Experimental and numerical prediction of springback and

side wall curl in U-bendings of anisotropic sheet metals

M. Samuel
*
Department of Production Engineering and Machine Design, Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University, 35516 Mansoura, Egypt
Accepted 13 June 2000
Abstract
Springback is a common phenomenon in sheet metal forming, caused by the elastic redistribution of the internal stresses during
unloading. It has been recognised that springback is essential for the design of tools used in sheet metal forming operations. A nite element
(FE) program has been used to analyse the sheet metals axisymmetric U-bending process. The underlying formulation is based on
Lagrangian elastoplastic materials model. Normal anisotropic material behaviour has been considered. A contact algorithm for arbitrarily
shaped rigid tools has been realised by means of penalty approach. The interaction of sliding surfaces is modelled with a modied Coulomb
friction law. This paper describes a robust method of predicting springback and side wall curls in 2D operations under plane strain
stretching, bending and unbending deformations. Also the effect of tool geometry and blankholder force on the nal shape after springback
are discussed. The accuracy of the model is veried by comparison with FE of MARC package and experimental results. #2000 Elsevier
Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Springback; U-bendings; Sheet metal
1. Introduction
In sheet forming operations, the blank being formed
conforms closely to the die shape when it is in press. When
the load is released and the part taken out of the press,
however, there is a change in the shape. This change is
referred to as springback. Allowances have to be made in die
design so that the nal product will meet the designer's
objective for both appearance and ease of assembly. Also in
the sheet metal industries as automotive industries, accurate
predictions of sheet metal parts including stressstrain dis-
tribution and thickness are necessary. At the present time,
these allowances for springback are in general based upon
the prior experience of the die design. It would be more
sufcient to present to the die designer an analytical method
for computing the potential springback and side wall curl so
that he could determine, prior to any die work, whether it is
feasible to make the part with a particular shape froma given
material. Most of the existing studies of springback [18]
treat only parts formed by simple pure bending.
The development of the nite element (FE) method
becomes an important purpose to reduce time and cost of
the products. On the other hand, in order to help the designer,
numerical analysis is used to investigate tool design or
process sequences which are of main importance for the
nal shape. At the present time, FE method based only on
practical knowledge is not sufcient. Several authors have
made researches on prediction of the amount of springback
and side wall curl. Some theoretical and experimental
research studies have considered the inuence of blan-
kholder force and die geometry upon the springback and
side wall curl [912], whereas, other studies have ignored
the above effect [1316].
In this paper, the incremental elastoplastic FE method is
adopted to predict springback and side wall curls in 2D
modelling of U-bending operation. The computer program
used is based on the updated Lagrangian scheme and the FE
code for the sheet metal forming is based on four nodes
isoparametric shell elements, and the sheet being treated as a
thin shell.
An effective simulation model for U-drawing process
during loading and unloading sequence may be obtained.
During the loading stage, the contact of blankholder force is
considered, whereas the mechanical modelling of the spring-
back and side wall curl is taken into account during the
unloading stage. All nodal contacts exposed to forces due to
die tools are considered during the loading stage then these
Journal of Materials Processing Technology 105 (2000) 382393
*
Fax: 20-50-344-690.
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contact forces are removed during the unloading stage, in
other words, the sheet metal is set free from contact forces
[17]. The effects of process variables (friction coefcient,
tooling geometry, and blankholder force) upon the nal
shape after unloading are studied in details. For convenience
of presentation, a series of experimental work was con-
ducted and the results from the simulation model are com-
pared with those from the experimental study.
2. Springback and side wall curl prediction
In sheet metal forming, prediction of springback is impor-
tant to evaluate the desired shape of a product [18,19]. The
amount of springback is dened as the difference between
the nal shape at the end of the loading stage and the shape
after unloading. Indeed, after the removal of the die tools,
the deformed part shape undergoes another signicant geo-
metric changes. In other terms, springback is an inherent
additional deformation of the material during the unloading.
The above mentioned changes in the samples are strongly
dependent upon the material properties than the technolo-
gical parameters (e.g. binder restraining load, friction
between the samples and the die tools).
The denition of side wall curl reported by Davies [20] is
adopted in the present work. That is, side wall curl is a result
of residual stresses through the thickness of the sheet
produced by a non-uniform deformation, particularly, that
of successive bending and unbending over the die prole.
Umehara [21] and Hayashi and Takagi [22] found that the
side wall curl correlated better with tensile stress than with
yield stress (i.e. increasing linearly with it) whereas spring-
back was found proportional to the initial ow stress.
It is seen, then, that many factors inuence springback and
side wall curl. For example, springback increases as the tool
clearance, the bend radius and the yield strength of the
material increase and as the sheet thickness decreases.
Whereas side wall curl increases as the yield strength, the
stiffness, and the work hardening exponent increase and as
the thickness of the sheet decreases. Therefor, the resulting
deviation of the nal products includes dimensional errors
(e.g. curvature, side wall curls, and internal defects) as
residual stresses and strains [2325].
Although, bending and unbending took place around the
die and the punch corners as well as re-yielding during the
loading process, an elastoplastic recovery would take place
and better strain path is obtained during the unloading
process.
Nomenclature
BHF blankholder force
C clearance between punch and die
E modulus of elasticity
f
c
side wall curl factor h
o
original thickness of
strip
F
i
friction force
h current thickness of strip
h
o
original thickness of strip
H
/
strain hardening rate (H
/
= Kn(e
0
e
p
)
n1
)
K strength coefficient
l
c
length of chord connecting two end points on
curled wall (Fig. 1)
n strain hardening exponent
r normal anisotropic parameter
(
1
4
(r = r
0
2r
45
r
90
))
R
c
radius of the centreline curvature before
unloading
R
c
+
radius of the centreline curvature after un-
loading
R
d
die profile radius
R
p
punch profile radius
S
f
surface on which traction prescribed

t
i
rate of the nominal traction
v
i
velocity of the particle
v
rel
relative velocity between tool and workpiece
V material volume
W width of strip
X
j
spatial fixed cartesian coordinate
Greek symbols
b angle between the blank and the die
dL
ij
velocity gradient(dL
ij
= dv
i
adx
j
)
Dy difference of angle before and after unloading
in bending
e
ij
strain rate
e
p
effective plastic strain

e
p
equivalent strain rate
y angle between the blank and the punch
m Coulomb friction coefficient
u Poisson's ratio
r curvature radius of side wall of the U profile
s effective stress
s
ij
true stress
t
ij
Jaumann rate of Kirchhoff stress
Fig. 1. Control parameters for the springback and side wall curl.
M. Samuel / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 105 (2000) 382393 383
The parameters to characterise the springback are given in
Fig. 1. These parameters correspond to the angle between
the sample and the punch (y), the angle between the sample
and the die (b), and the curvature radius r of the side wall for
the U-prole.
3. Numerical model analysis
3.1. FE model
A 2D numerical analysis of the U-bending process is
conducted using an FE mesh for the axisymmetric continued
at samples. For stress computation, the elements used were
of the reduced integration eight node isoparametric type
(MARCK7.1 FEA software), which provides six integration
points through the thickness of the sample. This feature
adequately accounts for the bending, unbending and stretch-
ing incurred by the sample. Three rigid surfaces were used to
simulate the punch, die, and blankholder. Fig. 2 shows the
prole of the die, punch head, blankholder, the initial shape,
and FE mesh. Four node interface elements were used to
simulate the contact between the sample and the three rigid
surfaces. The contact algorithm used computes the amount
of initial overclosure between the surface of the deformed
sample and the rigid surface. Using these kinematic mea-
sures and Lagrange multiplier techniques, the springback,
the unloaded curvatures of the elements, and the unloaded
shape of the sheet, were computed. A modied Coulomb
friction law is assumed in the above analysis.
3.2. Mechanical model
In order to reduce the complexities involved in the
analysis, the following assumptions are made for the for-
mulation of the mathematical model; (i) an elastoplastic
constitutive model with non-linear strain hardening and
anisotropy materials is assumed; (ii) the deformation of
U-bending is assumed to occur under the plane strain
condition; (iii) Bauschinger effect is neglected; (iv) Hill's
theory of plastic anisotropy [26] is adopted to describe the
anisotropic characteristics of the sheet metals.
If the sheet materials are assumed to have planar isotropic
characteristics, the normal anisotropy (planar isotropic) of
the sheet can be represented by a single parameter r. This
parameter is dened on the basis of a uniaxial tensile test as
the ratio of the transverse plastic strain in the plane of the
sheet through the thickness. In sheet metal forming, the
parameter r, which is the measure of anisotropy, is assumed
to remain constant throughout plastic straining. Therefore,
the Hill's theory can be reduced to the Von Mises yield
criterion for planar isotropic material.
Due to incremental character of the plastic behaviour, it is
convenient to adopt an updated Lagrangian description for
the deformation process.
The equilibrium in the Lagrangian scheme [27], and by
Hill's variation principle [28] can be expressed in the form.
_
V
[( t
ij
2s
ik
e
kj
) d e
ij
s
ik
L
ik
dL
ij
[ dV =
_
S
f

t
i
dv
i
dSY (1)
where t
ij
is the Jaumann rate of Kirchhoff stress, e
ij
the strain
rate, dL
ij
the velocity gradient,

t
i
the rate of the normal
traction, v
i
the velocity, V the material volume, and S
f
the
surface on which the traction prescribed.
The J
2
ow constitutive equation is given as
t
ij
=
E
1 u
d
iK
d
ij

u
1 2u
d
ij
d
Kl
_

3a(Ea1 u)s
/
ij
s
/
Kkl
2s
2
(2a3)H
/
Ea(1 u)
_
e
Kl
Y (2)
where E is the modulus of elasticity, v the poisson's ratio, H
/
the strain hardening rate, a a constant equal 1 for plastic state
and 0 for the elastic state, s
/
ij
the deviatoric part of s
ij
, and s
the effective stress. Eq. (2) is used to model the elastoplastic
behaviour for the sheet metals.
The relationship between the stress and the strain for the
materials used in this work is given by
s = K(e
0
e
p
)
n
Y (3)
where
e
p
=
_
t
0
e
p
dtY e
p
=
2
3
e
ij
e
ij
_
1a2
(4)
and the material parameters K and e
o
, and n are determined
from a standard tension test.
Noting that the change in orientation of the local frames
during the increment introduces a geometric correction, it
can be shown that the increments of the components for the
nominal stress vector taken with respect to the local frame at
the beginning of the increment given by
df
xw
/ = dtx
/
t
y
/ dfY df
y
/ = dty
/
t
x
/ dfX (5) Fig. 2. Simulation model.
384 M. Samuel / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 105 (2000) 382393
A simple geometric analysis shows that df = dU
x
/ aR
d
on
the die prole radius, df = (dwsin f dU
x
/ )R
p
on the
punch prole radius, and df = 0 for any other contact node,
where dU is the vector of nodal displacement increment, df
the vector of nodal forces increment corresponding to a trial
increment dw of the loading parameter, and f the angle
between x
/
-axis and the horizontal axis.
3.3. Friction model
In order to take into account the friction between the
workpiece and the tools, a modied Coulomb friction model
for sliding contact has been adopted to overcome the
problem of the singularity at vanishing relative motion. This
model is given by
F
i
fric
= m
v
i
rel
c v
i
rel
[ [
F
N

Y (6)
where F
N
is the force normal to the tool segment in contact,
m the Coulomb friction coefcient, and F
i
fric
the friction
force. The value of c is chosen several orders of magnitude
less than the relative velocity v
rel
of a truly sliding reference
contact node and has to be specied by the user [29].
3.4. Unloading process
The phenomenon of springback after unloading is sig-
nicant in the strip forming process. During the deformation
processes, it is assumed that the nodes on the centre line are
xed in the x-direction. At the end of the unloading stage,
forces will be imposed on all contact nodes. These forces
have the same magnitude and opposite sign to the reaction
forces exerted on these nodes, i.e., F=FF or the unloading
moment (DM) equal to the applied bending moment (M).
From the elastic deformation of unloading ds
x
ade
x
= E
/
,
in which E
/
= Ea(1 u
2
) under the plane strain condition,
and de
w
= dhadR where dh and dR are the changes in
thickness and radius due to bent and unbent of the element,
respectively, in which case dR = R
c
+
R
c
and
R
c
= R
p

1
2
h, see Fig. 3.
The unloading moment DM is given by
DM = 2W
_
ha2
0
Ds
y
Z dZ =
WEh
3
12(1 u
2
)
1
R
c

1
R
c
+
_ _
Y (7)
where s
y
is the stress component in the direction y, h the
current thickness of strip, Wthe width of strip, R
c
and R
c
+
are
the radii of centerline curvature before and after unloading,
respectively.
If the effective stress s is constant, the applied bending
moment may be expressed as
M =
1 r

1 2r
_
s
(1 n)
Wh
2
4
= K
1 r

1 2r
_
_ _
1n
Wh
2
4(1 n)
_ _
h
2R
c
_ _
n
Y (8)
where
s = K
1 r

1 2r
_
_ _
n
ln
R
o
R
c
_ _
~ K
1 r

1 2r
_
_ _
n
h
2R
c
_ _
n
Y
r is the normal anisotopic parameter, n the strain hardening
exponent, and Z the thickness of the chosen element (Fig. 3).
For elastic recovery of unloading condition, DM = M
then it can easily by shown that
1
R
c

1
R
c
+
= K
1 r

1 2r
_
_ _
1n
3(1 u
2
)
hE(1 n)
_ _
h
2R
c
_ _
n
X (9)
Applying the condition R
c
y = R
c
+
y
+
into Eq. (9), we get
Dy
y
= K
1 r

1 2r
_
_ _
1n
3(1 u
2
)
2E(1 n)
_ _
h
2R
c
_ _
n1
Y (10)
where (Dy/y) is the springback ratio, and Dy = [(1aR
c
)
(1aR
c
+
)[a(1aR
c
).
4. Overview of experiments
The U-shaping stage, is carried out with the experimental
set-up shown in Fig. 4. This type of set-up was selected for
this work so that springback and side wall curl effects could
be obtained simultaneously. Three different materials strips
were tested: aluminium alloy, mild steel, and stainless steel
sheets of 1.0 mm gauge thickness with die prole radius
R
d
= 5 mm. Moreover, different values for each of the punch
prole radius, R
p
, binder forces, and coefcient of friction
between tools and strip with 1.1 h
o
clearance were used for
these experiments. Table 1, shows the mechanical properties
of tested materials, and Table 2 shows the tool geometries
and forming conditions used in the experiments. The samples
Fig. 3. Analysis model for the sheet element at punch corner.
M. Samuel / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 105 (2000) 382393 385
were prepared by cutting sheets into strips (rolling direction
lengthwise). The nal dimensions of the strips were
400 mm60 mm. A grid of circles each of 2.0 mm diameter
was etched photo-chemically on the samples to facilitate
measurement of the strain distribution on the surface of the
strip after forming. Punch travel was stopped automatically
after 40 mm to produce samples of the same wall height.
5. Results and discussion
The model described above was implemented using
MARC FE package programs and the following results
were obtained.
5.1. Effect of process variables on the equivalent Von
Mises stress and total plastic strain
Figs. 58 show the effect of the friction, blankholder
force, and punch prole radius on the equivalent Von Mises
stress and total plastic strain for the tested materials. In
Figs. 5 and 6, the equivalent stress and total plastic strain
increases slightly as the coefcient of friction increases with
blankholder force = 4X8 kN. In Fig. 7, the equivalent stress
and total plastic strain of the contact surface between punch
and die corners and sample increase as the blank holder
force increases with a constant value for friction coefcient.
In Fig. 8 the equivalent Von Mises stress and total plastic
strain was sharply decreased as the punch prole radius
increased. This result occurred with the highest blankholder
force mentioned in Table 2, and a value for friction coef-
cient similar to that used in Fig. 7.
5.2. Effect of punch prole radius on the springback ratio
and side wall curl
Tests were performed under different punch prole radii
(R
p
= 3, 6 and 9 mm). From Fig. 9a, it can be seen that the
springback decreases as the punch prole radius decreases
under sufciently large value of blankholder force
(27.4 kN), attributable to the higher tensile stress, which
resulted in increased plastic deformation and reduced trans-
verse stress gradient. It is noted that the stress over the punch
corner (punch prole radius) was the most signicant factor
governing the magnitude of springback. As shown in Fig. 9b,
the side wall curl is essentially independent of punch prole
radius. However, it is decreased as the die prole radius
increases at the highest value of blankholder force. This is
shown in Fig. 10. The above result is anticipated since work
hardening decreases the transverse stress gradient. Note that
in Figs. 9 and 10 the experimental results agree very well
with the theoretical results.
From the above discussion, it can be seen that the side
wall curl varies inversely with die prole radius. This
result conicts with the results reported by Hayashi and
Fig. 4. Schematic and photograph for the experimental set-up: 1, die; 2, punch holder; 3, punch; 4, hydraulic piston; 5, load cell.
Table 1
Material properties from experimental tests and used in the simulations
model
Material Aluminium alloy
(SAE 5754)
Mild steel
(SAE 1008)
Stainless steel
(AISI 304)
h
0
(mm) 0.89 1.01 1.0
E (Mpa) 71 206 206
s
y
(MPa) 136 178.1 278.2
K (MPa) 577 565 681
r 0.65 1.78 1.66
u 0.34 0.3 0.3
e
o
0.017 0.0072 0.0128
n 0.359 0.259 0.218
m 0.162 0.143 0.128
Table 2
Tooling geometries used for the experiments
Punch size (mm) 7070
Die opening (mm) 72.2
R
p
(mm) 3, 6, and 9
R
d
(mm) 5 and 9
C (mm) 1.1
Blankholder load (kN) 4.8 and 27.4
Punch travel, Y
p
(mm) 40.0
m From 0.0 to 0.17
386 M. Samuel / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 105 (2000) 382393
Fig. 5. Inuence of the coefcient of friction on the equivalent Von Mises stress, (on left) m = 0, (on right) m = 0X17, for mild steel, stainless steel, and
aluminium alloy, respectively, at BHF = 4X8 kN.
M. Samuel / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 105 (2000) 382393 387
Fig. 6. As for Fig. 5, but for total equivalent plastic strain.
388 M. Samuel / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 105 (2000) 382393
Fig. 7. Inuence of blankholder force on the equivalent Von Mises stress and total plastic strain with R
p
= 6 mm at BHF = 27X4 kN at m = 0X17 for mild steel.
Fig. 8. Inuence of punch prole radius on the equivalent Von Mises stress and total plastic strain with R
p
= 9 mm at BHF = 27X4 kN and m = 0X17 for
stainless steel and aluminium alloy.
M. Samuel / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 105 (2000) 382393 389
Takagi [22], and Huang and Leu [30]. The main
reason behind this conict is due to the ignorance of
blankholder force between the tools and samples in the
work of [22,30].
5.2.1. Effect of friction on the springback ratio and side
wall curl
The effect of friction on springback and side wall curl
depends on blank holder force. But, high coefcient of
friction decreases springback and side wall curl by increas-
ing tension in strip wall as shown in Figs. 5 and 11. Also, one
can say that the membrane force is increased as a result of
high friction. In addition, a higher friction helps to prevent
relative sliding between the sheet and tool surfaces and thus
avoids scratching the strip surface.
5.3. Effect of the material properties upon the springback
ratio and side wall curl
Fig. 12 shows the experimental and theoretical effect of
blankholder force on the springback of the three different
materials used. Comparing the results of each material for
blankholder force equal to 4.8 and 27.4 kN, it is noted that
the springback and side wall curl are strongly affected by the
blankholder force. Moreover, it can be seen that the spring-
back and side wall curl for stainless steel are higher than
those for mild steel. It is noted also that the aluminium alloy
shows the highest values of springback and side wall curl
than the stainless and mild steels. This is due to the fact that
the yield stress-to-modulus of elasticity ratios are 0.84, 1.26,
and 1.90 for mild steel, stainless steel, and aluminium alloy,
Fig. 9. Inuence of the punch prole radius on (a) springback and (b) side wall curl.
Fig. 10. Inuence of the die prole radius on (a) springback and (b) side wall curl.
390 M. Samuel / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 105 (2000) 382393
respectively. Note also that the greater the magnitude of this
ratio, the greater the effect of the blankholder force on the
springbarck and side wall curl. In addition, the springback
ratio (Dy/y) side wall curl increase as the strain hardening
exponent (n) decreases or as the normal anisotropic value (r)
increases, as given in Eq. (10). A summary of the above
results are tabulated in Table 3 for both experimental and
theoretical models.
6. Conclusions
A numerical model based on the updated Lagrangian
formulation has been proposed in this paper to calculate
springback and side wall curl in a plane-strain stretch/
draw sheet forming problem. The model took into con-
sideration the normal anisotropic value, the material proper-
ties, tool geometry, blankholder force, and coefcient of
Fig. 11. Experimental results indicating inuence of the coefcient of friction on (a) springback and (b) side wall curl.
Fig. 12. Predicted geometry for the U-shape (a) from the FE in MARC package sand and (b) from the experimental results.
M. Samuel / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 105 (2000) 382393 391
friction. The model implemented using the MARC FE
package.
For comparison purposes, various results regarding
the unloaded shape of the springback and side wall curl
predictions were calculated using the FE computer
program described. These results were then compared
with experimental measurements. The comparison indi-
cated that the numerical model is capable of predicting
springback and side wall curl in 2D draw bending very
accurately.
Based on this study, the following remarks are drawn.
1. Springback in the U-drawn section increased with the
punch radius, depending on blank holder force.
2. Side wall curl decreased with the die radius but
depending greatly on blankholder force too.
3. The high value of friction reduces springback and side
wall curl by increasing tension in the wall. This is also
dependent on blankholder force.
4. Springback ratio increases as the normal anisotropic
value increases, or as the strain hardening exponent
decreases.
5. Results from the experimental set-up agree very well
with those from the theoretical model.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Professor Dr. Eng. J. Gro-
nostajski for valuable guidance during the work reported in
this paper. Thanks are also due to Dr. Eng. Z. Zimniak for his
help in numerical computation, and to the staff of the
workshop of the Metal Forming Department, Institute of
Machine Building Technology, Technical University of
Wroclaw, Poland.
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Table 3
Comparison of experimental and theoretical results of investigated materials
Material BHF = 4X8 kN BHF = 27X4 kN Deviation
(%)
m R
p
(mm) R
d
(mm) m R
p
(mm) R
d
(mm)
0 0.17 3 6 9 5 9 0 0.17 3 6 9 5 9
Mild steel (SAE 1008)
y8 106 105 104 106 109 103 102 101 98 96 98 100 98 90 4.8
b8 81 83 83 81 80 82 82 84 86 87 86 84 86 88 5.1
r (mm) 307 313 331 324 316 339 346 389 393 398 387 372 404 414 7.3
Stainless steel (AISI 304)
y8 115 113 112 114 116 111 110 109 107 105 107 108 107 106 5.0
b8 73 74 77 76 74 78 79 78 80 82 80 79 81 82 5.6
r (mm) 272 281 298 286 271 301 309 347 359 372 360 351 380 386 8.2
Aluminium alloy (SAE 5754)
y8 121 119 115 116 117 115 114 113 100 108 109 111 109 108 5.0
b8 70 71 73 72 70 72 73 74 77 77 74 73 77 78 5.4
r (mm) 244 252 283 277 261 290 295 300 319 347 338 329 349 361 8.3
392 M. Samuel / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 105 (2000) 382393
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