Ecology Dec 2 2012 1

Real Estate Brokers’ Comprehensive Seminar 2014
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY
OUTLINE
Ecology and Ecological Systems Concept
The Environment
Energy in Ecosystem
Feeding relationships
Trends in trophic relationships
Biogeochemical Cycles
Biomes
Ecological Niche
Co-evolution
Pollution
Biodiversity: Basic Concepts & Current Issues
Conservation
State of Philippine Population
Sustainable Development
Eco-Industrial Parks
Environmental Impact Study & the ECC

Lecturer: Maria Cecilia Rubio-Paringit, D.Eng
Current Affiliation: Chairman, Geodetic Engineering Department FEATI University
Profession: Geodetic Engr, R.E. Broker, R.E. Appraiser, Envi. Planner
Contact: 0917-8114309, cel.paringit@gmail.com
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The increasing interest of man by the environment in which it lives must fundamentally to the
conscience taking on the problems that affect our planet and demand a quick solution. The
lack of green spaces, the overpopulation, excess smoke and the heat generated by different
machines, add to acoustic and visual contamination makes the city an adverse atmosphere
for the man.
I. ECOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS CONCEPT
Ecology - is the study of how organisms live and how they interact with their
environment. It is a practical science requiring observations and experiments to
investigate organisms.
 The underlying principles in ecology which predict how organisms will react in
particular circumstances.
 Experimental design is extremely important and requires, wherever possible, controls,

replicates, the accurate collection of data and careful interpretation of results.
 The environment includes other organisms and physical features.

o Autecology is the study of the ecology of a single species.
o Synecology is the study of the ecology of whole communities of organisms.
 The ecology analyzes how each element of an ecosystem affects the other
components and how this is affected too. It is a synthesis science, because to
understand the complex plot of relations that exist in an ecosystem it takes knowledge
from botany, zoology, physiology, genetics and other disciplines like the physics,
chemistry and geology.
 In 1869, the German biologist Ernst Haeckel coined the term ecology, referring to the
Greek origin of the word (oikos, house; logo, science, study, treaty). According to
Haeckel, ecology had study species in its biological relations with environment. Other
scientists took care later of the surroundings in which each species lives and of its
symbiotic and antagonistic relations with others.
 Towards 1925, August Thienemann, Charles Elton and others stimulated the ecology
of the communities. They worked with concepts as the one of food web, or the one of
pyramid of species, in which the number of individuals diminishes progressively from
the base to the peak, the plants to the herbivorous animals and the carnivores.
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Scales of Ecology
Ecosystem
 An ecosystem, or biocoenose, is composed of a community and the physical

environment it occupies.
 Soil is an important part of terrestrial ecosystems.
 Wetland ecosystems include mangrove swamps, salt marshes, flooded river valleys,
swamps, marshes and bogs.
 The environment of a wetland habitat depends on the source of water:
o seawater is saline,
o river water is sediment rich,
o drainage water is nutrient rich and
o rainfall is nutrient poor
 Energy flow and nutrient cycling(cycling of chemicals) are significant aspects in
understand how ecosystems function.
 An ecosystem often includes cycles and flows that involve dozens of living things as
well as non-living matters, not very much like when we are talking about populations
and communities where organisms are studied independently, and interactions are
only between no more than two participants.
 Ecologists focus not only on organic living things of an ecosystem, but also those vital
inorganic conditions and materials that are indispensable for living things to survive
Abiotic components
 Abiotic components are such physical and chemical factors of an ecosystem as light,
temperature, atmosphere gases(nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide are the most
important), water, wind, soil.
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 These specific abiotic factors represent the geological, geographical, hydrological and
climatological features of a particular ecosystem.
Abiotic components:
o Water, which is at the same time an essential element to life and a milieu
o Air, which provides oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide to living species and
allows the dissemination of pollen and spores
o Soil, at the same time source of nutriment and physical support. The salinity,
nitrogen and phosphorus content, ability to retain water, and density are all
influential.
o Temperature, which should not exceed certain extremes, even if tolerance to
heat is significant for some species
o Light, which provides energy to the ecosystem through photosynthesis
o Natural disasters can also be considered abiotic. According to the intermediate
disturbance hypothesis, a moderate amount of disturbance does good to
increase the biodiversity.
Biotic components:
 The living organisms are the biotic components of an ecosystem. In ecosystems, living
things are classified after the way they get their food.
o Autotrophs produce their own organic nutrients for themselves and other
members of the community; therefore, they are called the producers.
There are basically two kinds:

 Chemautotrophs are bacteria that obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic
compounds such as ammonia, nitrites, and sulfides , and they use this
energy to synthesize carbohydrates.
 Photoautotrophs are photosynthesizers such as algae and green plants
that produce most of the organic nutrients for the biosphere.
o Heterotrophs, as consumers that are unable to produce, are constantly looking

for source of organic nutrients from elsewhere.
 Herbivores like giraffe are animals that graze directly on plants or algae.
 Carnivores as wolf feed on other animals; birds that feed on insects are
carnivores, and so are hawks that feed on birds.
 Omnivores are animals that feed both on plants and animals, as human.
o Detritivores are organisms that rely on detritus, the decomposing particles of

organic matter, for food. Earthworms and some beetles, termites, and maggots
are all terrestrial detritivores. Nonphotosynthetic bacteria and fungi, including
mushrooms, are decomposers that carry out decomposition, the breakdown of
dead organic matter, including animal waste. Decomposers perform a very
valuable service by releasing inorganic substances that are taken up by plants
once more.
Ecosystem: Water -the important factor

 Wetlands ecosystems include mangrove swamps, salt marshes, flooded river
valleys, swamps, marshes and bogs.
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 Marine wetland ecosystems- These are coastlines in the tropical and subtropical
regions fringed with a strip of swampland which is inundated every high tide with
marine and brackish waters.
o Mangrove swamps - densely vegetated by mangrove trees
o Salt Marshes – dominated by grasses
 Floodland ecosystems are those which obtain their water from rivers. These are
often extremely seasonal. Floodlands tend to occur in lowland, flat-bottomed valleys
through which a large river meanders.
o The frequent flooding enriches the soil and proximity of the river makes it ideal for
irrigation.
o These are very valuable for cultivation and many such areas have been farmed.
 Swamp and marsh ecosystems are found in areas of impeded drainage, where
water runs off the surrounding land and collects, or where groundwater lies close to
the surface.These are very variable in size and form, depth of soil and plant
community structure.
Major types:
o Swamps – in which tree are the dominant vegetation
o Marshes – which have large open areas of grasses and reeds
 Bog ecosystems receives water only from rainfall, not from streams, rivers or
groundwater.
 Rainwater has very little nutrient content, and as it drains through the soil profile it
tends to leach out any remaining nutrients.
 The dominant species in bogs are mosses. The mosses grow upwards and their
lowermost leaves decay and join the peat building up beneath.
 Aquatic ecosystems include the open sea, ponds, lakes and rivers.
o Ponds are small and some area ephemeral, drying out occasionally in years of
drought or regularly every dry season.
o Lakes may be:
o fertile (eutrophic) or
o nutrient poor (oligotrophic)
o May be stratified in summer due to the heating of the surface waters, can
become anoxic and nutrient rich while the surface waters become nutrient poor.
 Closed ecological systems

o can be used to study ecosystem processes and to investigate the possible effects
of climate change.
o It is self-contained.
o Biosphere II – In September 1991 four women and four men entered this closed
ecological system, designed to be totally self-contained except for sunlight. They
grow own food and be part of a carefully designed ecosystem that would provide
oxygen and water and recycle carbon and nutrients.
II. THE ENVIRONMENT
 The environment of an organism has a physical (abiotic) and a biological (biotic)

component.
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 The abiotic and biotic components of the environment frequently interacts in complex
ways.
 The biotic environment includes stable characteristics such as:
o Geology and topography
o Variable factors like climate, nutrient availability and wave action
o Occasional catastrophes such as fire and volcanic eruptions.
 The biotic environment involves the interaction of organisms and includes aspects of:
o Competition
o Predation
o Herbivory
o Reproduction
o Dispersal
 Mechanical and chemical weathering of rocks produces the inorganic components of
soil; rock type therefore influences soil type as well as topography.
 The global climate has fluctuated considerably in a cyclical way during the last 2
million years as several ice ages have pushed icecaps and therefore vegetation types
to much lower latitudes than at present.
 Low temperatures can kill organisms which are not adapted to withstand different
degrees of cold; some plants can tolerate temperatures well below -60 degrees
Celsius.
 Pathogens are influenced by the climate: suitable conditions such as mild winters or
hot summers may considerably increase the severity of disease or parasite attack.
III. ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEM
Energy Flow
 Everything needs energy to motion, living things are no exceptions.
 Sun is the ultimate source of energy for every ecosystem.
 The energy flow of an ecosystem starts the moment photosynthesizers capture sun
light and transform it into a stock of organic compound like glucose that stores heat
and energy for later use, and ends until the energy is used up or released into the
surroundings in metabolic processes.
 In between them, energy transfers from one organism to another at the aid of food
webs, each of the organisms receiving only a small percentage of the total energy
carried in the one being consumed, because of all the processes.
 A certain amount of energy is egested in feces or excreted in urine and sweat. Of the
assimilated energy, a portion is utilized in cellular respiration and thereafter becomes
heat. The remaining portion of energy is converted into increased body weight or
additional offspring.
IV. FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
Primary Productivity
 Approximately 1% to 2% of the solar energy that falls on a plant is converted to food or
other organic material.
 Primary productivity is the term used to describe the amount of organic matter an
ecosystem produces from solar energy within a given area during a given period of
time.
o Gross primary productivity is the total amount of organic matter produced by all
autotrophs in an ecosystem, including that used by themselves. It is incurred
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through the process of photosynthesis that is carried out by green plants, algae,
and some bacteria.
o Net primary productivity is defined as the total amount of energy fixed per unit of
time minus the amount of energy expended by the metabolic activities of the
photosynthetic organisms in the community, denoting the amount of organic matter
produced by autotrophs that is available for heterotrophs.
Secondary Productivity
What happens to the energy stored in autotrophic biomass?

 Biomass, is the net weight of all organisms living in an ecosystem, which, increases
as a result of its net production.
 Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of
biomass accumulation by heterotrophs (herbivores,
carnivores and detritivores).
Feeding relationships
Food Webs and Trophic Levels

 Food webs refer to the complicated feeding
relationships that exist among organisms in natural
ecosystem.
 The relations between the different individuals from an
ecosystem constitute the food web.
The ocean food web

 This ocean food web shows that krill and other
herbivorous plankton feed on phytoplankton, the
producer, while birds and fish feed on krill, but they are in fact omnivores because they
also feed on plankton; squid hunts fish for food while enjoying some plankton once in a
while as well.
 These herbivores and omnivores all provide energy
and nutrients for a number of different carnivores, such
as seals and whales
Detrital food
 Detrital food web is a food web more involved with
decomposition processes, and more engaged in abiotic
components of an ecosystem.
 In a trophic pyramid the nourishing structure of an
ecosystem is appraised in where they coexist
producing, consuming and decomposers.
 The vegetables elaborate organic matter through the
photosynthesis.
 The herbivorous are fed on them, and they are eaten
as well by carnivorous pregivers.
 When these organisms are dying, their rest are transformed into assimilable
substances by it plants, process in which takes part the decomposers organisms.
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Producers and Consumers

 Producers are those able to synthesize food for themselves, like phytoplankton; and
all the others are consumers that rely on producers directly or indirectly for a living.
Levels of Consumers
 Primary consumer, or herbivores, feed directly on the green plants;
 Secondary consumers, carnivores and parasites of animals, feed in turn on the
herbivores.
 Decomposers or detritivores break down the organic matter accumulated in the

bodies of other organisms.
 All these levels, if we link them one to another in a straight-line manner, according to
who eats whom, we have food chains. Food chains are selected single-lane food
relationships in a series among organisms from a more complicated food web, as
below:
phytoplankton ==> krill ==> fish ==> seal ==> whale
V. Trends in trophic relationships
Trophic levels
 And a trophic level is all the organisms that feed at a particular level in a food chain.
In the grazing food web:
 the phytoplanktons are primary producers (first trophic level),
 the first herbivores that feed on the them, namely the krills and herbivorous planktons
are primary consumers (second trophic level),
 and the next group of animals are secondary consumers(third trophic level).
Ecological Pyramid of Biomass
that exhibits four trophic levels
VI. Biogeochemical Cycles
Biogeochemical Cycles
 Carbon cycle
 Greenhouse effect – The atmosphere acts
like a greenhouse, trapping the heat.
 Nitrogen cycle – is a complex process involving the activities of several genera of
bacteria.
 Phosphorus cycle
Carbon cycle
 Respiration takes carbohydrates and oxygen and combines them to produce carbon
dioxide, water, and energy.
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 Photosynthesis takes carbon dioxide and water and produces carbohydrates and
oxygen.
 The outputs of respiration are the inputs of photosynthesis, and the outputs of
photosynthesis are the inputs of respiration.
 Photosynthesis takes energy from the sun and stores it in the carbon-carbon bonds of
carbohydrates; respiration releases that energybacteria.
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Greenhouse Effect
 The greenhouse effect is a process by which radiative energy leaving a planetary
surface is absorbed by some atmospheric gases, called greenhouse gases. They
transfer this energy to other components of the atmosphere, and it is re-radiated in all
directions, including back down towards the surface. This transfers energy to the
surface and lower atmosphere, so the temperature there is higher than it would be if
direct heating by solar radiation were the only warming mechanism.
Greenhouse gases:
o water vapor,
o carbon dioxide,
o methane,
o nitrous oxide, and
o ozone
Nitrogen Cycle
 First, lightning provides enough energy to "burn" the nitrogen and fix it in the form of
nitrate, which is a nitrogen with three oxygens attached. This process is duplicated in
fertilizer factories to produce nitrogen fertilizers. The other form of nitrogen fixation is
by nitrogen fixing bacteria, who use special enzymes instead of the extreme amount of
energy found in lightning to fix nitrogen. All of these fix nitrogen, either in the form of
nitrate or in the form of ammonia (nitrogen with 3 hydrogens attached). Most plants
can take up nitrate and convert it to amino acids. Animals acquire all of their amino
acids when they eat plants (or other animals). When plants or animals die (or release
waste) the nitrogen is returned to the soil.
Phosphorus Cycle
 When rock with phosphate is exposed to water (especially water with a little acid in it),
the rock is weathered out and goes into Heterotrophs (animals) obtain their
phosphorous from the plants they eat, although one type of heterotroph, the fungi,
excel at taking up phosphorous and may form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with
plant roots. These relationships are called mycorrhizae; the plant gets phosphate from
the fungus and gives the fungus sugars in return. Animals, by the way, may also use
phosphorous as a component of bones, teeth and shells. When animals or plants die
(or when animals defecate), the phosphate may be returned to the soil or water by the
decomposers. There, it can be taken up by another plant and used again. This cycle
will occur over and over until at last the phosphorous is lost at the bottom of the
deepest parts of the ocean, where it becomes part of the sedimentary rocks forming
there.
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VII. BIOMES
Biomes
 All ecological space that shares the same species, climate, animals, and plants is a
biome.
 Every biome has a certain vegetation and its limits is demarcated by diverse factors,
among them,
o the availability or not of water,
o the greater or smaller amount of light and
o the amplitude of temperatures.
 The surface of the planet is divided in biomes, defined by the characteristics of

humidity, temperature and annual precipitations.
According to the most habitual subdivision, main biomes is: the jungle, the forest, the
savannah, the prairie, the steppe, the tundra, coniferous forest (taiga). and the desert.
Tropical rainforests
 With their multiple variety of vegetal species and animals, the tropical rainforests are
the most productive biomes of the Earth and those of greatest biodiversity. The
average temperature in tropical rainforests ranges from 70 to 85° F. The environment
is pretty wet in tropical rainforests, maintaining a high humidity of 77% to 88% year-
round. The yearly rainfall ranges from 80 to 400 inches, and it can downpour as much
as 2 inches in an hour.
 With their multiple variety of vegetal species and animals, the tropical rainforests are
the most productive biomes of the Earth and those of greatest biodiversity. The
average temperature in tropical rainforests ranges from 70 to 85° F. The environment
is pretty wet in tropical rainforests, maintaining a high humidity of 77% to 88% year-
round. The yearly rainfall ranges from 80 to 400 inches, and it can downpour as much
as 2 inches in an hour.
Temperate forest
 The vegetation is predominantly arboreal, although also there are shrubs and
herbaceous plants. Within this biome are distinguished two formation: the forest
caducifolio and the one of coniferous. The average temperature in temperate forests is
50° F. Summers are mild, and average about 70° F, while winter temperatures are
often well blow freezing. The average yearly precipitation is 30-60 inches.
 Another important characteristic of the temperate forest is the diversity of animal
species: birds, rodents, red deers, wild boars and bears, among others, in the North
hemisphere, and in general, smaller species that occupy equivalent ecological niches
in the south. The herbivorous consume grass, fruits and berries, and serve as food to
the pregivers.
Savanna
 The ground of the savanna is argillaceous and waterproof. An own characteristic of
this biome is the alternation of a humid station and another drought. The dry station is
very barren, characteristic that facilitates the fire propagation. The fire makes easier
the growth of the grass and restrains the development of the trees, accelerates the
mineralized of the ground and the growth of the plants that adapt to those conditions.
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 This biome is populated with antelopes, zebras, giraffes of more than five meters of
height, rhinos, elephants, buffalos and great savage mammals.
The herbaceous plants - grass - are typical of savanna. 50 million years ago, earth rain
regime suffered a change. In vast zones the herbaceous spread in damage of the
trees.
Temperate grassland
 The aggravating factor of grasslands is water. The annual average of precipitations is
about 20-35 inches, and the annual average temperature is 100°F.
 Throughout the water course there are shrubs and trees. The natural grass has been
replaced by the culture of cereals and pastures apt for the livestock farming. The
fertility of the ground of the prairies is remarkable. The grass that grow there has very
short periods of life, reason why humus, that forms from organic matter in
decomposition and minerals of the ground, is accumulated in a heavy layer.
The steppes
 The steppe is usually defined like a desert cold, to differentiate it from the well-known
torrid deserts. The steppe is biome typical of regions that are away from the sea,
reason why its moderating influence of the temperatures is little or null.
 The climate is barren, that is to say, with extreme temperatures: the annual average is
of -12ºC. The annual thermal amplitude - temperature difference between winter and
summer is great; the summers are dry and winters, long and cold. The aggravating
factor is the water: the annual precipitation average arrives at 250 mm. These
characteristics cause that this biome appears like a great extension, with some parts
with low grass, thorny brambles and scrubs.
The tundra and taiga

 The tundra name is applied, mainly, to the Arctic regions of Asia that are between the
perpetual ice to the north and the forests of taiga to the south. The ground of the
tundra remains frozen most par of the year, and it melts partially in summer. The water
is accumulated then in quagmires and marshes.
 In the tundra, the aggravating factor is the temperature. The average of annual
precipitations is low, around 250 mm, and the average temperature is 25ª F, although
in winter temperature can reach -50°F. The subsoil displays a permanent frozen layer,
whose thickness varies according to the station. This ground layer receives the name
of permafrost.
 The taiga is applied mainly to Asia to the south of the tundra and to the north of the
steppe is a wooded cold climate formation, with coniferous predominance.
 In taiga, the aggravating factors are the temperature and the water. The average
temperature is of 19º C in summer, and -30ºC in winter; the annual average of
precipitations is 10 - 30 inches.
Desert
 More of 14% of the surface of the planet it is occupied by deserts, located mainly
in neighboring areas to the tropical. In this biome the aggravating factor is the water:
the precipitations do not arrive at 15 inches per year, whereas the annual average
temperature is of 86 F. The deserts are not dead regions. After a sudden rain, a sandy
surface can be populated with plants, flowers and small animals.
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The polar regions

 In the poles, by the Earth position respect to the Sun, the rays lower oblique.
Consequently, it does not manage to be totally absorbed by the ground, and a great
percentage of the heat is rejected by reflection. The temperatures are very rigorous; in
many sites, not even reaching values over zero in summer. The extreme marks that
have been registered are of -126 F in the Antarctic, and -58 F in the Arctic.
 Another characteristic is that in both areas, as is more near to the poles, winters are
darker and summers most luminous. In the polar zones, summer and winter last six
months, and during the coldest station the sun does not show in the horizon.
VIII. ECOLOGICAL NICHE
Ecological Niche
 Niche is a complete description of how organism relates to its physical and biological
environment.
 Niche indicates what an animal was actually doing in its community
o While, a habitat is a description of where an organism is found.
 A great deal of field work is needed to determine the niche of a species in any detail.
 Each species has its own unique niche.
o Suppose that two species occupied the same niche. One of them would be bound
to out-compete the other, driving it to extinction.
 Gause’s competitive exclusion principle states that no two species can co-exist if they
occupy the same niche.
 The size ratios of closely related species provide little evidence that interspecific
competition has been important in evolution.
 Species can coexist even in the face of interspecific competition provided that their
niches do not overlap too much.
IX. Co-evolution
Co-evolution
 The term co-evolution referred to the relationship between caterpillars and their food
plants.
 Co-evolution was considered as a subset of the general evolutionary relationships
between species in communities which were called community evolution.
Pairwise Co-evolution
 It is a one-on-one co-evolution between two species which are very closely
associated.
o Symbiosis – used to describe any close relationship between two species.
o Mutualism –used to describe the relationship if both species benefit from each
other.
 Anatgonistic co-evolution – the relationship usually produce an arms race of
chemical and mechanical attack and defense mechanism
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Diffuse Co-evolution
 Where more than two species are involved in the co-evolution
 Includes all evolution as every species evolves in response to the other species in its
community
 Relationship can also either be mutualistic or antagonistic
X. POLLUTION
Pollution
 Pollutions occurs when substances are released into the environment in harmful
amounts as a direct result of human activity.
Pollutants may be classified into three types:
 Those that occur in nature but as a result of human activity (carbon dioxide)
 those toxic substances, as a result of human activity, are produced that are not found
in nature (use of pesticides)
 Substances which are not toxic are released into the environment as a result of human
activity, but which then go on to have unfortunate consequences (effect certain
substances on the oxone layer)
Eutrophication –refers to the release large amounts of phosphate and nitrate or

organic matter into the water resulting in a lowering of oxygen levels and change in
the fauna of the water.
They allow large number of algae, cyanobacteria nad aerobic bacteria to built up.
o Heavy metal toxicity – mining activity
o Alkaline waste – manufacturing processes
o Acid rain – deposition of acid gases from the atmosphere (burning of fossils)
o Pesticides – are chemicals synthesized for the purpose of killing unwanted species
o CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) found in refrigerator and some the majority of aerosols
o Radioactivity
Biomagnification
 also known as bioamplification or biological magnification, is the increase in
concentration of a substance, such as the pesticide DDT, that occurs in a food chain
as a consequence of:
 Persistence (can't be broken down by environmental processes)
 Food chain energetics
 Low (or nonexistent) rate of internal degradation/excretion of the substance (often due
to water-insolubility)
Biological Magnification
 It often refers to the process whereby certain substances such as pesticides or heavy
metals move up the food chain, work their way into rivers or lakes, and are eaten by
aquatic organisms such as fish, which in turn are eaten by large birds, animals or
humans. The substances become concentrated in tissues or internal organs as they
move up the chain.
 Bioaccumulants are substances that increase in concentration in living organisms as
they take in contaminated air, water, or food because the substances are very slowly
metabolized or excreted.
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Bioaccumulation and Bioconcentration

 Bioaccumulation occurs within a trophic level, and is the increase in concentration of
a substance in certain tissues of organisms' bodies due to absorption from food and
the environment.
 Bioconcentration is defined as occurring when uptake from the water is greater than
excretion (Landrum and Fisher, 1999)
 Thus bioconcentration and bioaccumulation occur within an organism, and
biomagnification occurs across trophic (food chain) levels.
Bioremediation
 By 1985, contamination had reached the residential area, and the facility was faced
with a serious environmental problem. Removing the contaminated soils was
technically impractical, and removing contaminated ground water did not address the
source of the contaminants. How could contaminated ground water be kept from
seeping toward the residential area in the future?
 Studies by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) had shown that microorganisms
naturally present in the soils were actively consuming fuel-derived toxic compounds
and transforming them into harmless carbon dioxide. Furthermore, these studies had
shown that the rate of these biotransformations could be greatly increased by the
addition of nutrients. By "stimulating" the natural microbial community through nutrient
addition, it was theoretically possible to increase rates of biodegradation and thereby
shield the residential area from further contamination.
 Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses microorganisms, fungi,
green plants or their enzymes to return the natural environment altered by
contaminants to its original condition.
 Bioremediation may be employed to attack specific soil contaminants, such as
degradation of chlorinated hydrocarbons by bacteria.
Biological indicators
 Biological indicators are species used to monitor the health of an environment or
ecosystem.
 Bioindicators can tell us about the cumulative effects of different pollutants in the
ecosystem and about how long a problem may have been present, which physical and
chemical testing cannot.
Bioindicator
 A bioindicator is an organism or biological response that reveals the presence of the
pollutants by the occurrence of typical symptoms or measurable responses, and is
therefore more qualitative.
 These organisms (or communities of organisms) deliver information on alterations in
the environment or the quantity of environmental pollutants by changing in one of the
following ways: physiologically, chemically or behaviorally.
The information can be deduced through the study of:

o their content of certain elements or compounds
o their morphological or cellular structure
o metabolic-biochemical processes
o behaviour, or
o population structure(s).
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Ecological Footprint
 It measures how much land and water area a human population requires to produce
the resource it consumes and to absorb its wastes, using prevailing technology.
 The ecological footprint is a measure of human demand on the Earth's ecosystems.
It compares human demand with planet Earth's ecological capacity to regenerate.
 Originally, Wackernagel and Rees called the concept "appropriated carrying capacity"
 This is a resource management tool that measures how much land and water area a
human population requires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its
wastes under prevailing technology.
 The analysis compares human demand on nature with the biosphere's ability to
regenerate resources and provide services by assessing the biologically productive
land and marine area required to produce the resources a population consumes and
absorb the corresponding waste, using prevailing technology.
 This resource accounting is similar to life cycle analysis wherein the consumption of
energy, biomass (food, fiber), building material, water and other resources are
converted into a normalized measure of land area called 'global hectares' (gha).
 By measuring the Footprint of a population—an individual, city, business, nation, or all
of humanity—we can assess our pressure on the planet, which helps us manage our
ecological assets more wisely and take personal and collective action in support of a
world where humanity lives within the Earth’s bounds.
XI. BIODIVERSITY: BASIC CONCEPTS & CURRENT ISSUES
Biodiversity: Basic Concepts & Current Issues

 The term ‘biodiversity’ was only coined in 1985 as a shortened form of ‘biological
diversity’.
 After the 1992 Rio Summit, it became a popular jargon: a buzzword for measuring the
health of the planet.
 One measure of biodiversity of an area is the number of species found there;
however, the range of different life forms (bacteria, fungi, ferns, flowering plants,
nematodes, insects, birds, and so on) is also important.
 Experiments and field studies suggest that a loss of biodiversity may lead to a loss of
ecological stability.
 Yet the biodiversity of some of our richest biomes (tropical rainforest and deep ocean)
is still very incompletely known.
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XII. CONSERVATION
Conservation
 Conservation is management of the earth’s resources in a way which aims to restore
and maintain the balance between human requirements and the other species of the
world.
o It can focus on individual species, individual ecosystems or the whole biosphere.
 The need for conservation
o The pressure on wildlife
o Maintaining the biodiversity
 Captive breeding grounds – resort in the conservation of species
o zoos
 Re-introductions – re-introduction of species from captive breeding into the wild
 Design of nature reserves
o Nature reserves are created as refuges for threatened species or a means of
preserving one or more ecosystems.
 Maintenance of conservation areas
o Decision is whether to manage the reserve at all apart from marking boundaries
and limiting human interference
XIII. STATE OF PHILIPPINE POPULATION
PHILIPPINES POPULATION EXPECTED TO REACH 100 MILLION FILIPINOS IN 14

YEARS (Results from the 2000 Census of Population and Housing, NSO)
Population to double in 29 years

 The total population of the Philippines as of May 1, 2000 was 76,504,077 persons.
This was higher by 7,887,541 persons or about 10.31 percent from the 1995 census
(with September 1, 1995 as reference date). It was 10 times the Philippine population
in 1903 when the first census was undertaken.
 The expansion of the Philippine population reflected a 2.36 percent average annual
growth rate in the 1995-2000 period. This figure recorded an slight increase from a
declining growth rate which started in the first half of the seventies. The last increase
recorded in population growth rates was during the intercensal period 1948 to 1960 at
3.07 percent. The recent growth rate was 0.04 percentage point higher than the
annual growth during the early part of the nineties. If the average annual growth rate
continues, the population of the Philippines is expected to double in 29 years.
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XIV. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable Development
 The Concept of Sustainable Development (Herrin, 2003)
 The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED, 1987) defined
sustainable development as “…the development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
 In line with this definition, the Philippine Agenda 21states that the ultimate aim of
development is human development now and through future generations through the
harmonious integration of a sound and viable economy, responsible governance,
social cohesion and ecological integrity.
Philippine Agenda 21 (PA21)

 is the national agenda for sustainable development. It outlines the integrating
strategies for the country’s overall sustainable development and identifies the
intervention areas (Action Agenda) from the national to the regional level, along with
the corresponding implementing platforms and plans.
 PA 21 envisions a better quality of life for all through the development of a just, moral,
creative, spiritual, economically-vibrant, caring, diverse yet cohesive society
characterized by appropriate productivity, participatory and democratic process and
living in harmony within the limits of the carrying capacity of nature and the integrity of
creation.
 Sustainable development as defined in the PA 21 (1996) is “harmonious integration of

a sound and viable economy, responsible governance, social cohesion and ecological
integrity, to ensure that
development is a life-sustaining
process.”
Sustainability
 Sustainability is a process which
tells of a development of all
aspects of human life affecting
sustenance.
 It means resolving the conflict
between the various competing
goals, and involves the
simultaneous pursuit of economic
prosperity, environmental quality and social equity.
 Hence it is a continually evolving process; the ‘journey’ (the process of achieving
sustainability) is of course vitally important, but only as a means of getting to the
destination (the desired future state).
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 However, the ‘destination’ of sustainability is not a fixed place in the normal sense that
we understand destination. Instead, it is a set of wishful characteristics of a future
system. Sustainable development brings us to a destination that is bearable, equitable,
and viable.
Why do we need sustainable development?
Operational Tests of Sustainability
 ECONOMIC VIABILITY - Everybody is better off and nobody is worse off because of a
project.
 ECOLOGICAL VIABILITY - Ecological functions of the environment and regeneration

capacity of natural resources is not significantly hampered or altered.
 TECHNOLOGICAL VIABILITY - Technology is environment-friendly
 POLITICAL VIABILITY - People participate in the planning, ownership, implementation

and benefits from a project.
 SOCIO-CULTURAL VIABILITY - Life-giving core values, beliefs and worldview of the

community are respected.
 INSTITUTIONAL VIABILITY - Local institutions responsible for the project have the
capacity to sustain development activities.
Social Acceptability
 Refers to the public acceptance of programs and/or projects that will be put up in a
locality.
 Many programs fail because they do not fit the site conditions and culture of the
communities.
Perception Survey should assess:
 Compatibility of the project with the socio-cultural environment in which it will be
introduced.
 Acceptance of new practices or institutions to be introduced.
 The social impact or distribution of benefits and burdens among various stakeholders.
History of Sustainable Development:
 1972 – UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm) – created UNEP and
IIED.
 1980 – The World Conservation Strategy (IUCN, UNEP, WWF) – emphasized the
need to mainstream environment and conservation values into the development
process.
 1987 – World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) – “ The
Brundtland Commission” – Gro Harlem B. – analyzed the link between environment
and development; e.g poverty and environment links.
 1991 – Caring for the Earth: “A Strategy for Sustainable Living” – elaborated principles
for practical integration of environmental, social and economic concerns.
 1992 – Earth Summit (UNCED) conventions and agreements comprise global program
of action for SD (Agenda 21 – Action Plan of UNCED) > PA 21.
Rio Summit (Rio de Janeiro)
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XVI. ECO-INDUSTRIAL PARKS
Eco-Industrial Parks
Industrial
 Local development standards governing industrial activity have often augmented
traditional zoning criteria that establish controls on maximum land use intensity,
minimum lot size, setbacks, and building bulk and height, with specific performance
standards that serve to categorize not only permitted types of industrial activities, but
minimum standards associated with their operation. Performance criteria may be tied
to standards governing air pollution control; fire and explosion; radiation hazard;
electromagnetic radiation and interference; liquid and solid waste discharge; and
noise, vibrations, and light source considerations, among others.
Contemporary development patterns, evolution in building technology, and

opportunities or requirements for the containment of noxious impacts have
fostered a radical alteration in industrial prototypes over the last several decades.
 This has resulted in refinements in standard land use controls, which are sensitive to
trends in the aggregation of compatible industrial activities in planned industrial parks.
 The emergence of zoned industrial districts qualified as institutional, research,
technology, warehouse, and distribution centers reflects unique sets of operating
requirements, an affinity for like-kind uses to collocate, and market-driven pressure to
elevate the site aesthetics of select industrial land use activities.
Local public controls may afford opportunities for the creation of an industrial
district that caters to uses that can demonstrate compatibility with surrounding
land activities.
 Minimum land assembly, larger minimum lot requirements, increased setback,
screening and buffer requirements, increased landscape and open space standards,
reduction in allowable building profiles, more restrictive building bulk criteria, and
allowable land use intensities assist in ensuring reduced visual impact on surrounding
areas for uses that can demonstrate no adverse off-site impacts.
 Positioning more compatible activities at perimeter locations often assists in creating
an overall planned industrial development that affords considerable variety in tenancy
and use opportunities.
In Kalundborg, Denmark an Industrial symbiosis network exists where companies

in a region collaborate to use each other's by-products and otherwise share
resources. At the center is a 1500MW coal fired power plant which has material and
energy links with the community and several other companies. Surplus heat from
this power plant is used to heat 3500 local homes in addition to a nearby fish farm,
whose sludge is then sold as a fertilizer. Steam from the power plant is sold to
Novo Nordisk, a pharmaceutical and enzyme manufacturer, in addition to a Statoil
plant. This reuse of heat reduces the amount thermal pollution discharged to a
nearby fjord. Additionally, a by-product from the power plant's sulfur dioxide
scrubber contains gypsum, which is sold to a wallboard manufacturer. Almost all of
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the manufacturer's gypsum needs are met this way, which reduces the amount of
open-pit mining needed. Furthermore, fly ash and clinker from the power plant is
used for road building and cement production.
 The exchange of wastes, by-products, and energy among closely situated firms is one
of the distinctive features of the applications of industrial ecological principles. This
article examines the industrial district at Kalundborg, Denmark, often labeled as an
“industrial ecosystem” or “industrial symbiosis” because ofthe many links among the
firms.
 The forces that led to its evolution and to the interdependencies are described and
analyzed.
 Key has been a sequence of independent, economically driven actions.
 Other potential forms of industrial linkages are critically reviewed in the light of the
Kalundborg experience.
 The evolutionary pattern followed at Kalundborg may not be easily transferable to
greenfield developments.
XVII. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STUDY & THE ECC
Environmental Impact Statement & the ECC

 The Philippine Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)System was formally established
in 1978 by virtue of Presidential Decree (PD) No. 1586. Reiterating the policy
statement under PD 1151, it introduced the concept of environmentally critical projects
(ECPs) and projects within environmentally critical areas (ECAs) as projects which
require the submission of an environmental impact statement(EIS). It provides that “no
person, partnership or corporation shall undertake or operate any such declared ECP
or project within an ECA without first securing an Environmental Compliance
Certificate (ECC).” PD 1586 also identified the lead agency for the implementation of
the EIS System and provided sanctions for its violation.
OVERVIEW OF THE PHILIPPINE EIS SYSTEM (PEISS)

1) Basic Policy and Operating Principles of the PEISS
 Consistent with the principles of sustainable development, it is the policy of the DENR
to implement a systems-oriented and integrated approach to the EIS system to ensure
a rational balance between socio-economic development and environmental protection
for the benefit of present and future generations.
Key operating principles in the implementation of the PEIS System
a) The EIS System is concerned primarily with assessing the direct and indirect impacts
of a project on the biophysical and human environment and ensuring that these
impacts are addressed by appropriate environmental protection and enhancement
measures.
b) The EIS System aids Proponents in incorporating environmental considerations in
planning their projects as well as in determining the environment’s impact on their
project.
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c) Project Proponents are responsible for determining and disclosing all relevant
information necessary for a methodical assessment of the environmental impacts of
their projects;
d) The review of EIA Reports by EMB shall be guided by three (3) general criteria: (1)
that environmental considerations are integrated into the overall project planning, (2)
that the assessment is technically sound and proposed environmental mitigation
measures are effective, and (3) that the EIA process is based on a timely, informed
and meaningful public participation of potentially-affected communities;
e) Effective regulatory review of the EIA Reports depends largely on timely, full, and
accurate disclosure of relevant information by project Proponents and other
stakeholders in the EIA process;
f) The timelines prescribed within which a decision must be issued apply only to
processes and actions within the Environmental Management Bureau’s (EMB) control
and do not include actions or activities that are the responsibility of the Proponent.
Definition of EIA
 An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a “process that involves predicting

and evaluating the likely impacts of a project (including cumulative impacts) on the
environment during construction, commissioning, operation and abandonment.
 It also includes designing appropriate preventive, mitigating and enhancement

measures addressing
References
 JL Chapman and MJ Reiss, Ecology: principles and applications, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, 1999
 Clifford B. Knight. Basic Concepts of Ecology. Macmillan Company. 1965
 Ralph Buchsbaum. Basic Ecology. The Boxwood Press.1957
 Kylen Lee. Fundamentals of Ecology:A Brief Investigation into the Economy of Nature
. 2006. (http://www.econguru.com/fundamentals_of_ecology/)
 http://www.barrameda.com.ar/ecology/
 http://www.census.gov.ph/data/pressrelease/2002/pr02178tx.html
 2007 Philippine Census Information
 http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/102/ecosystem.html
 Handbook for Mainstreaming Sustainable Development in Public Sector Decision-
Making
 RATIONALIZED LOCAL PLANNING SYSTEM OF THE PHILIPPINES. DILG. 2005
 CLUP Guidebook volume1. HLURB
 REVISED PROCEDURAL MANUAL FOR DENR ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER NO. 30
SERIES OF 2003 (DAO 03-30). August 2007
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2013 Philippines Population

The population of the Philippines has been steadily growing for many years. In 2013, it is the
12th most populated country in the world, between Mexico and Ethiopia, and continues to
grow at a rate of 1.89% per year.
To figure out how many people live in The Philippines in 2013, we can look at data provided
by the Philippines National Statistics Office. Projecting this data forward, using the 1.89%
growth rate, gives us a 2013 population of 98,734,798 in The Philippines. Based on the 2010
census results, the population increased nearly 16 million from the 2000 census results. The
growth rate has slowed slightly from the previous census, down to 1.89% from 2.34%. The
next census in the Philippines is scheduled for 2015.
Philippines Largest Cities
The Philippines' largest city is Quezon City, which contains 2,679,450 people. It forms a part
of the wider Metropolitan Manila area, which is comprised of 16 cities and has an overall
population of 11,553,427 people. To make things even more complicated, the entire Greater
Manila urban area spills out beyond the boundaries of Metro Manila and is reported to
contain around 25 million people – a quarter of the Philippines entire population.
Other major cities include Manila itself (pop: 1,660,714), Caloocan (pop: 1,378,856) and
Davao City (1,363,337). Of these, only Davao City is outside of the Metropolitan Manila area.
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Ecology is the study of how organisms live and how they interact with their environment.
◦ is a practical science requiring observations and experiments to investigate organisms.
 The underlying principles in ecology which predict how organisms will react in particular
circumstances.
 Experimental design is extremely important and requires, wherever possible, controls,
replicates, the accurate collection of data and careful interpretation of results.
 The environment includes other organisms and physical features.
◦ Autecology is the study of the ecology of a single species.
◦ Synecology is the study of the ecology of whole communities of organisms.
 The ecology analyzes how each element of an ecosystem affects the other components and how
this is affected too. It is a synthesis science, because to understand the complex plot of
relations that exist in an ecosystem it takes knowledge from botany, zoology, physiology,
genetics and other disciplines like the physics, chemistry and geology.
 In 1869, the german biologist Ernst Haeckel coined the term ecology, refering to the Greek origin
of the word (oikos, house; logo, science, study, treaty). According to Haeckel, ecology had study
species in its biological relations with environment. Other scientists took care later of the
surroundings in which each species lives and of its symbiotic and antagonistic relations with
others.
 Towards 1925, August Thienemann, Charles Elton and others stimulated the ecology of the
communities. They worked with concepts as the one of food web, or the one of pyramid of
species, in which the number of individuals diminishes progressively from the base to the peak,
the plants to the herbívorous animals and the carnivores.
 An ecosystem, or biocoenose, is composed of a community and the physical environment it

occupies.
 Soil is an important part of terrestrial ecosystems.
 Wetland ecosystems include mangrove swamps, salt marshes, flooded river valleys, swamps,
marshes and bogs.
◦ The environment of a wetland habitat depends on the source of water:
 seawater is saline,
 river water is sediment rich,
 drainage water is nutrient rich and
 rainfall is nutrient poor
 Energy flow and nutrient cycling (cycling of chemicals) are significant aspects in understand
how ecosystems function.
 An ecosystem often includes cycles and flows that involve dozens of living things as well as
non-living matters, not very much like when we are talking about populations and communities
where organisms are studied independently, and interactions are only between no more than
two participants.
 Ecologists focus not only on organic living things of an ecosystem, but also those vital
inorganic conditions and materials that are indispensable for living things to survive.
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 Abiotic components are such physical and chemical factors of an ecosystem as light,
temperature, atmosphere gases(nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide are the most important), water,
wind, soil.
 These specific abiotic factors represent the geological, geographical, hydrological and
climatological features of a particular ecosystem.
 Water, which is at the same time an essential element to life and a milieu
 Air, which provides oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide to living species and allows the
dissemination of pollen and spores
 Soil, at the same time source of nutriment and physical support. The salinity, nitrogen and
phosphorus content, ability to retain water, and density are all influential.
 Temperature, which should not exceed certain extremes, even if tolerance to heat is significant
for some species
 Light, which provides energy to the ecosystem through photosynthesis
 Natural disasters can also be considered abiotic. According to the intermediate disturbance
hypothesis, a moderate amount of disturbance does good to increase the biodiversity.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS
The living organisms are the biotic components of an ecosystem. In ecosystems, living things are
classified after the way they get their food.
 Autotrophs produce their own organic nutrients for themselves and other members of the
community; therefore, they are called the producers.
◦ There are basically two kinds:
 Chemautotrophs are bacteria that obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic
compounds such as ammonia, nitrites, and sulfides , and they use this energy to
synthesize carbohydrates.
 Photoautotrophs are photosynthesizers such as algae and green plants that
produce most of the organic nutrients for the biosphere.
 Heterotrophs, as consumers that are unable to produce, are constantly looking for source of
organic nutrients from elsewhere. Herbivores like giraffe are animals that graze directly on
plants or algae. Carnivores as wolf feed on other animals; birds that feed on insects are
carnivores, and so are hawks that feed on birds. Omnivores are animals that feed both on plants
and animals, as human.
 Detritivores are organisms that rely on detritus, the decomposing particles of organic matter, for
food. Earthworms and some beetles, termites, and maggots are all terrestrial detritivores.
Nonphotosynthetic bacteria and fungi, including mushrooms, are decomposers that carry out
decomposition, the breakdown of dead organic matter, including animal waste. Decomposers
perform a very valuable service by releasing inorganic substances that are taken up by plants
once more.
ECOSYSTEMS
Water- the important factor
 Wetlands ecosystems include mangrove swamps, salt marshes, flooded river valleys, swamps,
marshes and bogs.
 Marine wetland ecosystems- These are coastlines in the tropical and subtropical regions fringed
with a strip of swampland which is inundated every high tide with marine and brackish waters.
◦ Mangrove swamps - densely vegetated by mangrove trees
◦ Salt Marshes – dominated by grasses
 Floodland ecosystems are those which obtain their water from rivers.
◦ These are often extremely seasonal.
 Floodlands tend to occur in lowland, flat-bottomed valleys through which a large river meanders.
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◦ The frequent flooding enriches the soil and proximity of the river makes it ideal for
irrigation.
◦ These are vey valuable for cultivation and many such areas have been farmed.
 Swamp and marsh ecosystems are found in areas of impeded drainage, where water runs off the
surrounding land and collects, or where groundwater lies close to the surface.
 These are very variable in size and form, depth of soil and plant community structure.
 Major types
◦ Swamps – in which tree are the dominant vegetation
◦ Marshes – which have large open areas of grasses and reeds
 Bog ecosystems receives water only from rainfall, not from streams, rivers or groundwater.
◦ Rainwater has very little nutrient content, and as it drains through the soil profile it tends
to leach out any remaining nutrients.
 The dominant species in bogs are mosses. The mosses grow upwards and their lowermost
leaves decay and join the peat building up beneath.
Aquatic ecosystems include the open sea, ponds, lakes and rivers.
 Ponds are small and some area ephemeral, drying out occasionally in years of drought or
regularly every dry season.
 Lakes may be:
 fertile (eutrophic) or
 nutrient poor (oligotrophic)
 May be stratified in summer due to the heating of the surface waters, can become anoxic and
nutrient rich while the surface waters become nutrient poor.
CLOSED ECOSYSTEMS
can be used to study ecosystem processes and to investigate the possible effects of climate
change.
 It is self-contained.
 Biosphere II – In September 1991 four women and four men entered this closed ecological
system, designed to be totally self-contained except for sunlight. They grow own food and be
part of a carefully designed ecosystem that would provide oxygen and water and recycle carbon
and nutrients.
THE ENVIRONMENT
 The environment of an organism has a physical (abiotic) and a biological (biotic) component.
 The abiotic and biotic components of the environment frequently interacts in complex ways.
 The biotic environment includes stable characteristics such as:
◦ Geology and topography
◦ Variable factors like climate, nutrient availability and wave action
◦ Occasional catastrophes such as fire and volcanic eruptions.
 The biotic environment involves the interaction of organisms and includes aspects of:
◦ Competition
◦ Predation
◦ Herbivory
◦ Reproduction
◦ Dispersal
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 Mechanical and chemical weathering of rocks produces the inorganic components of soil; rock
type therefore influences soil type as well as topography.
 The global climate has fluctuated considerably in a cyclical way during the last 2 million years as
several ice ages have pushed icecaps and therefore vegetation types to much lower latitudes
than at present.
 Low temperatures can kill organisms which are not adapted to withstand different degrees of
cold; some plants can tolerate temperatures well below -60 degrees Celsius.
 Pathogens are influenced by the climate: suitable conditions such as mild winters or hot
summers may considerably increase the severity of disease or parasite attack.
ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS
Energy Flow
 Everything needs energy to motion, living things are no exceptions.
 Sun is the ultimate source of energy for every ecosystem.
 The energy flow of an ecosystem starts the moment photosynthesizers capture sun light and
transform it into a stock of organic compound like glucose that stores heat and energy for later
use, and ends until the energy is used up or released into the surroundings in metabolic
processes.
 In between them, energy transfers from one organism to another at the aid of food webs, each of
the organisms receiving only a small percentage of the total energy carried in the one being
consumed, because of all the processes.
A certain amount of energy is egested in feces or excreted in urine and sweat. Of the assimilated
energy, a portion is utilized in cellular respiration and thereafter becomes heat. The remaining portion of
energy is converted into increased body weight or additional offspring.
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
 Approximately 1% to 2% of the solar energy that falls on a plant is converted to food or other
organic material.
 Primary productivity is the term used to describe the amount of organic matter an ecosystem
produces from solar energy within a given area during a given period of time.
◦ Gross primary productivity is the total amount of organic matter produced by all autotrophs
in an ecosystem, including that used by themselves. It is incurred through the process of
photosynthesis that is carried out by green plants, algae, and some bacteria.
◦ Net primary productivity is defined as the total amount of energy fixed per unit of time
minus the amount of energy expended by the metabolic activities of the photosynthetic
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organisms in the community, denoting the amount of organic matter produced by

autotrophs that is available for heterotrophs.
SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY
What happens to the energy stored in autotrophic biomass?
 Biomass, is the net weight of all organisms living in an ecosystem, which, increases as a result
of its net production.
 Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of biomass accumulation by heterotrophs

(herbivores, carnivores and detritivores).
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
 Food Webs and Trophic Levels

 Food webs refer to the complicated feeding relationships that exist among organisms in natural
ecosystem.
 The relations between the different individuals from an ecosystem constitute the food web.
THE OCEAN FOOD CHAIN

• This ocean food web shows that krill and other herbivorous plankton feed on phytoplankton, the
producer, while birds and fish feed on krill, but they are in fact omnivores because they also feed
on plankton; squid hunts fish for food while enjoying some plankton once in a while as well.
• These herbivores and omnivores all provide energy and nutrients for a number of different
carnivores, such as seals and whales
Detrital food web is a food web more involved with decomposition processes, and more engaged in
abiotic components of an ecosystem.
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 In a trophic pyramid the nourishing structure of an ecosystem is appraised in where they coexist
producing, consuming and decomposers.
 The vegetables elaborate organic matter through the photosynthesis.
 The herbivorous are fed on them, and they are eaten as well by carnivorous pregivers.
 When these organisms are dying, their rest are transformed into assimilable substances by it
plants, process in which takes part the decomposers organisms.
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PRODUCERS & CONSUMERS

Producers are those able to synthesize food for themselves, like phytoplankton; and all the others are
consumers that rely on producers directly or indirectly for a living.
Levels of Consumers
 Primary consumer, or herbivores, feed directly on the green plants;
 Secondary consumers, carnivores and parasites of animals, feed in turn on the herbivores.
 Decomposers or detritivores break down the organic matter accumulated in the bodies of other
organisms.
All these levels, if we link them one to another in a straight-line manner, according to who eats whom,
we have food chains. Food chains are selected single-lane food relationships in a series among organisms
from a more complicated food web, as below:
phytoplankton ==> krill ==> fish ==> seal ==> whale
TROPHIC LEVELS
 And a trophic level is all the organisms that feed at a particular level in a food chain.
In the grazing food web

 the phytoplanktons are primary producers (first trophic level),
 the first herbivores that feed on the them, namely the krills and herbivorous planktons are
primary consumers (second trophic level),
 and the next group of animals are secondary consumers(third trophic level).
ECOLOGICAL Pyramid of Biomass that exhibits four trophic levels
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
 Carbon cycle
 Greenhouse effect – The atmosphere acts like a greenhouse, trapping the heat.
 Nitrogen cycle – is a complex process involving the activities of several genera of bacteria.
 Phosporous cycle
CARBON CYCLE
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 Respiration takes carbohydrates and oxygen and combines them to produce carbon dioxide,
water, and energy.
 Photosynthesis takes carbon dioxide and water and produces carbohydrates and oxygen.
 The outputs of respiration are the inputs of photosynthesis, and the outputs of photosynthesis
are the inputs of respiration.
 Photosynthesis takes energy from the sun and stores it in the carbon-carbon bonds of
carbohydrates; respiration releases that energybacteria.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
The greenhouse effect is a process by which radiative energy leaving a planetary surface is absorbed by
some atmospheric gases, called greenhouse gases. They transfer this energy to other components of
the atmosphere, and it is re-radiated in all directions, including back down towards the surface. This
transfers energy to the surface and lower atmosphere, so the temperature there is higher than it would
be if direct heating by solar radiation were the only warming mechanism.
Greenhouse gases:
• water vapor,
• carbon dioxide,
• methane,
• nitrous oxide, and
• ozone
NITROGEN CYCLE
• First, lightning provides enough energy to "burn" the nitrogen and fix it in the form of nitrate,
which is a nitrogen with three oxygens attached. This process is duplicated in fertilizer factories
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to produce nitrogen fertilizers. The other form of nitrogen fixation is by nitrogen fixing bacteria,
who use special enzymes instead of the extreme amount of energy found in lightning to fix
nitrogen. All of these fix nitrogen, either in the form of nitrate or in the form of ammonia
(nitrogen with 3 hydrogens attached). Most plants can take up nitrate and convert it to amino
acids. Animals acquire all of their amino acids when they eat plants (or other animals). When
plants or animals die (or release waste) the nitrogen is returned to the soil.
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
 When rock with phosphate is exposed to water (especially water with a little acid in it), the rock
is weathered out and goes into Heterotrophs (animals) obtain their phosphorous from the plants
they eat, although one type of heterotroph, the fungi, excel at taking up phosphorous and may
form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with plant roots. These relationships are called
mycorrhizae; the plant gets phosphate from the fungus and gives the fungus sugars in return.
Animals, by the way, may also use phosphorous as a component of bones, teeth and shells.
When animals or plants die (or when animals defecate), the phosphate may be returned to the
soil or water by the decomposers. There, it can be taken up by another plant and used again.
This cycle will occur over and over until at last the phosphorous is lost at the bottom of the
deepest parts of the ocean, where it becomes part of the sedimentary rocks forming there.
34 | P a g e
BIOMES
 All ecological space that shares the same species, climate, animals, and plants is a biome.
 Every biome has a certain vegetation and its limits is demarcated by diverse factors, among
them,
◦ the availability or not of water,
◦ the greater or smaller amount of light and
◦ the amplitude of temperatures.
 The surface of the planet is divided in biomes, defined by the characteristics of humidity,
temperature and annual precipitations.
 According to the most habitual subdivision, main biomes is: the jungle, the forest, the savannah,
the prairie, the steppe, the tundra, coniferous forest (taiga). and the desert.
TROPICAL RAINFOREST
 With their multiple variety of vegetal species and animals, the tropical rainforests are the most
productive biomes of the Earth and those of greatest biodiversity. The average temperature in
tropical rainforests ranges from 70 to 85° F. The environment is pretty wet in tropical rainforests,
maintaining a high humidity of 77% to 88% year-round. The yearly rainfall ranges from 80 to 400
inches, and it can downpour as much as 2 inches in an hour.
 With their multiple variety of vegetal species and animals, the tropical rainforests are the most
productive biomes of the Earth and those of greatest biodiversity. The average temperature in
tropical rainforests ranges from 70 to 85° F. The environment is pretty wet in tropical rainforests,
maintaining a high humidity of 77% to 88% year-round. The yearly rainfall ranges from 80 to 400
inches, and it can downpour as much as 2 inches in an hour.
TEMPERATE RAINFOREST
 The vegetation is predominantly arboreal, although also there are shrubs and herbaceous
plants. Within this biome are distinguished two formation: the forest caducifolio and the one of
coniferous. The average temperature in temperate forests is 50° F. Summers are mild, and
average about 70° F, while winter temperatures are often well blow freezing. The average yearly
precipitation is 30-60 inches.
 Another important characteristic of the temperate forest is the diversity of animal species: birds,
rodents, red deers, wild boars and bears, among others, in the North hemisphere, and in general,
smaller species that occupy equivalent ecological niches in the south. The herbivorous
consume grass, fruits and berries, and serve as food to the pregivers.
SAVANNA
 The ground of the savanna is argillaceous and waterproof. An own characteristic of this biome is
the alternation of a humid station and another drought. The dry station is very barren,
characteristic that facilitates the fire propagation. The fire makes easier the growth of the grass
and restrains the development of the trees, accelerates the mineralized of the ground and the
growth of the plants that adapt to those conditions.
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
 This biome is populated with antelopes, zebras, giraffes of more than five meters of height,
rhinos, elephants, buffalos and great savage mammals.
 The herbaceous plants - grass - are typical of savanna. 50 million years ago, earth rain regime
suffered a change. In vast zones the herbaceous spread in damage of the trees.
 The aggravating factor of grasslands is water. The annual average of precipitations is about 20-
35 inches, and the annual average temperature is 100°F.
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 Throughout the water course there are shrubs and trees. The natural grass has been replaced by
the culture of cereals and pastures apt for the livestock farming. The fertility of the ground of the
prairies is remarkable. The grass that grow there has very short periods of life, reason why
humus, that forms from organic matter in decomposition and minerals of the ground, is
accumulated in a heavy layer.
THE STEPPE
 The steppe is usually defined like a desert cold, to differentiate it from the well-known torrid
deserts. The steppe is biome typical of regions that are away from the sea, reason why its
moderating influence of the temperatures is little or null.
 The climate is barren, that is to say, with extreme temperatures: the annual average is of -12ºC.
The annual thermal amplitude - temperature difference between winter and summer is great; the
summers are dry and winters, long and cold. The aggravating factor is the water: the annual
precipitation average arrives at 250 mm. These characteristics cause that this biome appears
like a great extension, with some parts with low grass, thorny brambles and scrubs.
TUNDRA & TAIGA

The tundra name is applied, mainly, to the Arctic regions of Asia that are between the perpetual ice
to the north and the forests of taiga to the south. The ground of the tundra remains frozen most par
of the year, and it melts partially in summer. The water is accumulated then in quagmires and
marshes.
 In the tundra, the aggravating factor is the temperature. The average of annual precipitations is
low, around 250 mm, and the average temperature is 25ª F, although in winter temperature can
reach -50°F. The subsoil displays a permanent frozen layer, whose thickness varies according to
the station. This ground layer receives the name of permafrost.
The taiga is applied mainly to Asia to the south of the tundra and to the north of the steppe is a
wooded cold climate formation, with coniferous predominance.
 In taiga, the aggravating factors are the temperature and the water. The average temperature is
of 19º C in summer, and -30ºC in winter; the annual average of precipitations is 10 - 30 inches.
DESERTS
 More of 14% of the surface of the planet it is occupied by deserts, located mainly in neighboring
areas to the tropical. In this biome the aggravating factor is the water: the precipitations do not
arrive at 15 inches per year, whereas the annual average temperature is of 86 F. The deserts are
not dead regions. After a sudden rain, a sandy surface can be populated with plants, flowers and
small animals.
THE POLAR REGIONS

 In the poles, by the Earth position respect to the Sun, the rays lower oblique. Consequently, it
does not manage to be totally absorbed by the ground, and a great percentage of the heat is
rejected by reflection. The temperatures are very rigorous; in many sites, not even reaching
values over zero in summer. The extreme marks that have been registered are of -126 F in the
Antarctic, and -58 F in the Arctic.
 Another characteristic is that in both areas, as is more near to the poles, winters are darker and
summers most luminous. In the polar zones, summer and winter last six months, and during the
coldest station the sun does not show in the horizon.
THE ECOLOGICAL NICHE

 Niche is a complete description of how organism relates to its physical and biological
environment.
 Niche indicates what an animal was actually doing in its community
◦ While, a habitat is a description of where an organism is found.
 A great deal of field work is needed to determine the niche of a species in any detail.
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 Each species has its own unique niche.

 Suppose that two species occupied the same niche. One of them would be bound to out-
compete the other, driving it to extinction.
 Gause’s competitive exclusion principle states that no two species can co-exist if they occupy
the same niche.
 The size ratios of closely related species provide little evidence that interspecific competition
has been important in evolution.
 Species can coexist even in the face of interspecific competition provided that their niches do
not overlap too much.
CO-EVOLUTION
 The term co-evolution referred to the relationship between caterpillars and their food plants.
 Co-evolution was considered as a subset of the general evolutionary relationships between

species in communities which were called community evolution.
PAIRWISE Co-evolution
 It is a one-on-one co-evolution between two species which are very closely associated.
◦ Symbiosis – used to describe any close relationship between two species.
◦ Mutualism –used to describe the relationship if both species benefit from each other.
DIFFUSE Co-evolution
 Anatgonistic co-evolution – the relationship usually produce an arms race of chemical and
mechanical attack and defence mechanism
 Where more than two species are involved in the co-evolution
 Includes all evolution as every species evolves in response to the other species in its
community
 Relationship can also either be mutualistic or antagonistic
POLLUTION
 Pollutions occurs when substances are released into the environment in harmful amounts as a
direct result of human activity.
Pollutants may be classified into three types:

 Those that occur in nature but as a result of human activity (carbon dioxide)
 those toxic substances, as a result of human activity, are produced that are not found in nature
(use of pesticides)
 Substances which are not toxic are released into the environment as a result of human activity,
but which then go on to have unfortunate consequences (effect certain substances on the oxone
layer)
 Eutrophication –refers to the release large amounts of phosphate and nitrate or organic matter
into the water resulting in a lowering of oxygen levels and change in the fauna of the water.
 They allow large number of algae, cyanobacteria nad aerobic bacteria to built up.
 Heavy metal toxicity – mining activity
 Alkaline waste – manufacturing processes
 Acid rain – deposition of acid gases from the atmosphere (burning of fossils)
 Pesticides – are chemicals synthesized for the purpose of killing unwanted species
 CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) found in refrigerator and some the majority of aerosols
37 | P a g e
 Radioactivity
 The term ‘biodiversity’ was only coined in 1985 as a shortened form of ‘biological diversity’.
 After the 1992 Rio Summit, it became a popular jargon: a buzzword for measuring the health of the
planet.
BIODIVERSITY: Basic Concepts & Issues

 One measure of biodiversity of an area is the number of species found there; however, the range of
different life forms (bacteria, fungi, ferns, flowering plants, nematodes, insects, birds, and so on)
is also important.
 Experiments and field studies suggest that a loss of biodiversity may lead to a loss of ecological
stability.

 Yet the biodiversity of some of our richest biomes (tropical rainforest and deep ocean) is still
very incompletely known.
CONSERVATION
 Conservation is management of the earth’s resources in a way which aims to restore and
maintain the balance between human requirements and the other species of the world.
 It can focus on individual species, individual ecosystems or the whole biosphere.
 The need for conservation

 The pressure on wildlife
 Maintaining the biodiversity
 Captive breeding grounds – resort in the conservation of species
zoos
 Re-introductions – re-introduction of species from captive breeding into the wild
 Design of nature reserves
 Nature reserves are created as refuges for threatened species or a means of preserving one or
more ecosystems.
 Maintenance of conservation areas
 Decision is whether to manage the reserve at all apart from marking boundaries and limiting
human interference
STATE OF PHILIPPINE POPULATION
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Population to double in 29 years

 The total population of the Philippines as of May 1, 2000 was 76,504,077 persons. This was
higher by 7,887,541 persons or about 10.31 percent from the 1995 census (with September 1,
1995 as reference date). It was 10 times the Philippine population in 1903 when the first census
was undertaken.
 The expansion of the Philippine population reflected a 2.36 percent average annual growth rate
in the 1995-2000 period. This figure recorded an slight increase from a declining growth rate
which started in the first half of the seventies. The last increase recorded in population growth
rates was during the intercensal period 1948 to 1960 at 3.07 percent. The recent growth rate was
0.04 percentage point higher than the annual growth during the early part of the nineties. If the
average annual growth rate continues, the population of the Philippines is expected to double in
29 years.
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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
 The Concept of Sustainable Development (Herrin, 2003)

 The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED, 1987) defined sustainable
development as “…the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
 In line with this definition, the Philippine Agenda 21states that the ultimate aim of development
is human development now and through future generations through the harmonious integration
of a sound and viable economy, responsible governance, social cohesion and ecological
integrity.
Philippine Agenda (PA21)
 is the national agenda for sustainable development. It outlines the integrating strategies for the
country’s overall sustainable development and identifies the intervention areas (Action Agenda)
from the national to the regional level, along with the corresponding implementing platforms and
plans.
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 PA 21 envisions a better quality of life for all through the development of a just, moral, creative,
spiritual, economically-vibrant, caring, diverse yet cohesive society characterized by appropriate
productivity, participatory and democratic process and living in harmony within the limits of the
carrying capacity of nature and the integrity of creation.
 Sustainable development as defined in the PA 21 (1996) is “harmonious integration of a sound
and viable economy, responsible governance, social cohesion and ecological integrity, to
ensure that development is a life-sustaining
 Sustainability is a process which tells of a development of all aspects of human life affecting
sustenance.
 It means resolving the conflict between the various competing goals, and involves the
simultaneous pursuit of economic prosperity, environmental quality and social equity.
 Hence it is a continually evolving process; the ‘journey’ (the process of achieving sustainability)
is of course vitally important, but only as a means of getting to the destination (the desired
future state).
 However, the ‘destination’ of sustainability is not a fixed place in the normal sense that we
understand destination. Instead, it is a set of wishful characteristics of a future system.
Sustainable development brings us to a destination that is bearable, equitable, and viable.
ECO INDUSTRIAL PARKS

 Local development standards governing industrial activity have often augmented traditional
zoning criteria that establish controls on maximum land use intensity, minimum lot size,
setbacks, and building bulk and height, with specific performance standards that serve to
categorize not only permitted types of industrial activities, but minimum standards associated
with their operation. Performance criteria may be tied to standards governing air pollution
control; fire and explosion; radiation hazard; electromagnetic radiation and interference; liquid
and solid waste discharge; and noise, vibrations, and light source considerations, among
others.
 Contemporary development patterns, evolution in building technology, and opportunities or
requirements for the containment of noxious impacts have fostered a radical alteration in
industrial prototypes over the last several decades.
 This has resulted in refinements in standard land use controls, which are sensitive to trends in
the aggregation of compatible industrial activities in planned industrial parks.
 The emergence of zoned industrial districts qualified as institutional, research, technology,
warehouse, and distribution centers reflects unique sets of operating requirements, an affinity
for like-kind uses to collocate, and market-driven pressure to elevate the site aesthetics of select
industrial land use activities.
 Local public controls may afford opportunities for the creation of an industrial district that caters
to uses that can demonstrate compatibility with surrounding land activities.
 Minimum land assembly, larger minimum lot requirements, increased setback, screening and
buffer requirements, increased landscape and open space standards, reduction in allowable
building profiles, more restrictive building bulk criteria, and allowable land use intensities assist
in ensuring reduced visual impact on surrounding areas for uses that can demonstrate no
adverse off-site impacts.
 Positioning more compatible activities at perimeter locations often assists in creating an overall
planned industrial development that affords considerable variety in tenancy and use
opportunities.
Environmental Impact Statement & the ECC
The Philippine Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)System was formally established in 1978 by virtue
of Presidential Decree (PD) No. 1586. Reiterating the policy statement under PD 1151, it introduced the
concept of environmentally critical projects (ECPs) and projects within environmentally critical areas
(ECAs) as projects which require the submission of an environmental impact statement(EIS). It provides
that “no person, partnership or corporation shall undertake or operate any such declared ECP or project
41 | P a g e
within an ECA without first securing an Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC).” PD 1586 also
identified the lead agency for the implementation of the EIS System and provided sanctions for its
violation.
OVERVIEW of the Philippine EIS SYSTEM

Basic Policy and Operating Principles of the PEISS
 Consistent with the principles of sustainable development, it is the policy of the DENR to
implement a systems-oriented and integrated approach to the EIS system to ensure a rational
balance between socio-economic development and environmental protection for the benefit of
present and future generations.
KEY Operating Principles

a) The EIS System is concerned primarily with assessing the direct and Indirect impacts of a project on
the biophysical and human environment and ensuring that these impacts are addressed by appropriate
environmental protection and enhancement measures.
b) The EIS System aids Proponents in incorporating environmental considerations in planning their
projects as well as in determining the environment’s impact on their project.
c) Project Proponents are responsible for determining and disclosing all relevant information necessary
for a methodical assessment of the environmental impacts of their projects;
d) The review of EIA Reports by EMB shall be guided by three (3) general criteria:
(1) that environmental considerations are integrated into the overall project planning,
(2) that the assessment is technically sound and proposed environmental mitigation measures
are effective, and
(3) that the EIA process is based on a timely, informed and meaningful public participation of
potentially-affected communities;
e) Effective regulatory review of the EIA Reports depends largely on timely, full, and accurate disclosure
of relevant information by project Proponents and other stakeholders in the EIA process;
f) The timelines prescribed within which a decision must be issued apply only to processes and actions
within the Environmental Management Bureau’s (EMB) control and do not include actions or activities
that are the responsibility of the Proponent.
DEFINITION OF EIA
 An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a “process that involves predicting and
evaluating the likely impacts of a project (including cumulative impacts) on the environment
during construction, commissioning, operation and abandonment.
 It also includes designing appropriate preventive, mitigating and enhancement measures

addressing
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ENVIRONMENT IMPACT STATEMENT (EIS) OUTLINE
(Maximum of about 250 pages)

NOTE: REFER TO ANNEX 2-7a (EIS SCOPING AND PROCEDURAL SCREENING CHECKLIST) FOR
SPECIFIC CONTENTS/REQUIREMENTS OF EACH SECTION
Project Fact Sheet
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
1) Brief Project Description
2) Brief Summary of Project’s EIA Process
3) Summary of Baseline Characterization
4) Summary of Impact Assessment and Environmental Management Plan
5) Summary of Environmental Monitoring Plan
6) EMF and EGF Commitments
DRAFT MAIN EIS

1.BASIC PROJECT INFORMATION
2. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT’S EIA PROCESS

2.1. Terms of Reference of the EIA Study
2.2. EIA Team
2.3. EIA Study Schedule
2.4. EIA Study Area
2.5. EIA Methodology
2.6. Public Participation
3. PROJECT DESCRIPTION
3.1. Project Location and Area
3.2. Project Rationale
3.3. Project Alternatives
3.4. Project Development Plan, Process/Technology Options and Project Components
3.5. Description of Project Phases (Activities/Environmental Aspects, Associated Wastes and
Built-in Pollution Control Measures)
3.5.1. Pre-construction/ Pre-operational phase
3.5.2. Construction/Development phase
3.5.3. Operational phase
3.5.4. Abandonment phase
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3.6. Manpower Requirements

3.7. Project Cost
3.8. Project Duration and Schedule
4. BASELINE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS, IMPACT ASSESSMENT AND

MITIGATION
4.1. The Land (Discuss only relevant modules)
4.1.1. Land Use and Classification
ANNEX 2-12
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT (EIS) OUTLINE
ANNEX 2-12
4.1.2. Pedology
4.1.3. Geology and Geomorphology
4.1.4. Terrestrial Biology
4.2. The Water (Discuss only relevant modules)
4.2.1. Hydrology & Hydrogeology
4.2.2. Oceanography
4.2.3. Water Quality
4.2.4. Freshwater Biology
4.2.5. Marine Biology
4.3. The Air (Discuss only relevant modules)
4.3.1. Meteorology
4.3.2. Air Quality and Noise
4.4. The People
5. ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT (WHEN APPLICABLE)
6. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN

6.1. Impacts Management Plan
6.2. Social Development Framework
6.3. IEC Framework
6.4. Emergency Response Policy and Generic Guidelines
6.5. Abandonment /Decommissioning /Rehabilitation Policies and Generic Guidelines
6.6. Environmental Monitoring Plan
6.2.1. Self-Monitoring Plan
Note: Attach under this section the filled out Project Environmental Monitoring
and Audit Prioritization Scheme (PEMAPS) Questionnaire in Annex 2-7d of the
RPM
6.2.1. Multi-sectoral Monitoring Framework
6.2.1. Environmental Guarantee and Monitoring Fund Commitment
6.7. Institutional Plan for EMP Implementation
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES
8. ANNEXES
8.1. Scoping Checklist
8.2. Original Sworn Accountability Statement of Proponent
8.3. Original Sworn Accountability Statement of Key EIS Consultants
8.4. Proof of Public Participation
8.5. Baseline Study Support Information
8.6. Impact Assessment and EMP Support Information
NOTE: The EIA review process will advise DOH if the project will pose a significant public health risk to
the environment, e.g. public health may be affected if the wastes/discharges are direct contributors to
44 | P a g e
the leading causes of mortality/morbidity in the DIA, regardless of environmental management

measures. To assist EMB on its review, DOH shall coordinate with the DENR-EMB on the declaration of
Health Sensitive Projects and Health Sensitive Areas. Until such time, DOH shall review EHIA
independently of the EIA Process, consistent with the DENR-DOH MOA on EHIA. Further, workers’ HIA
component of the EHIA is recommended to be coordinated by DOH with DOLE for the latter’s
consideration in its requirement of an Occupational Health and Safety Program from the Proponent.
The ECC shall contain the scope and limitations of the approved activities, as well as conditions to
ensure compliance with the Environmental Management Plan. The ECC shall also specify the setting up
of an EMF and EGF, if applicable. No ECC shall be released until the proponent has settled all liabilities,
fines and other obligations with DENR. A Denial Letter on the other hand shall specify the bases for the
decision.
General Standard Conditions for all other projects

1. A Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) on the formation of a Multipartite
Monitoring Team (MMT), and establishment of an Environmental Monitoring Fund (EMF) and an
Environmental Guarantee Fund (EGF) shall be initiated by the Proponent in coordination with the
concerned EMB Office and shall be submitted to the EMB for approval within sixty (60) days from
receipt of this ECC.
2. An Environmental Unit (EU) or its equivalent shall be established to related aspects of the project. In
addition to the monitoring requirements as specified in the Environmental Management Plan
(EMP)/Environmental Monitoring Plan (EMoP), the EU shall:
2.1 Monitor actual project impacts vis-à-vis the predicted impacts and
management measures in the EIS;
2.2 Submit semi-annually an ECC Compliance Report to the ECC endorsing or issuing office, wherein
each second or year- end report shows the summary of cumulative performance of Proponent against
previous years’ requirements and commitments.
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Real Estate Brokers’ Comprehensive Seminar 2014

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY

Trends in trophic relationships

Biodiversity: Basic Concepts & Current Issues

State of Philippine Population

Environmental Impact Study & the ECC

I. ECOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS CONCEPT

 Experimental design is extremely important and requires, wherever possible, controls,

 The environment includes other organisms and physical features.

 An ecosystem, or biocoenose, is composed of a community and the physical

There are basically two kinds:

o Heterotrophs, as consumers that are unable to produce, are constantly looking

o Detritivores are organisms that rely on detritus, the decomposing particles of

Ecosystem: Water -the important factor

 Closed ecological systems

II. THE ENVIRONMENT

 The environment of an organism has a physical (abiotic) and a biological (biotic)

III. ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEM

IV. FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS

What happens to the energy stored in autotrophic biomass?

Food Webs and Trophic Levels

The ocean food web

Producers and Consumers

 Decomposers or detritivores break down the organic matter accumulated in the

V. Trends in trophic relationships

VI. Biogeochemical Cycles

 The surface of the planet is divided in biomes, defined by the characteristics of

The tundra and taiga

The polar regions

VIII. ECOLOGICAL NICHE

Eutrophication –refers to the release large amounts of phosphate and nitrate or

Bioaccumulation and Bioconcentration

The information can be deduced through the study of:

XI. BIODIVERSITY: BASIC CONCEPTS & CURRENT ISSUES

Biodiversity: Basic Concepts & Current Issues

XIII. STATE OF PHILIPPINE POPULATION

PHILIPPINES POPULATION EXPECTED TO REACH 100 MILLION FILIPINOS IN 14

Population to double in 29 years

XIV. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Philippine Agenda 21 (PA21)

 Sustainable development as defined in the PA 21 (1996) is “harmonious integration of

Why do we need sustainable development?

Operational Tests of Sustainability

 ECOLOGICAL VIABILITY - Ecological functions of the environment and regeneration

 TECHNOLOGICAL VIABILITY - Technology is environment-friendly

 POLITICAL VIABILITY - People participate in the planning, ownership, implementation

 SOCIO-CULTURAL VIABILITY - Life-giving core values, beliefs and worldview of the

XVI. ECO-INDUSTRIAL PARKS

Contemporary development patterns, evolution in building technology, and

In Kalundborg, Denmark an Industrial symbiosis network exists where companies

XVII. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STUDY & THE ECC

Environmental Impact Statement & the ECC

OVERVIEW OF THE PHILIPPINE EIS SYSTEM (PEISS)

Key operating principles in the implementation of the PEIS System

 An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a “process that involves predicting

 It also includes designing appropriate preventive, mitigating and enhancement

2013 Philippines Population

Philippines Largest Cities

 An ecosystem, or biocoenose, is composed of a community and the physical environment it

organisms in the community, denoting the amount of organic matter produced by

 Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of biomass accumulation by heterotrophs