingly misled. be taking part in research and nature of the research. At this
DECEPTION
that goes against their views point the participant should be
or beliefs. given the right to withdraw the
publication of their results. The
contact details of the
experimenter should be given if
participants have any further
questions or queries.


WHY IS IT UNETHICAL? HOW TO DEAL WITH THE ISSUE? (IF
OVERVIEW
(IF BROKEN) BROKEN)
Participants have the right Participants who are not At the end of the study the
to withdraw (remove given the right to withdraw participants should be fully
themselves or their data may feel unnecessary or debriefed and told the true aim and
from the study) at any undue stress and are nature of the research. At this point
RIGHT TO WITHDRAW
stage. This includes after therefore not protected from the participant should be given the

the research has been harm. right to withdraw the publication of
conducted, in which case their results. The contact details of
the researcher must the experimenter should be given if
destroy any data or participants have any further
information collected. questions or queries.

When someone consents Lack of informed consent Presumptive consent: involves
to participate in research, may mean that the taking a random sample of the
their consent must be fully participant is taking part in population and introducing them to
informed which means the research that goes against the research, including any
aims of the research should their wishes or beliefs. It is deception which may result. If they
be made clear before they possible that the participant agree to take part in the research it
agree to participate. may have felt obliged to take can be presumed that other future
part or even coerced into it, participants would do the same so
especially if they are not fully the consent is generalised.
informed.
Prior general consent: involves
participants agreeing to take part
beforehand in numerous
INFORMED CONSENT
psychological investigations, which
may or may not involve deception.
This, in effect, means that they will
have given consent for being
deceived.

Retrospective consent: involves
participants giving consent for their
participation after already taking
part, for instance, if they were not
aware that they were the subject of
an investigation.

Children as participants: involves
gaining the consent of the parent(s)
in writing for children under the age
of 16 to participate in any
psychological research.


WHY IS IT UNETHICAL? HOW TO DEAL WITH THE ISSUE?
OVERVIEW
(IF BROKEN) (IF BROKEN)
Privacy is the right of A skilled researcher may The participant should be provided
individuals to decide how obtain more information from with fully informed consent and
information about them will a participant than they wish the right to withdraw at any stage.
be communicated to others. to give which could be an Furthermore, the researcher should
invasion of privacy and the explain to participants the way(s) in
PRIVACY
participant may later feel which their information will be
ashamed or embarrassed. protected and kept confidential,
e.g. no names will be published in
the final report and any written
information or video information
will be destroyed.

Confidentiality is where a A person’s details or data may Participants are provide with a fake
CONFIDENTIALITY
participant’s personal be used by other parties name, number or initials to protect

information is protected by against the participant’s their identity and assure
law under the Data wishes. anonymity. They should not be
Protection Act both during identifiable by any person,
and after the experiment. institution or organisation.
Psychologists have the Participants should leave the The researcher should remind

PROTECTION FROM HARM
responsibility to protect research in the same state as participants of their right to

their participants from they entered it. If they are withdraw throughout and after the
physical or psychological harmed, they may suffer from research. The researcher should
harm, including stress. long‐term effects that could terminate the experiment if the
impact their lives in future. level of psychological or physical
The risk of harm must be no harm is higher than expected.
greater than that which they Participants should be debriefed at
are exposed to in everyday the end of the experiment and in
life. some instances they may be

referred to counselling.

The Role of Peer Review in the Scientific Process
Peer review is an independent assessment process that takes place before a research study is published
and is undertaken by other experts in the same field of psychology. All psychologists must be prepared for
their work to be scrutinised in this way which is conducted anonymously. There are several aims of the
peer review process:
 To provide recommendations about whether the research should be published in the public domain or
not, or whether it needs revision.
 To check the validity of the research to ensure it is of a high quality.
 To assess the appropriateness of the procedure and methodology.
 To judge the significance of the research in the wider context of human behaviour.
 To assess the work for originality and ensure that other relevant research is sufficiently detailed.
 To inform allocation of future research funding to worthy investigative processes.

Exam Hint: An easy way to remember the five key points of peer review is using the following phrase:
 PEER – Provide recommendations about whether the research should be published or not, or whether
it needs revision.

 VIEWS – A way to check validity of research.
 ARE – Assess the appropriateness of the procedure and methodology.
 SO – Judge the significance of the research to wider context (human behaviour).
 OVER‐RATED – Assess the work’s originality and ensure that other relevant research is detailed.

Evaluation of Peer Review
 There are drawbacks associated with the peer review process. Since the peer reviewers are often
anonymous in their reporting on the academic research, there is a possibility that they will use this fact
as a means to criticise rivals in their field of psychology. This is perpetuated by the fact that there tends
to be limited funding for new research so the element of competition could bread jealousy amongst
researchers. As a result, inaccurate or unfair criticism may be received following the peer review
process which is not a valid reflection of the quality of the research.

 An issue with the use of peer review is that it is sometimes difficult to find a suitable peer. This is
especially true when conducting psychological research on a new or ground‐breaking topic. A possible
consequence of this is that research which is not of high quality will be passed as suitable for
publication as the researcher did not fully comprehend the aims or content. Conversely, results may be
published which preserves the status quo by supporting existing theories more readily than more
unconventional research might, resulting in a positive publication bias.

 Although peer review is not without its faults, there are merits to conducting the process on
psychological research. In particular, the process helps to prevent any substandard research from
entering the mainstream which serves to protect the reputation of the discipline. Likewise, as experts
within the field often act as peers, there is less opportunity for plagiarized work or duplications of
research to be published. This means that the journals who publish the work will be trusted for the
articles that they disseminate.

The Implications of Psychological Research for the Economy
In general, the economy is concerned with how members of society produce, share and consume goods
and services. Implications refer to the ability to interpret findings in terms their value, strengths and
weaknesses for achieving success. Sometimes, reviewing psychological knowledge in the context of the
economy can help portray a clearer picture of how people’s behaviour is affected, in positive or negative
ways, in the real world.

Psychological interventions and research often have far‐reaching effects that are not readily quantifiable.
For example, psychological interventions used to treat mental illness could enable someone to
recommence work after a period of absence. Additionally, in the long‐term, successful treatments may
help the individual be less likely to relapse. Therefore, the psychological research into psychopathology has
implications for the economy in terms of increasing lost tax revenues through salary contributions and
limiting costs to the Government through reducing the need for incapacity benefits.

EXAMPLE IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ECONOMY
Topic: Psychopathology The development of effective treatments for
Specification: The biological approach to treating mental health disorders, such as obsessive
OCD compulsive disorder (OCD), will firstly restore
Research: Soomro et al. (2008) conducted a quality of life for the sufferer. This will then impact
review of research examining the effectiveness of on their ability to work, meaning less time off work
SSRIs and found that they were significantly more due to ill health and/or less reliance on
effective than placebos in the treatment of OCD, Government funded incapacity benefit. Likewise,
across 17 different trials, which supports the use of the NHS will save money if treatments are

biological treatments for OCD. successful as fewer incidents of relapse, requiring
medical attention, are likely to occur.
Topic: Memory The development of the cognitive interview has
Specification: Factors affecting the accuracy of been successful in improving the accuracy of
eyewitness testimony. eyewitness testimony recall. This means that there
Research: Fisher et al. (1989) examined the is a greater chance of the police prosecuting the
effectiveness of the cognitive interview in real right criminal from the offset. These techniques
police interviews. Sixteen experienced detectives can reduce wasted money on wrongful arrests,
recorded a selection of their interviews, using a questioning and court hearings, saving the criminal
standard interviewing technique. The detectives justice system money.
were then divided into two groups. One group was
trained to use the cognitive interview, while the
other group (control) continued using the standard
interview. After training, their subsequent
interviews were recorded and analysed. The
trained detectives elicited 46% more information
after their cognitive interview training, in
comparison to the control group. Where it was
possible to confirm the information, over 90% of it
was found to be accurate.
Topic: Attachment Research shows that both mothers and fathers are
Specification: Role of the father equally capable of childrearing to enable healthy
Research: Belsky et al. (2009) found that males developmental outcomes for the infants. This
who reported higher levels of marital intimacy also allows mothers to return to work, free of guilt, and
displayed a secure father–infant attachment, contribute to the economy through the work force.
which suggests that males can form secure Modern parenting styles can, therefore, maximise
attachments with their children, although the the annual household income enabling both
strength of the attachment depends on the father parents to contribute most effectively to the
and mother relationship. economy.

1. Aside from deception, identify one other ethical issue that a psychologist might have to consider when
conducting research. (1 mark)
Exam Hint: Most students will be able to identify an ethical issue such as the need for informed consent,
the need for confidentiality or protection from harm. There is no need for any elaboration or explanation
on this question since it simply asks for students to ‘identify’ an ethical issue.

2. Explain what is meant by the term ‘peer review’? (2 marks)
Exam Hint: It is important to remember that the peer review process occurs before publication as many
students often forget this fact.

3. Explain why it is sometimes necessary to deceive participants in psychological research. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Note that this question asks for an explanation, so simply stating, ‘it avoids social
desirability’ is not enough to gain both marks available. Students need to explain why this is important.
The most common way for dealing with deception is through the use of a debrief, although suggesting
presumptive consent is also creditworthy.

4. Although participants agreed to take part in Dr Chalk’s research study, they did not know the full aim of
the investigation beforehand as this could have created biased result. Describe how Dr Chalk may
address this ethical issue with his research study. (3 marks)

5. Explain one way in which psychological research has been used to benefit the economy. (3 marks)

6. Briefly discuss the implications of psychological research for the economy. You may refer to specific
examples in your answer. (4 marks)

7. Discuss why peer review is an important process to achieve scientific credibility for psychological
research. (4 marks)
Exam Hint: In order to gain maximum credit for this question, students will need to elaborate sufficiently
on the basic idea that peer review prevents weak or fraudulent research getting into the public domain.
Better answers will be able to discuss the importance of peer review in preventing the dissemination of
irrelevant findings, unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations, personal views and deliberate
fraud which ensures that published research can be taken seriously.

8. Psychological research helps us to understand how it is possible to shape people’s behaviour. For
example, understanding how to persuade people to stop smoking.

With reference to the example above, explain how psychology might affect the economy. (4 marks)

9. Many studies in social influence can be criticised for being unethical. Outline and evaluate ethical
issues that have arisen in social influence research. Refer to evidence in your answer. (16 marks)
Exam Hint: Students must be careful not to simply list the ethical issues often seen in social influence
research, but describe them. It is always useful to illustrate one or more of the chosen issues with
reference to relevant empirical evidence. Better answers will offer clear evaluative commentary on the
reasons that unethical procedures were undertaken, such as a cost‐benefit analysis of whether the ‘end
justified the means’, particularly in relation to Milgram's study.


TYPES OF DATA
Specification: Quantitative and qualitative data; the distinction between qualitative and
quantitative data collection techniques. Primary and secondary data, including meta‐
analysis.

 Outline and evaluate the use of qualitative and quantitative data.
 Outline and evaluate the use of primary and secondary data, including the use of meta‐analyses.

Quantitative Data
Quantitative data is numerical data that can be statistically analysed and converted easily into a graphical
format. Experiments, structured observations, correlations and closed/rating‐scale questions from
questionnaires all produce quantitative data.

Evaluation of Quantitative Data
 A strength of quantitative data is that it is easy to analyse statistically. When large amounts of
numerical data are generated it is relatively easy to conduct descriptive statistics or inferential tests of
significance which allow for comparisons and trends to be identified between groups. Since established
mathematical procedures are in place for this type of analysis it makes quantitative data more
objective.

 A disadvantage of quantitative data is its lack of representativeness. Since this type of data is often
generated from closed questions, the responses gained are narrow in their scope towards explaining
complex human behaviour. This means that, in comparison to qualitative data, the numerical findings
can often lack meaning and context. As such, it may not be a true representation of real life and thus
lacks validity.

Qualitative Data
Qualitative data is non‐numerical, language‐based data expressed in words which is collected through
semi‐structured or unstructured interviews and open questions in a questionnaire. It allows researchers to
develop an insight into the unique nature of human experiences, opinions and feelings.

Evaluation of Qualitative Data
 A strength of obtaining qualitative
data is the rich detail obtained by the
researcher. Since participants can
develop their responses freely this
provides the investigator with
meaningful insights into the human
condition. Because of this, the
external validity of findings is
enhanced as they are more likely to
represent an accurate real‐world
view.

 A limitation of qualitative data is that
it can be subjective. Due to the rich,

and often lengthy, detail of participants’ responses, interpretations of this type of data can often rely
on the opinions and judgements of the researcher. This means that any preconceptions that the
researcher holds may act to bias any conclusions drawn.

Primary Data
Primary data refers to data that has been collected for a specific reason and reported by the original
researcher. It is data that the participant reports directly to the researcher (often via an interview
/questionnaire) or is witnessed first‐hand (via an observation/experiment). Primary data is sometimes
referred to as field research.

Evaluation of Primary Data
 A strength of primary data is its authenticity. This is because it is collected with the sole purpose of
being for a specific investigation. Since the data collection is designed to suit the aims of the research,
this enables the researcher to exert a high level of control. This is advantageous as there is a greater
probability that the data generated will fit the aims of the investigation, reducing any wasted time on
behalf of the researcher and ensuring that the information prepared for analysis is relevant.

 There are limitations of gathering primary data. Designing and carrying out a psychological study can
take a long period of time and considerable effort. This means that expenses can accrue due to the
time investment needed on behalf of the researchers in addition to any equipment that needs to be
purchased. Therefore, in comparison to primary data, secondary data which already exists can save the
researcher time, effort and money.

Secondary Data
Secondary data is information that was collected by other researchers for a purpose other than the
investigation in which it is currently being used. In other words, it is data which already exists. Examples
include Government reports like the census or statistics about mental health from the NHS. It is sometimes
referred to as desk research because the significance of the data is already known.

Evaluation of Secondary Data
 There are many strengths to using secondary data. Since the information already exists in the public
domain, it means that it is much less time consuming and expensive to collect. This means that
researchers can find the information they desire with very little effort. This makes the collection and
use of secondary data much easier when compared with primary data.

 A limitation of using secondary data involves concerns over accuracy. Given the information was not
gathered to meet the specific aim of the research, it stands to reason that there may be significant
variability in the quality of the data. This means that much of the data may be of little or no value to
the researchers.

Meta‐Analysis
Meta‐analysis refers to a process whereby investigators combine findings from multiple studies (secondary
data) on a specific phenomenon to make an overall analysis of trends and patterns arising across research.
This can include a qualitative review of previous research or a statistical, quantitative analysis to test for
significance of effect size. An example of a meta‐analysis from developmental psychology is that conducted
by van Ijzendoorn et al., investigating cross‐cultural variations in attachment. In total, their analysis
examined 32 studies from eight different countries that had used Ainsworth’s strange situation. In total,
the results of over 1,990 infants were included in the analysis.


Evaluation of Meta‐Analysis
 There are advantages of adopting a meta‐analysis methodology. Since the results are combined from
many studies, rather than just one, the conclusions drawn will be based on a larger sample which
provides greater confidence for generalisation. This, therefore, serves to increase the validity of the
patterns and trends identified.

 There are issues of bias associated with meta‐analyses. Since the researcher is selecting data from
research which has already taken place, they may choose to omit certain findings from their
investigation. This could be particularly true if the previous findings showed no significant results or
were inconclusive. As a result, the findings and conclusions from the meta‐analysis will be biased as
they do not accurately represent all of the relevant data on the topic.

1. Define what is meant by quantitative data. (1 mark)

2. Explain one difference between primary and secondary data. (2 marks)

3. Suggest two reasons why behaviourists do not collect qualitative data in their investigations. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: To gain full marks for this question students can refer to the nomothetic/scientific nature of
the behaviorist approach and disadvantages of qualitative data, e.g. subjectivity / open to
interpretation; cannot be replicated; not open to quantification and statistical analysis; specific so not
amenable to generalisation. Generic evaluation of qualitative data not linked to investigations carried
out by behaviourists will only gain a maximum of one mark.

4. Dr Khanom and Dr Begum are researchers interested in investigating attitudes including racial
prejudice. They decided that a self‐report questionnaire, comprising 20 items with a number of fixed
responses for each, would be the best methodology for their study.

Identify the type of data Dr Khanom and Dr Begum will be collecting. Provide justification for your
choice. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: It is possible for full credit to be achieved for this question by referring to either primary data
(because Dr Khanom and Dr Begum conducted the questionnaire themselves) or quantitative data (since
the questionnaire contains closed questions).

5. Psychologists sometimes collect quantitative data. Outline one study in which a psychologist collected
quantitative data. In your answer, explain how the data collection technique was quantitative. (3
marks)
Exam Hint: A huge variety of studies may appear in response to this question and but must crucially
involve the collection of quantitative data.


DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Specification: Descriptive statistics: measures of central tendency – mean, median, mode;
calculation of mean, median and mode; measures of dispersion – range and standard
deviation; calculation of range; calculation of percentages.

 Outline, calculate and evaluate the use of different measures of central tendency:
o Mean
o Median
o Mode
 Outline, calculate and evaluate the use of different measures of dispersion:
o Range
o Standard deviation*
 Calculate percentages.
*Students are NOT required to calculate standard deviation; however, they are required to understand
why standard deviation is used and what it shows.

Descriptive Statistics
Once quantitative data has been collected, it is important to summarise this data numerically. This
quantitative summary is called descriptive statistics, and allows researchers to view the data as a whole. It
also helps the reader to get an understanding of the data and saves them from needing to navigate
through lots of results to get a basic understanding of the data. Descriptive statistics typically include a
measure of central tendency and a measure of dispersion (which will have been selected based on the type
of data collected), and can also include percentages.

Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of central tendency tell us about the central, most typical, value in a data set and are calculated
in different ways.

Mean
Perhaps the most widely used measure of central tendency is the mean. The mean is what people most
are referring to when they say ‘average’: it is the arithmetic average of a set of data. It is the most sensitive
of all the measures of central tendency as it takes into consideration all values in the dataset. Whilst this is
a strength as it means that all the data is being taken into consideration, the sensitivity of the mean is
something that must be considered when deciding which measure of central tendency to use. It can be
very misrepresentative of the data set if there are extreme scores present.

The mean is calculated by adding all of the data together, and dividing the sum by how many values there
are in total. The value that is then given should be a value that lies somewhere between the maximum and
minimum values of that dataset. If it isn’t, then there is a human error with the calculations!

Example: a student sits five mock A‐level psychology exams, and gets 65%, 72%, 71%, 67% and 79%. To
calculate their mean score, you would add all the scores together (65+72+71+67+79 = 354) and then
divide by the number of scores there are (354÷5 = 70.8). This gives a mean score of 71%. Looking at the
data set, a mean of 71% looks quite accurate, as all of the scores are quite close to this value.


However, if we now imagine that the student got 12% instead of 65% in their final mock, then this
completely alters our mean value and the student’s typical score! (12+72+71+67+79 = 301, 301÷5 =
60.2%). This is a mean score of 60%, which is lower than four of their other scores, isn’t providing a very
fair view of how well the student normally performs.

Median
In cases where there are extreme values in a data set, thus making it difficult to get a true representation
of the data through using the mean, the median can be used instead. The median is not affected by
extreme scores, so is ideal when considering a data set that is heavily skewed. It is also easy to calculate, as
the median takes the middle value within the data set.

Example: If there are an odd number of scores, then the median is the number which lies directly in the
middle when you arrange the scores from lowest to highest. Using the previous data set as an example,
there are five values that would be placed in the following order: 12%, 67%, 71%, 72%, and 79%.
Therefore, the median value would be the third value which is 71%.

Interestingly, the median score for this data set is 71%, yet the mean score was 60.2%. It is clearly apparent
from the data that the median is a more representative score which has not been distorted by the extreme
score of 12%, unlike the mean.

If there is an even number of values within the data set, there will be two values that fall directly in the
middle. In this case, the midpoint between these two values is calculated. To do this, the two middle
scores are added together and then divided by two. This value will then be the median score.

Example: If the above data set included a sixth score, e.g. 12%, 34%, 67%, 71%, 72%, and 79% then the
median score would be 69% (67%+71%÷2).

Mode
The third measure of central tendency is the mode. This refers to the value or score that appears most
frequently within the data set. Whilst easy to calculate, it can be quite misleading of the data set. Imagine
if the lowest value in the example data set (12%) appeared twice. It wouldn’t be truly representative of the
whole data set; however, this would be the mode score.

A strength of using the mode is that it can be used on categorical data, whilst the mean and median
cannot. For example, if participants were asked to identify the way that they travelled to work each day,
and gave answers such as ‘car’, ‘bus’, or ‘walk’, then a mode could still be identified for this set of data, as
it is simply the response that was given most often.

It is possible that a data set can have more than one mode. If there are two, then the data set is called bi‐
modal. If there are more than two, then the dataset is considered multi‐modal. However, it is also possible
that there is no mode for a data set, if all of the values are different.

Exam Hint: Whenever you are asked to calculate any measure of central tendency, make sure you show
your calculations. Often, the question will be worth two or three marks; so, it is important to show how
you reached your final answer for maximum marks!


DEFINITION: HOW IS IT
CALCULATED?
Most sensitive
Most representative of all measure as outliers
Calculated by adding up all
the measures of central (extreme scores) can
MEAN the scores in the data set and
tendency because it is distort the mean.
‘AVERAGE’ then dividing by the number
comprised of the whole Can only be used with
of scores.
data set. ordinal and interval
data.
Calculated by putting all
MEDIAN scores in rank order from
Not distorted by extreme Does not reflect all
‘MIDDLE smallest to largest then
scores. scores in the data set.
SCORE’ selecting the middle number
from the data set.
There can be more
Not distorted by extreme
MODE Calculated by identifying the than one mode so it is
scores. The only method
‘MOST most frequently occurring not always a useful
which can be used with
OFTEN’ score within the data set. measure of central
nominal data.
tendency.

Measures of Dispersion
Measures of dispersion are descriptive statistics that define the spread of data around a central value
(mean or median). There are two measures of dispersion: range and standard deviation (SD).

Range
The range is calculated by subtracting the lowest score in the data set from the highest score in the data
set and (usually) adding 1. The addition of 1 to the calculation is a mathematical correction which allows
for the fact that some of the scores in the data set will have been rounded up or down.

Referring to the earlier example, the lowest value was 12 and the highest was 79, resulting in a range of 67
(79‐12=67, or 79‐12+1=68). This value is very straightforward to calculate, which is a clear strength of using
the range. However, it is important to recognise that a data set with a strong negative skew can have a
similar range to a data set with a strong positive skew, in which case it may be providing a very limited
insight into the data set. Equally, it is only taking into consideration the two extreme scores, which may not
be an accurate representation of the data set as a whole.

Students often ask “Why do you add 1 to the range?” and the answer is a simple one which is best
illustrated with an example: If the lowest score is 5 and the highest score is 9, the possible scores are 5, 6,
7, 8 and 9. There are five possible scores, but 9 – 5 = 4. The simple calculation ignores the fact that you
have to include the lowest score in the range, so you add 1.

Standard Deviation
A much more informative measure of dispersion is the standard deviation. However, the increased level of
detail comes at the cost of a slightly more complicated calculation in comparison to the range. The
standard deviation looks at how far the scores deviate from the mean. If the standard deviation is large,
this suggests that the data is very dispersed around the mean and, for example, the participants scored

very differently. However, if the standard deviation value is quite small, this suggests that the values are
very concentrated around the mean, and that everyone scored relatively similarly to one other.

The standard deviation score takes into consideration all of the values within the data set, and is a very
precise measurement. However, in the same way as the mean, the fact that it takes into account every
value means that it can be easily distorted by an extreme value, which could in turn mean that it
misrepresents the data.

Exam Hint: Questions regarding interpretation of standard deviation values are often worth several
marks, so it is important to make sure you link your answer back to the question, rather than just
pointing out how they are different. Make sure you tell the examiner what these scores actually tell you
about the data!

Easy to calculate mathematically Does not indicate the distribution
RANGE
without use of a calculator. pattern across the whole data set.
Is a precise measurement of
STANDARD dispersion because all values in the Extreme values can distort the
DEVIATION data set are included in the measurement.
calculation.

Calculation of Percentages
Providing percentages in the summary of a dataset can help the reader get a feel for the data at a glance,
without needing to read all of the results. For example, if there are two conditions comparing the effects of
revision vs. no revision on test scores, a psychologist could provide the percentage of participants who
performed better having revised, to give a rough idea of the findings of the study. Let’s imagine that out of
a total of 45 participants, 37 improved their score by revising.
In order to calculate a percentage, the following calculation would be used:
Number of participants who improved × 100
Total number of participants

The bottom number in the formula should always be the total number in question (such as total number of
participants, or total possible score), with the top number being the number that meets the specific
criteria (such as participants who improved, or a particular score achieved). This answer is then multiplied
by 100 to provide the percentage.

Calculation of percentage increase
In order to calculate a percentage increase, firstly the difference, i.e. increase, between the two numbers
being compared must be calculated. Then, the increase should be divided by the original figure and
multiplied by 100 (see example calculation below).
For example: A researcher was interested in investigating the effect of listening to music on time taken to
read a passage of text. When participants were asked to read with music playing in the background, the
average time to complete the activity was 90 seconds. When participants, undertook the activity without
any music the average time taken to complete the reading was 68 seconds.
Calculate the percentage increase in the average (mean) time taken to read a passage of text when
listening to music. Show your calculations. (4 marks)
Increase = new number – original number
Increase = 90 – 68 = 22
% increase = increase ÷ original number × 100
% increase = 22 ÷ 68 × 100
22/78 = 0.3235
0.3235 × 100 = 32.35%

Calculation of percentage decrease
In order to calculate a percentage decrease, firstly the decrease between the two numbers being
compared must be calculated. Then, the decrease should be divided by the original figure and multiplied
by 100 (see example calculation below).
For example: A researcher was interested in investigating the effect of chewing gum on time taken to tie
shoelaces. When participants were asked to tie a pair of shoelaces in trainers whilst chewing a piece of
gum, the average time to complete the activity was 20 seconds. When participants, undertook the activity
without chewing any gum the average time taken to tie the shoelaces was 17 seconds.
Calculate the percentage decrease in the average (mean) time taken to tie shoelaces when not chewing
gum. Show your calculations. (4 marks)
Decrease = original number – new number
Decrease = 20 – 17 = 3
% decrease = decrease ÷ original number × 100
% decrease = 3 ÷ 20 × 100
3/20 = 0.15
0.15 × 100 = 15%


1. Name one measure of central tendency. (1 mark)
Exam Hint: As this question is simply asking for a measure of central tendency to be named, no further
elaboration is required to gain the mark here.

2. Which of the following is a measure of dispersion? (1 mark)
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
d) Range

3. Calculate the mode for the following data set. (1 mark)
10,2,7,6,9,10,11,13,12,6,28,10

4. Calculate the mean from the following data set. Show your workings. (2 marks)
2, 8, 10, 5, 9, 11, 15, 4, 16, 20
Mean = ________

5. Explain the meaning of standard deviation as a measure of dispersion. (2 marks)

6. Other than the mean, name one measure of central tendency and explain how you would apply this to
a data set. (3 marks)
Exam Hint: It is vitally important that time is taken to read the question fully to ensure that a description
of how to calculate the mean is also presented.

7. Explain why the mode is sometimes a more appropriate measure of central tendency in comparison to
the mean. (3 marks)

8. Explain one strength and one limitation of the range as a measure of dispersion. (4 marks)

9. Evaluate the use of the mean as a measure of central tendency. You may refer to strengths and/or
limitations in your response. (4 marks)

10. A researcher was interested in investigating the number of minor errors that both male and female
learner drivers made on their driving test. In total, ten males and ten females agreed for the
performance on their driving test to be submitted to the researchers. The table below depicts the
findings:

Number of minor errors made by
1,2,0,3,4,2,0,7,6,2
female drivers
Number of minor errors made by male
2,3,1,5,6,2,3,0,1,4
drivers

The mean number of minor errors made during the driving tests for both groups (males and females)
combined is 2.7.

Calculate the percentage of the male drivers who scored above the mean score and the percentage of
the female drivers who scored above the mean score, showing your calculations. (4 marks)


11. A developmental psychologist has collected the following data. She observed two groups of
participants to record the number of acts of reciprocity they showed in relation to their caregiver
during a 30‐minute naturalistic observation.

Group Number of times reciprocity occurred as a Group Number of times reciprocity occurred as a
1 caregiver–infant interaction 2 caregiver–infant interaction
1 3 1 6
2 4 2 3
3 8 3 9
4 1 4 11
5 20 5 14
6 13 6 27
7 17 7 12
8 5 8 4
Median Median
Complete the table above by calculating the median for both groups. Explain why the developmental
psychologist chose the median as a measure of central tendency rather than the mean. (4 marks)

PRESENTATION AND DISPLAY OF QUANTITATIVE DATA
Specification: Presentation and display of quantitative data: graphs, tables, scattergrams,
bar charts, histograms.

 Present quantitative data in the following formats:
o Tables
o Scattergrams
o Bar charts
o Histograms [A‐Level only]

Graphical techniques and tables are used to summarise data in a clear and visually accessible way.

Tables
Perhaps the most straightforward way of presenting data is in tables, which will summarise the key
descriptive statistics for a data set, for example, the mean values and standard deviation values for each
condition within a psychological investigation. Presenting data in this way will allow the reader to easily
compare the most important values, without needing to interpret the data. For example, the following
table outlines the mean scores and standard deviation for Godden and Baddeley’s (1975) study.

MEAN NUMBER OF WORDS RECALLED AS A FUNCTION OF LEARNING AND RECALL ENVIRONMENT
LAND UNDERWATER Total
Learning Environment Mean Recall Score SD Mean Recall Score SD
Land 13.5 5.8 8.6 3.0 22.1
Underwater 8.4 3.3 11.4 5.0 19.8
Total 21.9 ‐ 20.0 ‐ ‐

Scattergram
A scattergram (sometimes called a
scattergraph) is a graph that shows the
correlation between two sets of data (co‐
variables) by plotting points to represent
each pair of scores. It indicates the degree
and direction of the correlation between
the co‐variables, one of which is indicated
on the X‐axis and the other on the Y‐axis.

 A positive correlation shows an upward
trend where as one variable increases,
so does the other.

 A negative correlation shows a trend
going in the opposite direction where as
one variable increases, the other
decreases.

 With a zero correlation, there is no distinct relationship shown between the two variables. The
individual participant marks randomly appear on the scattergram.

Bar Chart
Bar charts are used to show
frequency data for discrete
(separate) variables, e.g. used to
plot mean scores separately for
conditions A and B (and C, D, E…).

For example, the following bar
chart below demonstrates the
results from Loftus and Palmer
(1974).

Histograms [A‐Level Only]
A histogram is somewhat
similar in appearance to a
bar chart, and there is
often confusion between
the two. The key difference
is that a histogram has the
bars touching each other,
whereas a bar chart has a
gap between each. The
reason for this is that a
histogram is presenting
continuous data (e.g. ages
0–9, 10–19, 20–29, etc.).
Furthermore, the y axis on
a histogram represent
frequency whereas on a
bar char it represents the
value.

1. Name the type of graph which is most appropriate for displaying the results obtained in a correlational
study. (1 mark)

2. Explain the difference between a bar chart and a histogram. (2 marks)

3. Name two methods a psychologist could use to display quantitative data. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: As the command word in this question is simply asking for the methods of displaying
quantitative data to be named, simply offering tables or a graph as a response is appropriate.

DISTRIBUTIONS: NORMAL AND SKEWED DISTRIBUTIONS
Specification: Distributions: normal and skewed distributions; characteristics of normal
and skewed distributions.

 Identify normal and skewed distributions.

Identify Normal and Skewed Distributions
Data that is normally distributed produces a symmetrical bell‐shaped curve when plotted, indicating that
most scores are close to the mean, with a progressively fewer scores being located at the extremes of
either tail of the distribution. In this instance, the median and mode also occupy the same centre point of
the curve as the mean does.

For any data set to be considered normally distributed 68.26% will lie within one standard deviation of the
mean (34.13% either side) and 94.55% of scores will lie within two standard deviations from the mean. As
a result, only 4.56% of scores will lie beyond two standard deviations from the mean (2.28% above or
below).

However, sometimes data does not follow this symmetrical pattern which can result in a large proportion
of scores falling below the mean (positively skewed) or after the mean (negatively skewed).

In both instances, the mode remains at the highest point on the graph, since it is not affected by extreme
scores.


CONTENT ANALYSIS [A‐LEVEL ONLY]
Specification: Content analysis: Content analysis and coding. Thematic analysis.

 Outline the process of content analysis, including the use of coding.
 Outline the process of thematic analysis.
 Evaluate the use of content and thematic analysis in psychological research.

Content Analysis
Content analysis is a type of observational technique which involves studying people indirectly, through
qualitative data. Qualitative data collected in a range of formats can be used, such as video or audio
recordings (or the interview transcripts), written responses (such as those provided to an open question in
a questionnaire), or even children’s drawings. Content analysis helps to classify responses in a way that is
systematic, which can then allow clear conclusions to be drawn.

It is important for researchers using content analysis to have their research questions formulated, so that
they know exactly what their content analysis will focus on. Researchers must familiarise themselves with
the data before conducting any analysis, so that they are confident that their coding system is appropriate
for the task ahead.

Content analysis is particularly helpful when conducting research that would otherwise be considered
unethical. Any data that has already been released into the public domain is available for analysis, such as
newspaper articles, meaning that explicit consent is not required. For material that is of a sensitive nature,
such as experience of domestic violence, content analysis can also prove useful, as participants can write a
report of their experience which can be used in analysis. This allows high quality data to be collected, even
in difficult circumstances.

Coding
Coding is an important step in conducting content analysis and involves the researcher developing
categories for the data to be classified. Qualitative data can be extensive in its nature, for example
interview transcripts, and so coding can be helpful in reaching succinct conclusions about the data. These
categories provide a framework to convert the qualitative material into quantitative data, which can then
be used for further (statistical) analysis.

For example: A researcher is interesting in investigating prejudice and discrimination in the media towards
refugees. In order to do this, they will follow the following procedures:
1. The researcher will select a newspaper article relating to refugees.

2. They will read through the text, highlighting important points of reference and annotating the margins
with comments.

3. Using the comments made in the margins, the researcher will categorise each excerpt according to
what it contains, e.g. evidence of prejudice, discriminatory language and positive regards towards
refugees.

4. This process will be repeated for each newspaper article of interest identified by the researcher at the
outset.
5. Once all the steps above are completed for each newspaper article, the categories which emerged
through the process of analysing the content are reviewed to decide if any need refining, merging or
subdividing.

6. With the well‐defined (operationalised) behavioural categories, the researcher returns to the original
articles and tallies the occurrence of each ‘behaviour’ accordingly.

7. The qualitative data has now undergone analysis to produce quantitative data which can undergo
further analysis such as statistical testing, descriptive statistics and producing graphs or tables.

Thematic Analysis
Thematic analysis is a technique that helps identify themes throughout qualitative data. A theme is an idea
or a notion, and can be explicit (such as stating that you feel depressed) or implicit (for example, using the
metaphor of a black cloud for feeling depressed). Thematic analysis will produce further qualitative data,
but this will be much more refined.

If we revisit the example above with the researcher reviewing the articles for evidence of prejudice or
discrimination against refugees, the following procedures would be followed:
1. Carry out steps 1–3 as if conducting a content analysis (see above).

2. Thereafter, the researcher must decide if any of the categories identified can be linked in any way, such
as ‘stereotypical views’, ‘economic prejudice’ or perhaps ‘positive experiences for refugees’.

3. Once the themes are successfully identified, they can then be used in shorthand to identify all aspects
of the data that fit with each theme. For example, every time the researcher identifies an example
within the data of a positive experience for the refugee, they might write ‘PER’ (positive experience for
refugees) alongside it, so that they are able to quickly re‐identify this theme in subsequent analysis of
the data.


4. Once all the steps above are completed, the themes which emerged will be critically reviewed to
decide their relevance.

5. This process will be repeated for each newspaper article of interest identified by the researcher at the
outset.

6. Qualitative comparisons are drawn between major and minor themes of the analysis.

Evaluation of Content Analysis and Thematic Analysis
 There is the possibility that content analysis can produce findings that are very subjective. For example,
the researcher may interpret some things said in an interview in a completely different manner from
how they were intended, due to their own preconceptions, judgements or biases. Cultural differences
may contribute to inconsistent interpretation of behaviour coding since language may be translated
and therefore interpreted differently by someone of a different nationality. As a result, the validity of
findings from a content analysis can be questioned since it may not have been measuring what it
intended to with accuracy.

 A strength of both content analysis and thematic analysis is high ecological validity. Much of the
analysis that takes place within these research methods are basing their conclusions on observations of
real‐life behaviour and written and visual communications. For example, analysis can take place on
books people have read or programmes that people have watched on television. Since records of these
qualitative sources remain, replication of the content/thematic analysis can be conducted. If results
were found to be consistent on re‐analysis then they would be said to be reliable.

1. Identify and explain one strength of using a thematic analysis. (2 marks)

2. Explain one limitation of using content analysis in psychological research. (3 marks)

3. A researcher used content analysis to investigate how the perceptions of women about themselves
changed when they returned to work following a period of maternity leave.

He identified a group of women who had all returned to their previous jobs after having a child in the
last six months.

He asked the women to keep a diary recording their thoughts and feelings every day for two months
before and for two months after they returned to work.

4. Explain how the researcher could have used content analysis to analyse what the women had written
in their diaries. (4 marks)
Exam Hint: If a question contains a scenario, as in this instance, answers must be directly and repeatedly
related to the context to achieve maximum credit for the response.


FEATURES OF SCIENCE [A‐LEVEL ONLY]
Specification: Features of science: objectivity and the empirical method; replicability and
falsifiability; theory construction and hypothesis testing; paradigms and paradigm shifts.

 Outline the following features of a science:
o Objectivity and empirical method
o Replicability and falsifiability
o Theory construction and hypothesis testing
o Paradigms and paradigm shifts

Features of a Science
An ongoing debate in the field of psychology is whether psychology can be considered a science. It is
important to look at the different aspects of what makes a science and how, if at all, psychology fulfils
these expectations.

Objectivity and Empirical Method
A key feature of science is the ability for researchers to remain objective, meaning that they must not let
their personal opinions, judgements or biases interfere with the data. Laboratory experiments are the
most objective method within the psychology discipline because of the high level of control that is exerted
over the variables. On the other hand, a natural experiment, by its very nature, cannot exert control over
the manipulation of independent variables and is often viewed as less objective. Similarly, the
observational and content analysis methods can fall victim to objectivity issues since the behavioural
categories assigned are at the personal discretion of the investigator.

Empirical methods refer to the idea that knowledge is gained from direct experiences in an objective,
systematic and controlled manner to produce quantitative data. It suggests that we cannot create
knowledge based on belief alone, and therefore any theory will need to be empirically tested and verified
in order to be considered scientific. Adopting an empirical approach reduces the opportunity for
researchers to make unfounded claims about phenomena based on subjective opinion.

Replicability and Falsifiability
Replicability is a key feature of a science, and refers to the ability to conduct research again and achieve
consistent results. If the findings can truly be generalised, and thus be truly valid, psychologists would
expect that any replication of a study using the same standardised procedures would produce similar
findings and reach the same conclusions.

For research to be considered scientific it should also be falsifiable. Falsifiability (Popper, 1934) refers to
the idea that a research hypothesis could be proved wrong. Scientific research can never be ‘proven’ to be
true, only subjected to research attempts to prove them as false. For this reason, all investigations have a
null hypothesis which suggests that any difference or relationship found is due to chance.

An example within psychology which causes conflict in the scientific community for its lack of falsifiability is
the Freudian psychodynamic approach. A central principle of this approach is the notion of the Oedipus
complex, which occurs for boys during childhood whereby they must resolve an unconscious sexual desire
for the opposite‐sex parent in order to develop the final element of their psyche: the superego. If a male
individual refutes the idea that he will have gone through this stage of psychosexual development in his
youth, psychodynamic theorists would counter this with the supposition that they were in denial (a
defence mechanism) which is another facet of the theory. Herein a circular argument is created to prevent

the initial claim from being refuted or falsified.

Popper argued that if falsification cannot be achieved, the theory cannot have derived from a true
scientific discipline, which should instead be regarded as a pseudoscience. Therefore, the psychodynamic
approach casts doubt on the scientific rigour of psychology when considered as a whole.

Theory Construction and Hypothesis Testing
A theory is a set of principles that intend to explain certain behaviours or events. However, to construct a
theory, evidence to support this notion needs to be collected first, since the empirical method does not
allow knowledge to be based solely on beliefs.

If a researcher suspects something to be true, they need to devise an experiment that will allow them to
examine their ideas. If they start to discover patterns or trends in their research then a theory can be
constructed. This is called the inductive process and is sometimes referred to as the ‘bottom up’ approach.
Thereafter, researchers can make predictions about what they expect to happen – a hypothesis.

When designing a hypothesis, it must be objective and measurable so that at the end of the investigation a
clear decision can be made as to whether results have supported or refuted the hypothesis. If findings
support the hypothesis, then the theory will have been strengthened; if it is refuted, then it is likely that
alterations will be made to the theory accordingly.
Conversely, there is the deductive process of theory construction which works from the more general ideas
to the more specific and is informally referred to as a ‘top‐down’ approach. Here, the psychologist may
begin with a theory relating to a topic of interest. This will then be narrowed down into a more specific
hypothesis which can be tested empirically. Any data gathered from testing the hypothesis in this way will
then be used to adjust the predictions.
Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts
A paradigm is a set of shared assumptions and methods within a particular discipline. Kuhn (1962)
suggested that it was this that separated a scientific discipline from non‐scientific disciplines. Under this
assumption, he suggested that psychology was perhaps best seen as a pre‐science, separate from the likes
of physics or biology. He suggested that psychology had too much disagreement at its core between the
various approaches (e.g. behaviourist versus cognitive psychologists), and was unable to agree on one
unifying approach to consider itself a science.

The way in which a field of study moves forward is through a scientific revolution. It can start with a
handful of scientists challenging an existing, accepted paradigm. Over time, this challenge becomes
popular with other scientists also beginning to challenge it, adding more research to contradict the existing
assumptions. When this happens, it is called a paradigm shift.

A classic example of a paradigm shift is how scientists historically believed the world to be flat when now it
is widely accepted that the earth is, in fact, round. In psychology, there have been numerous paradigm
shifts over the decades. From the late nineteenth century psychoanalytic theory was at the forefront of
psychological thinking, with the role of the unconscious mind in governing behaviour being the dominant
approach. However, between 1927 and 1938 the work of Pavlov and Skinner emerged who adopted the
behaviourist position that all behaviour was learned from the environment and experiences. Shortly
thereafter, in the 1960s, another paradigm shift occurred with the cognitive approach taking precedence in
psychology with the development of the electronic computer. Here, the shift from behaviourist thinking
moved towards the role of cognitions in explaining human behaviour although elements of the
behaviourist approach remained in use and were combined in cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT).

1. Outline what is meant by falsifiability in psychological research. (2 marks)

2. Define what is meant by the term paradigm. (2 marks)

3. Explain replicability as a feature of science. (2 marks)

4. Explain what is meant by a paradigm shift. You may use a suitable example to illustrate your point. (2
marks)

5. Outline objectivity and empirical methods as features of science. (4 marks)

6. Discuss the extent to which psychology can be considered a science. Refer to research and/or
approaches in your answer. (10 marks)


RELIABILITY [A‐LEVEL ONLY]
Specification: Reliability across all methods of investigation. Ways of assessing reliability:
test‐retest and inter‐observer; improving reliability.

 Outline the following types of reliability:
o Test‐retest
o Inter‐observer
 Outline ways to improve reliability in different types of psychological investigation.

Reliability Across All Methods of Investigation
Reliability is a measure of consistency. For example, if you are using a tape measure, you expect to get the
same results every time you measure a certain object. If the results are not consistent, then the measure is
not reliable. In psychology, the expectations are the same; if researchers are using a questionnaire to
measure levels of depression, they want to ensure that the measure is consistent between participants
and over time.

Test‐Retest Reliability
One very straightforward way of testing whether a tool is reliable is using the test‐retest method. Quite
simply, the same person or group of people are asked to undertake the research measure, e.g. a
questionnaire, on different occasions.

When using the test‐retest method, it is important to remember that the same group of participants are
being studies twice, so researchers need to be aware of any potential demand characteristics. For example,
if the same measure is given twice in one day, there is a strong chance that participants will be able to
recall the responses they gave in the first test, and so psychologists could be testing their memory rather
than the reliability of their measure. On the other hand, it is also important to make sure that there is not
too much time between each test. For example, if psychologists are testing a measure of depression, and
question the participants a year apart, it is possible that they may have recovered in that time, and so they
give completely different responses for that reason, rather than that the questionnaire is not reliable.

After the measure has been completed on two separate occasions, the two scores are then correlated. If
the correlation is shown to be significant, then the measure is deemed to have good reliability. A perfect
correlation is 1, and so the closer the score is to this, the stronger the reliability of the measure, but a
correlation of over +0.8 is also perfectly acceptable and seen as a good indication of reliability.

Inter‐Observer Reliability
Inter‐observer reliability refers to the extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording
behaviour in a consistent way. This is a particularly useful way of ensuring reliability in situations where
there is a risk of subjectivity. For example, if a psychologist was making a diagnosis for a mental health
condition, it would be a good idea for someone else to also make a diagnosis to check that they are both in
agreement.

In psychology studies where behavioural categories are being applied, inter‐observer reliability is also
important to make sure that the categories are being used in the correct manner. Psychologists would
observe the same situation or event separately, and then their observations (or scores) would be
correlated to see whether they are suitably similar.


An example from the attachment topic, where the use of operationalised behavioural categories have
been employed, is that of Ainsworth’s Strange Situation. During the controlled observation, her research
team were looking for instances of separation anxiety, proximity seeking, exploration and stranger anxiety
across the eight episodes of the methodology. Ainsworth et al. (1978) found 94% agreement between
observers and when inter‐observer reliability is assumed to a high degree, such as this, the findings are
considered more meaningful.

If reliability is found to be poor, there are different ways in which it can be rectified depending on the type
of measure being used.

Improving Reliability: Questionnaires
For questionnaires, it will be possible to identify which questions that are having the biggest impact upon
the reliability, and adjust them as necessary. If it is deemed that they are important items that must
remain in the questionnaire, then rewriting them in a manner that reduces the potential for them to be
incorrectly interpreted may be enough. For example, if the item in question is an open question, it may be
possible to change it into a closed question, reducing possible responses and thereby limiting potential
ambiguity.

Improving Reliability: Interviews
If reliability needs improving in an interview, there are several factors that can be adjusted. Firstly,
ensuring that the same interviewer is conducting all interviews will help reduce researcher bias; there is
the potential for variation in the way that questions are asked which can then lead to different responses.
Equally, some researchers may ask questions that are leading or are open to interpretation. If the same
interviewer cannot be used throughout the interviewing process, then training should be provided in order
to limit the potential bias. Further to this, changing the interview from unstructured to structured will limit
researcher bias.

Improving Reliability: Experiments
In experiments, the level of control that the researcher has over variables is one way that reliability can be
influenced. Laboratory experiments are often referred to as having high reliability due to the high level of
control over the independent variable(s), which in turn makes them easier to replicate by following the
standardised procedures. To improve the reliability within experiments researchers might try to take more
control over extraneous variables, helping to further the potential for them to become confounding.

Improving Reliability: Observations
Observations can lack objectivity, since they are relying on the researcher’s interpretations of a situation.
If behavioural categories are being used, it is important that the researcher is applying them accurately
and not being subjective in their interpretations. One way to improve reliability in this instance would be
to operationalise the behavioural categories. This means that the categories need to be clear and specific
on what constitutes the behaviour in question. There should be no overlap between categories leaving no
need for personal interpretation of the meaning.


1. Define what is meant by the term reliability. (2 marks)

2. A music teacher was interested in studying whether there was a relationship between English language
skill and musical aptitude. He decided to investigate this with Year 11 students in the school where he
worked. He randomly chose 20 students, from the 200 in the year group, and gave each of them two
tests. He used part of a GCSE exam paper to test their English language skill. The higher the mark

achieved, the better the command of the English language was assumed. The teacher could not find a
musical ability test that was suitable for the investigation, so he invented his own. He asked each of the
20 students to choose a song to sing for him acapella which he then rated on a scale of 1–5, where 1
was out of tune and 5 was in tune.
Explain how the music teacher could have checked the reliability of the English language skill test. (3
marks)
Exam Hint: There are two likely methods that students will discuss here: 1) test‐retest (whereby the same
English and music test is administered on two separate occasions to the same group of participants, with
a time interval, and the score from attempt one is then correlated with the score from attempt two to
check for consistency); and/or 2) inter‐rater reliability (suggesting that two separate markers could be
used for the English and music tests to compare the scores given). Reference to running a pilot study will
receive no marks as this is a method of assessing validity, not reliability.

3. A psychologist used the observational method to look at behaviours indicative of attachment between
primary caregivers and their infants. Pairs of observers watched a single child interact with the mother
for a twenty‐minute period. They noted the number times the child sought contact and used the
parent as a safe base to go and explore. After seeing the first round of ratings from the observers, the
psychologist becomes concerned about the quality of inter‐rater reliability.

What could the psychologist do to improve inter‐rater reliability before continuing with the
observational research on attachment? (4 marks)
Exam Hint: There is a breadth / depth trade‐off to be struck here: students can elaborate on one
improvement, for example, explain how the observer training might be improved, or alternatively
outline several improvements in less detail such as establishing clearer criteria for categorising
attachment behaviour and filming the interactions so that the observers can practise the categorisation.

4. A psychologist was interested in studying student stress levels in their third year of their degree course.
She asked an academic colleague for feedback on her method who reported concern that the
psychologist had not checked the reliability and validity of the questionnaire used to measure the level
of stress.

Explain how the psychologist could check the reliability and the validity of the stress questionnaire. (5
marks)
Exam Hint: This question requires students to ‘think like a psychologist’ and apply their knowledge
carefully and with real consideration for the context. Avoid stating definitions of reliability and validity
as these are not creditworthy and instead refer explicitly to measures which improve reliability and
validity of questionnaires.

5. Identify and explain two or more ways of improving reliability. (6 marks)


VALIDITY [A‐LEVEL ONLY]
Specification: Types of validity across all methods of investigation: face validity,
concurrent validity, ecological validity and temporal validity. Assessment of validity.
Improving validity.

 Outline how to assess and improve validity across different types of investigation, referring to:
o Face validity
o Concurrent validity
o Ecological validity
o Temporal validity
o Assessment of validity
o Improvement of validity

Types of Validity
Validity refers to whether something is true or legitimate. Internal validity is a measure of whether results
obtained are solely affected by changes in the variable being manipulated (i.e. by the independent
variable) in a cause and effect relationship. External validity is a measure of whether data can be
generalised to other situations outside of the research environment.

Ecological Validity
Ecological validity is a type of external validity, and refers to the extent to which psychologists can apply
their findings to other settings – predominantly to everyday life. A lack of ecological validity is typically a
point made when discussing weaknesses of laboratory based studies. Due to the artificial and contrived
setting of a laboratory, it stands to reason that it is difficult to generalise the findings to a more natural
situation since behaviour may be very different as a result. Realistically, it is a multitude of variables that
make a laboratory experiment low in ecological validity, including the use of artificial stimulus materials.

Exam Hint: If you are suggesting that research results are low in ecological validity as part of your
evaluation, make sure that you justify this point with specific examples relating to that individual study.
Avoid writing sentences which could be ‘copy and pasted’ into another essay and still make complete
sense, as this means you have not tied the commentary closely enough to the question at hand.

Temporal Validity
Temporal validity is another form of external validity, which refers to the extent to which research
findings can be applied across time. For example, Asch’s research into conformity is often said to be lacking
temporal validity because the study was a ‘child of its time’, that is, the findings were a product of the fact
that the study was conducted in a conformist era, and thus the findings might not be as applicable in
today’s society.

Assessment of Validity
The validity of a psychological test or experiment can be assessed in two main ways. Firstly, the face
validity can be considered, that is, does the test appear to measure what it says it measures? For example,
if there is a questionnaire that is designed to measure depression, do the items all look like they are going
to represent what it is like to have depression? If not, it is not likely to have face validity. A test of face
validity is most likely to be conducted by a specialist in the given area, which in the example above could
be a clinical psychologist, doctor or other mental health specialist familiar with the assessment of

depression. If the specialist believes that the instrument or measure is valid, this is often seen as a good
indication of validity.

A second way of assessing whether or not a measure is valid is to use concurrent validity. This is where the
performance of the test in question is compared to a test that is already recognised and trusted within the
same field. For example, if psychologists are wanting to introduce a new measure of depression, they might
compare their results to the data obtained from a measure that is very similar, such as Beck’s depression
inventory. As both measures are looking to do the same thing, it would be expected for participants to
score relatively similarly on each questionnaire. Statistically, a correlation of +0.80 or higher would assume
that there is high concurrent validity.

There are several things psychologists can do to try to improve the validity of their research. The ways in
which it can be improved will very much depend on the methods that have been used in the study.

Improving Validity: Experiments
In experimental research, a control group is often used. This allows psychologists to see whether the
independent variable influences the dependent variable. For example, if researchers are testing the
efficacy of a new anti‐depressant drug, they will often have an experimental group (who receive the true
medication) and a control group (who receive a placebo). In this case, using a control group would allow a
comparison to see whether the medication was truly effective, thus giving greater confidence in the validity
of the research.

Research can also include single‐blind or double‐blind procedures as a means to improve validity. The use
of a single‐blind procedure means that participants do not know which condition they are in, whilst
double‐blind means that neither the participant nor the researcher knows which condition participants are
in. This ensures that the knowledge of the conditions does not result in demand characteristics on behalf
of the participants or investigator effects from the direct or indirect behaviour of the experimenter.

Another way of improving validity in experimental research is to use standardised instructions, which
involves giving all participants the same instructions in exactly the same format. By ensuring that
participants receive identical information, psychologists can minimise investigator effects. In this way
participants are less likely to have a different interpretation of what they are required to do, whilst the
researcher is at less risk of giving a higher level of information to some participants compared to others.

Improving Validity: Questionnaires
The validity of questionnaires can also be improved using relatively straightforward techniques. Often,
researchers will include a lie scale to check the consistency of participants’ responses. One way in which
this can be done is by having two items that are asking the same thing, but in opposite ways. For example,
on a scale measuring depression imagine that each item asks participants to rate from 1 to 5, with one
being ‘completely disagree’ and 5 being ‘completely agree’. There might be one item in the scale that says,
‘I generally sleep well at night’ and another that says, ‘my sleeping has become worse’. A participant could
not respond to both items honestly with a rating of with 5, ‘strongly agree’, because they contradict each
other. Such items are then used to check the validity of an individual participant’s scores.

Another way of improving validity in a questionnaire is to ensure that participants know that their
responses are going to be kept anonymous because, by remaining unidentifiable, participants are less
likely to give answers that are socially desirable.


Improving Validity: Observations
When it comes to observations, psychologists can improve validity, in particular ecological validity, by
making sure that the researchers have minimal impact on the behaviour that they are observing. One way
of doing this is to conduct a covert observation, where the researcher is not seen. By doing this,
researchers increase the likelihood that the behaviour observed is natural, as participants will not be acting
in a way that they deem correct or desirable for the sake of the study.

Another way of improving validity in observations is the use of behavioural categories. In this instance,
researchers will tick off behaviours when they are seen which helps to improve validity by reducing the
chance of researcher subjectivity. Ensuring that the categories are clearly defined, and do not overlap,
would also further improve validity in observations.

Research that employs qualitative methodology as opposed to quantitative methodology is often
regarded as having higher ecological validity due to the depth of data that is collected, often through the
use of case studies or interviews. However, validity can be lowered because analysis is more subjective
and open to the investigator’s interpretation. To strengthen the validity here, there are several things that
can be done. First of all, simply including direct quotes from participants can help to improve validity, as it
provides evidence that what was being inferred from the data is accurate. Also, validity can be improved
by collecting data from a variety of sources; for example, having data that has come from interviews,
observations and written reports from participants which is a process called triangulation.

1. What is meant by validity? (1 mark)
Exam Hint: This question is worth only one mark so candidates need to avoid producing lengthy answers
– be succinct.

2. Briefly explain one way a psychologist could check the validity of the data they have collected in a
questionnaire assessing obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). (2 marks)
Exam Hint: The key word in this question is ‘way’ not ‘type’. This means that the first mark is awarded
for knowledge of a way (not just naming a type of validity) and the second mark is for explaining how
this would be implemented in this case. Answers are most likely to address face validity or concurrent
validity, but other ways such as construct validity, content validity, criterion validity and predictive
validity would also be creditworthy.

3. Explain how ecological validity and temporal validity differ in psychological research. (4 marks)
Exam Hint: Note that the wording of this question requires the differences between the two types of
validity to be explained, not simply for each term to be defined.

4. Describe two ways of assessing validity. (4 marks)

5. A psychologist was interested in studying student stress levels in their third year of their degree course.
She asked an academic colleague for feedback on her method who reported concern that the
psychologist had not checked the reliability and validity of the questionnaire used to measure the level
of stress.

Explain how the psychologist could check the reliability and the validity of the stress questionnaire. (5
marks)
Exam Hint: This question requires students to ‘think like a psychologist’ and apply their knowledge with
real consideration for the context. Avoid stating definitions as these are not creditworthy and instead
refer explicitly to measures which improve reliability and validity of questionnaires.

REPORTING PSYCHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS [A‐LEVEL ONLY]
Specification: Reporting psychological investigations. Sections of a scientific report:
abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion and referencing.

 Outline the purpose and structure of the following sections of a psychological report:
o Abstract
o Introduction
o Method
o Results
o Discussion
o References

Reporting Psychological Investigations
When psychologists conduct research, they often want to share their findings with the psychology
community but if everyone wrote psychological reports in their own individual style it would be very
difficult for the reader to navigate. Therefore, everyone uses a conventional format and in the field of
psychology, the American Psychological Association (APA) format is typically used. However, there are
other variations that can be used, such as Harvard. Whilst there are some minor differences, all formats
present research in a similar way. In addition to making it more user‐friendly, following the conventional
format also ensures that every author is providing the reader with a standard level of detail about their
research.

Exam Hint: In the exam, you might be asked to outline the purpose or structure of the following sections
of a psychological report; however, you might also be asked to write a specific part of a report (e.g.
abstract, method section or even a reference). Therefore, it is important that not only do you understand
the purpose and structure of these sections but you also practice writing them.

Sections of a Scientific Report
Abstract
The first section in a psychological report is the
abstract which is a short summary of the key
points of the research in roughly 150–200
words. Since the abstract is typically the first
information that the reader will encounter it
plays an important role in the report. It should
provide enough information to give a general
overview of the study and allow the reader to
make an informed decision about whether to
read the rest of the article or not.

Even though the abstract is simply a summary of
the research, there are still key pieces of
information that should be included: aim and
hypotheses, participants, methods, results, data
analysis and conclusions.


Exam Hint: Note that psychologists always write the abstract last, after writing the rest of the report.
This ensures that they have all of information that needs to go into the abstract.

Introduction
The introduction section is about justifying the need for conducting research. When developing a study, it
is important to think about the research that already exists within the same field of psychology.
Researchers try to identify if there a gap in existing research or if previous research created new questions
that need to be answered.

In order to better understand the subject, a literature review needs to be carried out. This is an overview
of research which already exists within the proposed field of study. Typically, a literature review would
start off with consideration of a generally large concept, which is gradually narrowed and explored in more
depth. Only after narrowing down the existing research, much like a funnel channels water, can the aim
and hypotheses be developed and presented, both of which should be stated at the end of the
introduction section of the report. The introduction is an important part of the report, and so should
account for about a third of the overall report in volume.

Method
The method section of a report is typically split into several sections to help ensure that each aspect of the
procedure is written in sufficient detail so that the reader would be able to replicate the study (if they
wanted to):
 Design
 Sample/participants
 Apparatus/materials
 Procedure
 Ethics

It is important for this section to remain focussed as it is easy to include details which are unimportant or
irrelevant, e.g. it is important to state that participants were asked to complete a written consent form,
but it is not necessary to state that you gave them a pen and that they sat down to sign it.

The method and results section combined should account for approximately a third of the overall report.

Method: Design
This is where the technicalities of the study are explained, without going into the full procedure (which is
given its own subheading). Accurate information presented here will allow the reader to be able to follow
the rationale of study more easily, and better comprehend the results section.

The experimental design should be stated here (e.g. independent measures) as well as any
independent/dependent variables. If a correlational design was used, there will not be an independent or
dependent variable, as the study is measuring a relationship between co‐variables. The different co‐
variables looked at should then be stated, and the order in which they were presented (e.g. when
measuring the relationship between aggression and hours of television watched, state which the
participants were asked about first).

If there are multiple conditions within the experiment, they should have full names by which to identify
them, rather than simply calling them Condition 1 and Condition 2. The way in which the conditions are
referred to in this subsection should be how they are referred to throughout the whole report, for

consistency. How participants were allocated to the conditions and any counterbalancing used should also
be stated here.

Method: Sample
This is where the researcher explains the nature of the participants who made up their sample and their
sampling method (e.g. volunteer). Information such as how many participants were recruited should be
included. In addition, any important characteristics of the composition or demographic of the sample will
be stated. For example, simple numerical values, such as the mean age of the sample, may be of interest.
Other important characteristics that may be included here are factors like level of education, but these will
be specific to the study underway.

Method: Apparatus/Materials
Here, details of all the equipment and materials used in the study should be given. Equipment can include
anything needed in order to present the stimuli to the participants, such as a computer. Materials refer to
the stimulus itself, such as a questionnaire that participants were asked to complete. Copies of any
questionnaire or forms should not be included here, although they should be included as an appendix at
the end of the report.

Not all research reports will have this subheading. If a study only uses trivial items, such as pens or a
stopwatch, then it is not necessary to devote a section of the method to explaining them. If the apparatus
is set up in a specific way, it can sometimes be easier to provide a diagram as an explanation, to ensure
that the way in which the study was conducted is clear to the reader such as with Pavlov’s and Skinner’s
work, both of which used a diagram to fully explain their complex setup.

Method: Procedure
This section is perhaps the most straightforward section to write, as it is simply the ‘recipe’ for the reader
to follow in order to replicate the study. The study should be presented from beginning to end, with
everything in the correct order as it occurred. Any details about standardised instructions provided to
participants, as well as informed consent and debriefing forms, should be given here. It is important for
the writer to be concise and keep to the point.

Method: Ethics
In the final subheading of the method section, it is important to consider any ethical issues that arose
within the study, and how they were addressed. For example, if participants were being deceived about
the true aims of the study, then it is important for the researcher to explain that there was an issue with
informed consent, but that this was dealt with using a debrief following completion of the study.

Results
The results section of the report is about presenting the findings. Much of this section will be numerical
and presented in graphs and tables since there is the chance to talk about the findings in greater detail in
the discussion section. Even though there is likely to be a lot of quantitative data in this section, raw data
should not be presented here, but should be included as an appendix.

The results section should be presented in chronological order, starting with a simple explanation of how
the data was treated. The reader should be clear as to how the data has been taken from its raw form into
the form used for analysis.

Descriptive statistics should be presented which are the statistical values of the composition of the sample
(typically the number and percentage breakdown) and the composition of any conditions (e.g. control,

experimental, etc.). Measures of central tendency and dispersion should also be provided here.
Following this should be the inferential statistics with the purpose of reaching conclusions regarding the
statistical significance of the differences between DVs measured, or the relationship between co‐variables.
The choice of statistical test(s) used should be justified, with reference to both the calculated values and
critical values. The exact information that is needed here will be dependent on the statistical test chosen,
as each is reported in its own unique way, with its own test values (e.g. the t‐value for the t‐test).

The p‐value should also be reported to three decimal places (e.g. p = 0.05). The results should be linked
back to the hypotheses by stating which hypothesis is rejected or retained.

Exam Hint: Remember that results can support a hypothesis, but not ‘prove’ or ‘disprove’ it.

Discussion
The discussion is arguably the most important part of the report since it allows for the findings to be
interpreted and ‘discusses’ what they may mean. Here, the results are interpreted in verbal, rather than
statistical, form. The discussion should link everything, including information discussed in the literature
review from the introduction to the final statistics from the analyses. As a general rule of thumb, the
discussion should progress as follows:
1. How the findings compare with the initial research questions and hypotheses
2. How the research compares with other relevant research that has been published within the field
3. The implications for future research

Each of the discussion points listed should be explored within the context of the existing research, to help
the reader place the findings of the study respectively within the field.

The discussion section should start by reiterating what was found, linking back to the research questions
and telling the reader explicitly what the research shows. Also, any results that were not expected are
identified, as it is easy to have overlooked these when reading the results section.

Next, findings need to be linked back to the field, using the research from the literature review. Limitations
of the research should also be considered here by thinking critically about how the research was
conducted.

Finally, it is important for the researcher to think about where the results leave the field of psychology
now, by providing a critical analysis of the impact of the research. The discussion should make up the final
third of the report.

References
The purpose of referencing is to give credit to the original authors of any work that has been referred to or
cited within the research report. This could be existing research referred to in the introduction, or a
psychological theory on which the study has been based. When presenting references in a research paper,
they should always be given in alphabetical order of the last name of the author.

Information is obtained from a number of different sources, all of which will be referenced in a slightly
different manner (e.g. the information we acquire from a book will be referenced differently from that
obtained from a journal article). However, all references should again be written in accordance with APA
format.

A book is typically referenced in the following format:
Author, initial (year of publication). Book title in italics. Place of publication: Publishers.

For example: Beck, A. (1967). Depression: clinical, experimental and theoretical aspects. Pennsylvania:
University of Pennsylvania.

A journal article is slightly different, as there is slightly more information needed to accurately identify the
article that is being referred to. A journal can contain multiple volumes and editions, each holding
thousands of research papers, so this information must be included if the reader is to be able to find it
quickly and easily. It is typically referenced in the following format:

Author, initial (year). Article title. Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number if
available, page range.

For example: Loftus, E. (1975). Leading questions and the eyewitness report. Cognitive Psychology, 7,
560–572.

If the journal article is only available online, then it is necessary to also provide information to direct the
reader to a link for the article.

1. Explain the purpose of the introduction section in a psychological report. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Many students confuse the introduction with the abstract and therefore receive no credit for
short questions like this. Students must acknowledge the inclusion of aims / hypotheses in the
introduction section as well as referring to background information which contextualises the research.

2. Briefly outline what information psychologists should include when writing an abstract. (2 marks)

3. Identify three important subsections that should be included within the method section of a
psychological report. (3 marks)

4. Identify and describe two sections of a psychological report. (4 marks)

5. Imagine you are a psychologist. Design a research study to test whether there is a difference in the
ability of short‐sighted students and long‐sighted students to play a musical instrument. You have
access to a sixth form of 150 female students.
You must:
 identify the design that you would use
 explain an appropriate sampling method with justification
 describe the procedure, including details of how you would assess musical ability
 write a suitable debrief for the participants. (10 marks)

Exam Hint: This question allows students to present several different ways of designing the experiment
(independent measures or matched pairs) and of generating a sample (volunteer or random selection
from the two groups) provided it is both workable and justified. Common errors to avoid here are:
 suggesting repeated measures which does not take account of the information relating to short
and long‐sighted participants
 suggesting a sampling method but not explaining how it would yield an appropriate sample of
short and long‐sighted participants
 failing to provide any procedural information of how the study would be carried out
 producing a debrief which is not suitable to be read out to participants.


THE SIGN TEST [AS AND A‐LEVEL]
Specification: Introduction to statistical testing; the sign test.

 Known when and how to use the sign test.

Significance Testing – The Sign Test: When and How to Use It
The sign test is used when looking for a difference between paired data, i.e. repeated measures design (or
matched pairs – counted as one person tested on two occasions) which generates nominal data.

A Worked Example in Six Easy Steps
A slimming club believed that their new weight programme worked. They recorded the weights of ten
members of the club when they first joined, and again after three months.

Use the sign test to work out whether the weight loss programme was effective for these members.

WEIGHT AFTER 3
STARTING WEIGHT DIFFERENCE SIGN
MONTHS
JAN 80 74 ‐6 ‐
JULIE 125 102 ‐23 ‐
JESS 113 114 1 +
JOSIE 108 87 ‐21 ‐
JODIE 96 82 ‐14 ‐
JENNY 78 78 0 0
JOE 102 94 ‐8 ‐
JEFF 124 125 1 +
JUNE 97 75 ‐22 ‐
JADE 122 94 ‐28 ‐

1. Is the hypothesis directional or non‐directional?
Directional since the hypothesis predicts that members will lose weight after three months on the
programme.

2. Work out the sign.
Record each pair of data with a + or – (depending on whether the difference is positive or negative). If
there is no difference (e.g. in the case of Jenny) then a nil sign ‘0’ is recorded.

3. Calculate the value of S (S is the symbol for the sign test and is calculated by adding up the total
number of pluses and minus and selecting the smaller value).
In this case there are 7 minus and 2 pluses, therefore S = 2.

4. Calculate the value of N (N is the total number of scores, minus any nil scores ‘0’).
In this case there are 10 scores, but one is a 0, so N = 9.

5. Find the critical value (see table below)
For a directional test for N = 9, the critical value = 1.


LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE FOR A ONE‐TAILED TEST
.05 .025 .01 .005
LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE FOR A TWO‐TAILED TEST
.10 .05 .02 .01
N
5 0
6 0 0
7 0 0 0
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 1 0 0
10 1 1 0 0
11 2 1 1 0
12 2 2 1 1
13 3 2 1 1
14 3 2 2 1
15 3 3 2 2
16 4 3 2 2
17 4 4 3 2
18 5 4 3 3
19 5 4 4 3
20 5 5 4 3
25 7 7 6 5
30 10 9 8 7
35 12 11 10 9
Note: For the sign test to be significant the calculated value of S must be equal to or less than the critical
value.

6. Determine whether the results are significant or not (typically, the p ≤ 0.05 probability level is used
unless otherwise stated).
For the sign test, the calculated value [2] must be equal to or less than the critical value [1] for the
result to be significant. Therefore, these results are not significant as the calculated value of S is 2
which is higher than the critical value of S which is 1.

7. Reporting the conclusions of the sign test.
Once you have worked out the results of the sign test, you can draw a conclusion.

The result is not significant because the calculated value of S = 2 exceeds the critical value of 1 at a
significance level of p ≤ 0.05 for a one‐tailed test.

1. Explain what N means in relation to statistical testing in psychology. (1 mark)

2. Identify the most commonly accepted level of probability (p) used in psychological research. (1 mark)
a. 0.05
b. 0.1
c. 0.5
d. 0.01

3. Calculate p ≤ 0.05 as a percentage. (1 mark)

4. A researcher has decided to use a sign test to assess the statistical significance of their results from an
investigation which predicted that caffeine will enhance test performance compared to water. When
looking at the table of critical values, the researcher notices that there are two headings: levels of
significance for a one‐tailed test and levels of significance for a two‐tailed test.

Explain how the researcher will decide which to use and explain your reasoning. (2 marks)

5. Identify two factors a researcher must consider when deciding to use the sign test. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Full marks will be awarded here for clearly identifying two factors that are relevant for use of
the sign test: nominal/categorical data; test of difference; related design/repeated measures.

6. Suggest three reasons for using a sign test. (3 marks)

7. A psychologist was interested in investigating the power of advertising on consumer behaviour. He
believed that television advertising had a positive effect on sales. The psychologist showed participants
a new advert for an anti‐dandruff shampoo. He asked participants to then rate whether they were
more likely or less likely to purchase the shampoo after seeing the new advert. Out of the ten
participants, two said they were no more or no less likely (opinion stayed the same), six were more
likely and two were less likely to buy the shampoo.
a) Calculate the value of S. (1 mark)
b) Using the most common significance level in psychology, decide if the results from this
investigation are statistically significant. (2 marks)


LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT [A‐LEVEL ONLY]
Specification: Levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal and interval. Factors affecting the
choice of statistical test, including level of measurement and experimental design.

 Outline the different factors that affect the choice of a statistical test, including:
o Experimental design
o Levels of measurement
 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval

Factors Affecting the Choice of Statistical Test
It is important to remember that when choosing a statistical test, an appropriate test must be selected and
justified, otherwise the statistical analysis may be brought into question. In psychology, there are a
number of important considerations that researchers must take into account when deciding on an
appropriate statistical test.

Difference or Association
The first important decision to make when choosing a statistical test of significance is whether the research
hypothesis is looking to investigate a difference or a relationship. It is important to identify this factor first
of all, as most statistical tests are designed to be used for one or the other specifically, and cannot be
simply applied to data regardless.

Data that investigates a difference will most typically have two conditions, one control condition and one
experimental condition. For example, imagine a researcher is investigating the impact of revision classes
on exam scores. Participants in the experimental condition may have been given three additional revision
classes to attend, whilst those in the control condition were not given any additional support. The
psychologist would be hoping to see that the average exam result in the experimental condition was
significantly higher than that of the control condition – looking for whether or not a difference between
these two groups exists.

If a researcher was wanting to establish an association/relationship, however, their investigation would
look quite different. Using the same example of the impact of revision on exam performance, each student
would be asked to state how many hours of revision they had completed in preparation for the exam and
this would be correlated against their final exam grade. The psychologist would therefore be investigating
the relationship between the two co‐variables: number of hours of revision completed and the
performance in the exam.

Experimental Design
The second decision which is important to consider when selecting an appropriate statistical test is the
research design that was used.

Psychologists will only need to consider the experimental design if they are looking for a difference, not an
association. If they are looking for an association, then they can move onto the level of measurement, to
help them decide which is the most appropriate statistical test.

The experimental design will have been identified as one of the following three: independent groups,

where participants take part in only one of the conditions; repeated measures, where participants take
part in all of the conditions; or matched pairs, where participants from one condition are matched with a
participant from the other condition, who are considered to have similarities on a variable that is
important for the sake of the investigation.

From the experimental design, the type of data – related or unrelated – can be decided. Related data
refers to data in which participants in each condition are related in some manner; therefore, this would
mean the researcher has used either repeated measures or matched pairs. Unrelated data refers to
having two separate groups of people in each condition of the study, and so would refer to an
independent groups design.

Levels of Measurement
Quantitative research can generate a range of data, and the type of data that is obtained will be an
important factor when it comes to deciding which statistical test should be carried out for the analysis.
Each specific data type will fall into one of three levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, or interval.

Nominal
Nominal data can be referred to as categorical data. For example, if a researcher was interested to know if
more students doing A‐level psychology went to a school or a college, the data would be categorised as
either ‘school’ or ‘college’: two distinct categories.

If the data is nominal, then each participant will only appear in one category. This is called discrete data.
Using the example above, it is not possible to be studying both at school and at college for the same
qualification – students are either in one or the other.

Ordinal
Data is ordinal if it is ordered in some way and the intervals between the data are not equal. Typically, this
is used to simply rank data where the values assigned have no meaning beyond the purpose of stating
where one score appeared in relation to others.

For example, if people were asked to rate their preference of local restaurants, with 1 being their least
favourite and 10 being their favourite, a researcher would be able to generate a list of restaurants from
this data based upon the average ratings for each. However, they wouldn’t be able to say for sure that the
difference between the restaurants ranked in 1st and 2nd place was equal to the difference between the
ones rated as 8th and 9th – perhaps it was a very close call between those rated as 1st and 2nd, but there was
a much bigger difference between 8th and 9th. With ordinal data, that level of detail cannot be told; it is
only possible tell where they lie in relation to each other in an orderly fashion.

Ordinal data often appears in psychology when researchers are investigating a non‐physical entity, such as
attitudes. This is subjective, as the ranks that are available will be interpreted as being different by each
participant. Ordinal data can therefore be regarded as lacking certainty, due to the lack of objective insight
into this type of data.

Interval
Interval data is like ordinal data in that it also refers to data that is ordered in some way. However, with
interval data we are confident that the intervals between each value are equal in measurement. This type
of data is much more objective and scientific in nature as a result. Examples of interval data include
temperature and time. The difference between 3 and 4 degrees Celsius is the same as the difference
between 35 and 36 degrees Celsius.

STRENGTH LIMITATION
Nominal data is easily generated from closed Since there is no scale of reference for nominal
questions on a questionnaire or interview. This data, which is simply categorical, it is not
NOMINAL
can often be generated quickly and can possible for the data to express its true
therefore be tested in a timely manner for complexity and can therefore appear overly
reliability. The mode is the measure of central simplistic. There is no measure of dispersion
tendency which can be applied to nominal data. which can be applied to nominal data.
The intervals between scores are not of equal
ORDINAL
Ordinal data provides more detail than nominal value. This means that an average (the mean)
data as the scores are ordered in a linear cannot be used as a measure of central
fashion, e.g. from highest to lowest. tendency. The median is most often used to
overcome this limitation.
In some instances, the intervals are arbitrary.
Interval level data is considered more
For example, 100 degrees centigrade is not
INTERVAL
informative than the nominal and ordinal levels
twice as warm as 50 degrees centigrade. We
of measurement. The gaps in between the
can only say that the difference between 10
scores are of equal value/distance and are
and 20 degrees is the same as between 30 and
therefore more reliable.
40 degrees.

1. Identify the key term which is used to describe categorical data from the list below. (1 mark)
a) Nominal
b) Ordinal
c) Interval
d) Ratio

2. Define nominal data. (1 marks)

3. Suggest an example of ordinal data. (2 marks)

4. Explain one limitation of nominal level data. (2 marks)

5. Explain why interval level data is often considered the most reliable. (2 marks)

6. Name three levels of measurement. (3 marks)
Exam Hint: Since the command word for this question is ‘name’, no elaboration is required and simply
naming nominal, ordinal and interval will secure all three marks available.

7. Explain what is meant by levels of measurement in psychological research. (3 marks)


PROBABILITY AND SIGNIFICANCE [A‐LEVEL ONLY]
Specification: Probability and significance: use of statistical tables and critical values in
interpretation of significance; Type I and Type II errors.

 Probability and significance:
o Use of statistical tables and critical values
o Type I and Type II errors

Probability and Significance
Before analysing data, a clear hypothesis must be outlined which can be either directional or non‐
directional. It is important to recognise which is which; without knowing, the wrong statistical test might
be selected for the data which will misrepresent the findings.

A directional hypothesis states which direction the findings are expected to take. For example, in a test of
difference, we might expect that one group performs better than the other; in an association, we might
specify the type of relationship that we expect to see, for example a positive relationship (correlation). A
directional hypothesis is selected by a researcher when previous research in that field of psychology
suggests findings will go in that particular direction.

A non‐directional hypothesis is selected by a researcher when there is little, or conflicting, evidence in that
field of psychology and a clear outcome for the research is not certain. For example, a non‐directional
hypothesis investigating differences may state that a difference between conditions is expected, but not
give further specific details regarding that difference. Equally with an association, a non‐directional
hypothesis would predict that a relationship would be found, without stating the direction.

Use of Statistical Tables and Critical Values
After conducting a statistical test (e.g. the sign test), a number will be generated which is called the
calculated value. It is this number that will help determine whether results are significant, which will in
turn help decide whether to reject the null hypothesis and accept the experimental/alternative hypothesis.
To do this, the calculated value needs to be compared with the critical value in the statistical tables.

The critical value varies with the statistical test
used, as each has its own specific table of
critical values. To know which critical value is
needed, several factors need to be considered
in making the decision.

 Firstly, it needs to be decided whether the
investigation used a one‐tailed (directional
hypothesis) or a two‐tailed (non‐directional
hypothesis) test.

 Secondly, the number of participants in the
sample is also taken into consideration.

 The final factor to ascertain is the level of
significance, or the p‐value (probability).

This refers to how much confidence there is in the findings. A researcher can never be 100% confident
in their results and so the p‐value reflects this. Typically, within psychology, a p‐value of 0.05 is used
which suggests that there is a 5% likelihood that the findings are caused chance with a 95% confidence
level that the results were caused by the variable interaction.

Type I and Type II Errors
Because the level of significance selected suggests that there is a chance that findings are the result of
chance (most commonly, 5%), there is the possibility that the wrong hypothesis has been accepted in
error.

A type I error occurs in situations where the null hypothesis is rejected, and the experimental/alternative
hypothesis accepted, when it should have been the other way around. A researcher will have concluded
that the results are statistically significant when in fact they are not. This can also be referred to as a false
positive whereby the psychologist falsely claims their findings are significant when in fact there is no
difference/relationship present.

A type II error occurs when the researcher has accepted the null hypothesis and rejected the
experimental/alternative hypothesis, and it should have been the other way around. This can also be
referred to as a false negative whereby the psychologist thinks their findings were not statistically
significant, but they were.

The likelihood of making each of these errors can be down to the level of significance chosen. If the p‐value
is too lenient, perhaps 0.1 instead of 0.05, then a researcher is likely to have made a type I error, and
claimed that their results were statistically significant when they were not.

If the p‐value is too strict, perhaps 0.01, then it is likely that the researcher has made a type II error, stating
that the findings were not statistically significant when they were. This is why psychologists often maintain
a p‐value of 0.05, to ensure that their results are due to the independent variable having an effect on the
dependent variable. This 5% level ensures that there is a balance between the risk of making a type I or a
type II error.

1. What level of significance is accepted as standard in psychological research? (1 mark)

2. Define a type I error. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Full marks can be achieved for this question by stating that the null is rejected and the
experimental hypothesis accepted, when in fact results are due to chance and is most likely to happen
when the level of significance has been set too leniently.

3. A psychologist found that their results were significant at p<0.05. What is meant by ‘the results were
significant at p<0.05’? (2 marks)

4. Explain the difference between a type 1 and a type 2 error. (3 marks)

5. Explain the difference between a calculated value and a critical value. (3 marks)


STATISTICAL TESTS [A‐LEVEL ONLY]
Specification: When to use the following tests: Spearman’s rho, Pearson’s r, Wilcoxon,
Mann‐Whitney, related t‐test, unrelated t‐test and Chi‐squared test.

 Outline when to use the following statistical tests, with reference to: difference or association,
experimental design and leave of measurement:
o Spearman’s rho
o Pearson’s r
o Wilcoxon
o Mann‐Whitney
o Related t‐test
o Unrelated t‐test
o Chi‐squared test

Statistical Tests
Once a researcher knows if they are looking for a difference or a relationship/association, their research
design and what type of data they are working with then it is relatively straightforward to find out which
statistical test to use.

Below is a table outlining which statistical test to use, based on these decisions.
TEST OF DIFFERENCE
TEST OF
ASSOCIATION
RELATED DESIGN UNRELATED DESIGN
Sign test Chi‐squared
NOMINAL DATA
Simon Cowell
Wilcoxon Mann‐Whitney Spearman’s rho
ORDINAL DATA
Wants More Singers
Related t‐test Unrelated t‐test Pearson’s r
INTERVAL DATA (parametric) (parametric) (parametric)
Receiving Unanimous Praise

Parametric and Non‐Parametric Tests
Whilst the table above provides an overview of the test that should be used, it is also important for
researchers to consider whether the data they have is suitable for a parametric or a non‐parametric test.

In psychological research, it is preferable to be able to use a parametric test: these are much more
powerful than non‐parametric tests, but require the data to meet certain assumptions before use.
 Firstly, data should be interval level, because parametric tests use the actual score, rather than ranked
data.
 Secondly, the data should be drawn from an underlying normal distribution, so we would expect the
data itself to be normally distributed.
 Thirdly, there should be homogeneity of variance – the variances in the two groups should not be
significantly different from one another. One way of testing for homogeneity of variance is to compare
the standard deviation scores for each condition. Because the participants are drawn from the same
population, it is expected that each condition would be similarly dispersed, particularly if the conditions
are related, thus giving homogeneity of variance.

The parametric tests of difference that are required for the specification are the related t‐test and
unrelated t‐test. If the interval level data does not meet the other two requirements for a parametric test
then either the Mann‐Whitney test (independent samples design) or the Wilcoxon test (repeated
measures or matched pairs design) should be selected as an alternative. The parametric test of correlation
that is required for the specification is the Pearson’s R.

TESTS OF DIFFERENCE: NOMINAL DATA
The Sign Test Chi‐Squared Test
The sign test is used when looking for a difference The most flexible of the statistical tests, the chi‐
between paired data, i.e. repeated measures squared test can be used either as a test of
design (or matched pairs – counted as one person difference or as a test of association. Despite this,
tested on two occasions) which generates nominal it can only be used on nominal, unrelated data.
data.
Rather than using each individual data item, the
Firstly, each pair of data in the set should be chi‐squared test uses a frequency count. The
scored with either a + or – (depending on whether frequencies are typically entered into a table
the difference between the two scores is positive containing four cells (in a 2 × 2 format), although it
or negative). If there is no difference then a nil sign is possible to have more. This is known as a
‘0’ is recorded. contingency table. Each participant’s data will only
appear in one cell.
Next, the value of S is calculated (S is the symbol
for the sign test and is calculated by adding up the Because of using frequencies instead of individual
total number of pluses and minus and selecting the data values, the degrees of freedom also need to
smaller value) followed by a calculation for the be calculated before a researcher is able to identify
value of N (N is the total number of scores, minus whether or not the results are statistically
any nil scores ‘0’). significant. To do this, the following calculation is
required: df = (rows – 1) × (columns – 1). The
When referring to the critical valued table it is result of this will then allow the researcher to
important to decide if the research hypothesis is identify which critical value needs to be compared
directional or non‐directional. After finding the to the calculated value.
critical value a decision must be made to
determine whether the results are significant or For the result to be statistically significant, the
not (typically, the p ≤ .05 probability level is used calculated value must be equal to or greater than
unless otherwise stated). the critical value. The critical values for the Chi‐
squared test are shown in the appendices.
For the sign test, the calculated value must be
equal to or less than the critical value for the result
to be significant.

TESTS OF DIFFERENCE: ORDINAL DATA
Wilcoxon Mann‐Whitney
The Wilcoxon test is used when looking for a Mann‐Whitney is a statistical test used on
difference in ordinal data (or on interval data that unrelated, ordinal data from an independent
does not meet the other requirements for samples design (or interval data that does not
parametric testing). It is used for related data meet the other requirements of parametric
obtained from either a repeated measures or testing). Mann‐Whitney is an example of a non‐
matched pairs design. parametric test and analyses the difference
between the data ranks.
The calculated value must be equal to or less than

the critical value to show significance. For the result to be significant, the calculated value
must be equal to or less than the critical value.
The critical values for the Wilcoxon test are shown
in the appendices. The critical values for the Mann‐Whitney are
shown in the appendices.

TESTS OF DIFFERENCE: INTERVAL DATA (PARAMETRIC TESTS)
Related T‐Test Unrelated T‐Test
The related t‐test, as the name suggests, considers The unrelated t‐test considers data that has come
data that is related, either from a repeated from independent measures, thus making it
measures or matched pairs design. The related t‐ unrelated. Though the working out of the
test looks for a statistically significant difference calculated value is different, comparison is done
between groups using interval data. Due to the against the same table of critical values as the
data being related, it would be assumed that the related t‐test. For both t‐tests, the calculated value
variance is homogeneous. must either be equal to or greater than the critical
value to show statistical significance.

Instead of reading the table and comparing the
calculated and critical value based on N, the t‐test
requires a comparison based on degrees of
freedom. To calculate this, the following equation
is applied:

df = (N in condition A) + (N in condition B) – 2.

The critical values for the related t‐test and
unrelated t‐test are shown in the appendices.

TESTS OF ASSOCIATION
Spearman’s rho Pearson’s r
Spearman's rho is an inferential test that is mainly Pearson’s r is another inferential statistical test
used on ordinal data. It can only be used when that is used when conducting a test of correlation
looking for a correlation (association/relationship) (association/relationship). However, this test
so cannot be used as a test of difference. focuses on data that is interval in nature. As
Pearson’s r is a parametric test, it is important to
For data to be statistically significant at the p ≤ make sure that the data it is being used on is
0.05 level when using Spearman’s rho, the appropriate and meets the requirements for using
calculated value must be equal to or higher than a parametric test.
the critical value.
The calculated value must be equal to or higher
When comparing the two values, the calculated than the critical value to show significance.
value may be a negative number. If it is, simply
ignore the minus sign as it is there to signify that The critical values for Pearson’s r are shown in the
the correlation was negative, and has no bearing appendices.
on the value.

The critical values for Spearman’s rho, at a p‐value
of 0.05 for both one‐tailed and two‐tailed testing,
are shown in the appendices.


Exam Hint: While the critical values table will tell you whether the calculated value needs to less/more
than the critical value for the results to be significant, a simple rule of thumb is that any test with a letter
‘r’ in the name is higher.

LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO MORE THAN OR EQUAL TO
Sign test – lower Chi‐SquaRed – higher
Wilcoxon – lower SpeaRman’s rho – higher
Mann‐Whitney – lower Related t‐test – higher
UnRelated t‐test – higher
PeaRson’s r – higher

1. A psychologist was interested in studying the effects of a severely calorie controlled diet on memory
performance and she expected recall to be reduced. The psychologist’s hypothesis was that
participants’ scores on a memory test would be lower after following a severely calorie controlled diet
than eating a non‐restricted diet. She gave the volunteer participants a memory test when they first
arrived at her university research suite and a similar test at the end of a four‐week period and noted
the memory scores on both memory tests.

State whether the hypothesis for this study is directional or non‐directional. (1 mark)

2. What it meant by the abbreviation df in inferential statistics? (1 mark)

3. A researcher has conducted an experiment using repeated measures to categorise people as either
normal or abnormal. Identify the most appropriate test of significance which should be applied to this
data. (1 mark)
Exam Hint: No justification is required for this question since the command word is ‘identify’, so students
simply need to state the name of the appropriate statistical test.

4. Explain two factors that a researcher must consider when deciding to use the sign test. (2 marks)

5. Explain the difference between a one‐tailed test and a two‐tailed test. (2 marks)

6. A small group of psychologists wanted to see whether the use of diagrams in medical consultations
would help patients recall medical information provided to them by a doctor.

In a laboratory experiment involving a role‐play between a patient and a doctor, volunteer participants
were randomly allocated to one of two conditions.

Condition 1: a doctor used diagrams to present to participants a series of facts about a high sugar diet.

Condition 2: the same doctor presented the same series of facts about a high sugar diet to participants
but without the use of diagrams.

At the end of the mock consultation, participants were tested on their recall of facts about a high sugar
diet. Each participant was given a score out of five for the number of correct facts recalled.

Identify an appropriate statistical test that the psychologists could use to analyse the data and provide
one reason why this test is most appropriate. (2 marks)
Exam Hint: Students must make sure that they only provide one justification for their choice of the

Mann‐Whitney test as the most appropriate such as stating that the results will form ordinal data or that
an independent groups design was used.

7. When would a Chi‐squared test of significance be appropriate to use? (3 marks)


APPENDICES
Spearman’s rho
Level of significance for one‐
0.05 0.025
tailed test
Level of significance for two‐
0.1 0.05
tailed test
N = 1 1.000
5 0.900 1.000
6 0.829 0.886
7 0.714 0.786
8 0.643 0.738
9 0.600 0.700
10 0.564 0.648
11 0.536 0.618
12 0.503 0.587
13 0.484 0.560
14 0.464 0.538
15 0.443 0.521
16 0.429 0.503
17 0.414 0.485
18 0.401 0.472
19 0.391 0.460
20 0.380 0.447
25 0.337 0.398
30 0.306 0.362
For data to be statistically significant, the calculated value must be equal to or higher than the critical
value.


Pearson’s r
0.05 0.025
tailed test
0.1 0.05
tailed test
N = 2 0.9000 0.9500
3 0.805 0.878
4 0.729 0.811
5 0.669 0.754
6 0.621 0.707
7 0.582 0.666
8 0.549 0.632
9 0.521 0.602
10 0.497 0.576
11 0.476 0.553
12 0.475 0.532
13 0.441 0.514
14 0.426 0.497
15 0.412 0.482
16 0.400 0.468
17 0.389 0.456
18 0.378 0.444
19 0.369 0.433
20 0.360 0.423
25 0.323 0.381
30 0.296 0.349
35 0.275 0.325
40 0.257 0.304
45 0.243 0.288
50 0.231 0.273
60 0.211 0.250
70 0.195 0.232
80 0.183 0.217
90 0.173 0.205
100 0.164 0.195
For data to be statistically significant, the calculated value must be equal to or less than the critical value
to show significance.


Wilcoxon
0.05 0.025
tailed test
0.1 0.05
tailed test
N = 5 0
6 2 0
7 3 2
8 5 3
9 8 5
10 11 8
11 13 10
12 17 13
13 21 17
14 25 21
15 30 25

Mann‐Whitney
Critical values for a one‐tailed test at level of significance 0.05
Critical values for a two‐tailed test at level of significance 0.1
NA 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
NB
2 0 0 0 1 1 1
3 0 0 1 2 2 3 3 4
4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 0 1 2 4 5 6 8 9 11
6 0 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 14
7 1 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17
8 1 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20
9 1 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
10 1 4 7 11 14 17 20 24 27
11 1 5 8 12 16 19 23 27 31
12 2 5 9 13 17 21 26 30 34
13 2 6 10 15 19 24 28 33 37


Related and Unrelated T‐Test
0.05 0.025
tailed test
0.1 0.05
tailed test
df = 1 6.314 12.706
2 2.920 4.303
3 2.363 3.182
4 2.132 2.776
5 2.015 2.571
6 1.943 2.447
7 1.895 2.365
8 1.860 2.306
9 1.833 2.262
10 1.812 2.228
11 1.796 2.201
12 1.782 2.179
13 1.771 2.160
14 1.761 2.145
15 1.753 2.131
16 1.746 2.120
17 1.740 2.110
18 1.734 2.101
19 1.729 2.093
20 1.725 2.086
21 1.721 2.080
22 1.717 2.074
23 1.714 2.069
24 1.711 2.064
For data to be statistically significant, the calculated value must be either equal to or greater than the
critical value to show statistical significance.

Chi‐squared test
Level of significance for one‐tailed test 0.05 0.025
Level of significance for two‐tailed test 0.1 0.05
df = 1 2.71 3.84
2 4.60 5.99
3 6.25 7.82
4 7.78 9.49
For data to be statistically significant, the calculated value must be equal to or greater than the critical
value to show significance.

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Research Methods

Page 2 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic companion: RESEARCH METHODS

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LABORATORY Controlled conditions Manipulates the IV Measures the DV

FIELD Natural conditions Manipulates the IV Measures the DV

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NATURALISTIC Takes place in naturalistic Higher level of ecological Issues with replication and

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OPEN Less chance of researcher bias, and detailed Participants may answer in a socially

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population is identified and can be generalised to the target population.

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participants; one group in Avoids order effects and More participants are

each condition. Participants reduces demand required and participant

terms of key variables such as Avoids order effects and exactly, unless using identical

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stage. This includes after therefore not protected from the participant should be given the

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participant’s personal be used by other parties name, number or initials to protect

Psychologists have the Participants should leave the The researcher should remind

responsibility to protect research in the same state as participants of their right to

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