Heat Treatment Lecture 1

Module 31
Heat treatment of steel I
Lecture 31
Heat treatment of steel I

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NPTEL Phase II : IIT Kharagpur : Prof. R. N. Ghosh, Dept of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering || |

Keywords : Transformation characteristics of eutectoid steel, isothermal diagram,
microstructures of pearlite, bainite and martensite, mechanisms of nucleation & growth,
impingement factor, extended volume, inter lamellar spacing, effect of super cooling on inter
lamellar spacing of pearlite
Introduction

In the last two modules we learnt how the strength of certain types of alloys can be improved
significantly by a heat treatment called age hardening. It is a two stage process consisting of
solution treatment and ageing. The alloy is first transformed into a super saturated state by
heating it to a suitable temperature to dissolve the precipitates. It is subsequently quenched to
suppress precipitation to retain excess solute in the solid solution. The alloy is soft under this
condition. Its strength increases on ageing at a suitable temperature due to the formation of a
fine array of precipitates. If such a treatment is given to common grades of steel we find it
becomes very hard and brittle on quenching after homogenization in the austenitic state
(similar to solution treatment). It has to be given a treatment similar to ageing (called
tempering) to make it soft and ductile. This is primarily due to the special features of the iron–
carbon phase diagram. We are already familiar how by controlling the carbon content a wide
range of structure and properties can be obtained in steel. The range can be further enhanced
by subsequent heat treatment. We shall learn about it in the next 6 modules.
Transformation characteristics of eutectoid steel:

Let us recall the important features of eutectoid steel. It has around 0.8% carbon. If it is heated
to a little above 723°C it transforms into austenite. If it is cooled slowly from austenite to room
temperature it decomposes into a mixture of ferrite and cementite. It has a characteristic
lamellar structure called pearlite. The widths of the ferrite and cementite plates are in the ratio
7:1. It is relatively soft and ductile. As against this if it is quenched from austenite you get
martensite instead of pearlite. It is a super‐saturated solid solution of carbon in ferrite. It is
extremely hard and brittle. Ferrite is BCC whereas austenite is FCC. Carbon atoms are
accommodated within the interstices of the two lattices. The size of the interstices in BCC is
much smaller than that in FCC. The lattice gets distorted if excess carbon atoms are retained
within BCC structure. As a result it transforms into martensite having BCT structure.

2


 ts tf
910  723
760

Pearlite
  + Cm
T   +  + Cm Fig 1
723 
Bainite
 + Pearlite Pearlite + Cm
 + Cm
Ms
Hypo‐eutectoid Hyper‐eutectoid  + M
Mf
0 0.02 0.08 1.5 Log (time)
0.002 M
(a) (b)

Figure 1 (a) shows the relevant part of the Fe‐Fe3C (Cm) phase diagram & the TTT diagram of
eutectoid steel. Depending on carbon content steel may have widely different structure. If % C
is less than the solubility limit it consists of 100% ferrite. It is soft and ductile. If % C lies
between 0.002 to 0.02 it consists of a fine dispersion of Fe3C in a matrix of ferrite. The amount
of % carbide can be estimated using lever rule. It comes out to be very low (~0.25%). Steel
having %C between 0.02 and 0.8 is known as hypo‐eutectoid steel. It consists of pro‐eutectoid
ferrite and pearlite. The amounts of the two constituents would depend on % C in the steel. The
amount of pearlite is zero if %C is 0.02 whereas it is nearly 100% as %C approaches the
eutectoid composition (0.8). Steel having %C beyond 0.8% is known as hyper‐eutectoid steel. It
consists of pro‐eutectoid cement and pearlite. Commercial grades of steel rarely have greater
than 1.5% carbon. The maximum amount of pro‐eutectoid cementite in steel may around 10‐
12%. Usually it appears in the form of a thin network along the grain boundary of austenite
before it transform into pearlite. This makes the steel brittle. It is prone to inter granular
cracking. It has to be given a suitable heat treatment to avoid the formation of such a network.
We shall learn more about it in subsequent modules. This is all that we can infer about the
structure of steel from its phase diagram. It does not tell us about the effect of cooling rate or
the transformation temperature on the evolution of the structure in steel. It is major limitation
of phase diagram. It only gives the structure of steel under thermodynamic equilibrium.

Initial structure Structure at t > ts Structure at t > tf

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Fig 2

100%  100% pearlite
A few pearlite nodules
at  boundary
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1 (b) gives a schematic time temperature transformation (TTT) diagram of eutectoid
steel. The concept was introduced in module 24. The decomposition of austenite to pearlite (a
mixture of ferrite and cementite) is a solid state transformation. Diffusion of carbon in the
austenite plays a major role. It takes place through a process called nucleation and growth. The
first phase to nucleate is cementite. It forms preferably at the austenite grain boundary and
grows into the grain. This is associated with the creation of a new interface having a definite
energy. It also draws excess carbon from the surrounding area. As a result the area adjacent to
the cementite nucleus gets depleted of carbon. When it falls below a certain limit ferrite plates
nucleate on the two sides of the cementite nucleus. This is how the process continues. The
features of the transformation are illustrated by a set of schematic structures shown in fig 2. If
the steel is kept for a sufficiently long time at (say) 760°C (a little above the eutectoid
temperature) it gets transformed into austenite. Let this now be transferred to a bath
maintained at a temperature a little below the eutectoid temperature (675°C). It is now in a
super cooled state. Let the degree of super cooling be represented as T. In this case T is
around 50°C. This is measure of the driving force for the transformation of austenite into
pearlite. Since it is associated with creation of new interfaces and diffusion of carbon in solid
state does not take place instantaneously; the initial structure at this temperature is still 100%
austenite as shown in fig 2(a). It takes some time (ts) for the first pearlite nodule to form. This
indicates the start of the transformation. Thereafter more nodules nucleate and the older ones
keep growing. Figure 2(b) shows a schematic structure of the steel at time t > ts. Note that there
are 3 nodules that have formed. They are of different sizes. The larger ones are those that have
nucleated earlier. Pearlite is made of two different phases. They have different etching
contrast. The line represents a cementite plate and the white areas on the two sides of it are
ferrite plates. A nodule of pearlite consists of several alternate plates of cementite and ferrite.
The term nodule is used to represent different pearlitic areas. Note that the orientations of the
plates differ from nodule to nodule. The process of nucleation and growth of pearlite nodules
continue until the entire area is covered by pearlite. It happens at a time tf. This denotes the
time at which the decomposition of austenite is over (finished). Figure 2(c) gives a schematic
representation of the structure of this steel at a time t > tf. Note that several nodules of pearlite
may nucleate in a grain of austenite. Once a nodule nucleates it continues to grow until it
impinges against another nodule beside it. As a consequence each grain of austenite transforms
into several nodules of pearlite having different orientations. This is illustrates in fig 2(c).
The time at which the transformation of a super‐cooled austenite starts (ts) and the time at
which it finishes (tf) depend on the temperature. If these are plotted against temperature a set
4 of two ‘C’ shaped plots are obtained. The details of the experimental methods to determine
these were described in module 24. Figure 1(b) shows a schematic TTT diagram of eutectoid
steel. The transformation product above the knee of the ‘C’ shaped TTT diagram is pearlite. The

pearlite that forms near the eutectoid temperature is coarse whereas the pearlite that forms
near the knee of the plot is fine. The inter‐lamellar spacing is a measure of its fineness. It is
inversely proportional to the degree of super cooling. Figure 3(a) gives an enlarged appearance
of lamellar structure of coarse & fine pearlites.
Pearlite Bainite Martensite

(a) (b) (c)
Coarse Fine
M or ’
Upper Lower
 
Cm Fe2.4C Fig 3

 

Cm
The product of isothermal transformation in eutectoid steel below the knee of the TTT diagram
is called bainite. It is also a mixture of ferrite and carbide. The bainite that forms just below the
knee of the TTT diagram consists of broken platelets of cementite in a matrix of ferrite. The
distribution is extremely fine. It cannot be seen under optical microscope. Since the
transformation takes place at a low temperature the distance covered by carbon atoms is less.
This is why the platelets are very small. This type of transformation product is known as upper
bainite or feathery bainite. Figure 3(b) gives an enlarged view of the microstructure of upper (or
feathery) bainite.
The nature of bainite that forms at a still lower temperature is entirely different. It consists of a
still finer dispersion of ‐carbide (Fe2.4C) in a matrix of ferrite having an acicular shape. The
carbides are aligned at a specific angle with respect to the axis of the needle. It is known as
lower bainite or acicular bainite. Figure 3(b) gives an enlarged view of the microstructure of
lower (or acicular) bainite.
If the steel is quenched directly to room temperature from 760°C it transforms in a manner that
is entirely different from that of pearlitic or bainitic transformation. The cooling rate is so fast
that the excess carbon cannot precipitate as carbides. Precipitation involves diffusion. Fast
cooling does not allow enough time for carbon atoms to diffuse. The transformation that takes
(a)
place is known as diffusion‐less transformation and the product is called martensite. It has a
5 different crystal structure than that of austenite which is FCC. The crystal structure of
martensite in eutectoid steel is body centered tetragonal. Its c/a ratio is around 1.08. This
means that the crystal structure of martensite is not very much different from that of ferrite
which is BCC (where c/a = 1). Carbon forms interstitial solid solution with iron. The interstitial

gaps in FCC structure are symmetric and relatively large whereas the similar sites in BCC are
asymmetric and smaller. This is why the solubility of carbon in austenite is more than that in
ferrite. Carbon occupies octahedral sites in austenite (FCC) since these are the largest. Recall
that a FCC unit cell has four lattice sites and four octahedral sites. Thus the number of sites to
accommodate carbon in austenite lattice is quite large. A quick conversion of the weight %
carbon in eutectoid steel to atomic % would show that only a very small fraction of these sites
are occupied by carbon atom. Atom fraction of carbon in eutectoid steel is approximately = 0.8
x (atomic weight of carbon / atomic weight of iron) = 0.8 x (56/12)/100 = 0.037. This suggests
that approximately amongst every 100 atoms of iron in austenite there are only four carbon
atoms. This is equivalent to having only four carbon atoms in every 25 unit cells of austenite.
On quenching if austenite were to transform into ferrite it would amount to a conversion of 25
FCC unit cell to 50 BCC unit cells (recall that FCC has 4 atoms / unit cell whereas BCC has 2
atoms / unit cell). The latter being less closely packed it would be accompanied by an overall
expansion in volume (around 4%). In reality there is an expansion along certain directions and
contraction along another. As a result the symmetric octahedral site in FCC gets converted into
an asymmetric octahedral site in BCC. Quenching does not allow the carbon atoms to come out
of the lattice in the form of precipitates. The presence of excess carbon atoms in the octahedral
sites results in an asymmetric distortion of the lattice. This is why instead of BCC we now have a
BCT lattice. This type of transformation occurs by deformation (shear). The process is extremely
fast. It occurs at the speed of sound. Such a transformation is often termed as athermal. It takes
place only by nucleation. There is no growth. It occurs in super‐cooled austenite is below a
critical temperature called Ms. It is the temperature at which martensitic transformation starts.
The process continues as long as is it is cooled. There is a temperature denoted as Mf at which
the transformation is nearly complete and no further transformation takes place on cooling. If
the steel is quenched to a temperature below Mf it is almost 100% martensite. Figure 3(c)
shows an enlarged view of lens shaped matensite needles that form within an austenite grain.
Once a needle nucleates it extends to the boundary. It does not cross the boundary or intersect
another martensite plate or needle. The presence of excess solute, the associated lattice
distortion and extremely fine size of the needles make martensite so strong. In short eutectoid
steel can be transformed into a wide variety of microstructures simply by controlling the
transformation temperature. If it is allowed to transform at a temperature a little below 723°C
it transforms into coarse lamellar pearlite. As the transformation temperature is reduced the
structure becomes finer and the steel becomes stronger. The eutectoid steel has the maximum
hardness if it is converted into martensite. Coarse pearlite has the lowest strength. It can also
be converted into bainite which is harder than pearlite but softer than martensite. Slide 1 gives
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the hardness of various products of transformation in Rockwell C scale along with its TTT
diagram. It is also known as isothermal transformation diagram.

Isothermal transformation diagram

A1
Ps Pf RC 5-20 Coarse
Pearlite
 RC 30-40 Fine Pearlite
T RC 40-50 Upper Bainite
Slide 1
Bf RC 50-60
Lower Bainite
Ms Bs

Martensite
Mf
RC: 64
time
Isothermal transformation diagram


A1
Coarse
Pearlite (a)
 +cm
T Feathery
Bainite (b) Slide 2
Bf
Ms Bs
 (c)
Mf
time
Martensite Fine Pearlite +
Acicular Bainite +
(d)
Martensite

Slide 2 shows how by adopting different cooling schemes it is possible to get different types of
structure in eutectoid steel. It shows four different cooling schemes. One of these consists of
direct quenching from a temperature a little above A1 (the lower critical temperature or the
eutectoid temperature) where the steel is totally austenite. The cooling rate is extremely fast.
7 Martensitic transformation starts as soon as the temperature drops below Ms. It continues until
Mf, the temperature at which the martensitic transformation is nearly complete. This is the final
structure of the steel if such a cooling scheme is adopted. Note that martensitic transformation

is an athermal transformation. It occurs in the steel within a specified temperature range as
long as it cools even if the rate of cooling is extremely fast. The transformation stops if it is kept
at an intermediate temperature between Ms and Mf. The Ms temperature of a steel is a
function of its composition. There are steels whose Mf temperature is lower than room
temperature. In such a case the microstructure of steel on quenching will consist of both
austenite and martensite.
The other 3 cooling schemes have one or more stages of isothermal hold. If the temperature of
iso‐thermal hold is a little below A1 temperature the transformation starts when the hold time
exceeds ts and it continues until it reaches tf. Once the hold time exceeds tf the transformation
is complete. It means hereafter if you cool fast or slow the microstructure of the steel would
remain unaltered. The final microstructure is a function of the temperature of isothermal hold.
In case (a) (see slide 2) the final structure is coarse pearlite whereas in case (b) the final
structure is feathery or upper bainite.
The cooling scheme (c) in slide 2 consists of two isothermal steps with hold times as shown. The
first isothermal hold is in the temperature range where you expect the austenite to transform
into fine pearlite. The transformation begins when the hold time intersects the ‘C’ curve
representing the start of pearlitic transformation. It continues for a while and then it is
quenched to a bath at a temperature where the austenite could transform into acicular bainite.
The transformation begins when the hold time exceeds the time needed for the bainitic
transformation to begin. Note that the cooling curve crosses the ‘C’ curve labeled as Bs but after
a while it is quenched to room temperature. During this stage the remaining austenite
transforms into martensite. The final microstructure therefore consists of fine pearlite, acicular
bainite and martensite.
Pearlitic transformation:

Pearlite is a product of eutectoid transformation in steel. It forms within austenite having a
fixed amount of carbon (0.8%C) during isothermal hold at a temperature below 723°C (A1) but
above 550°C (the knee of the TTT diagram). It has a lamellar structure consisting of alternate
plates of cementite and ferrite. The distance between two consecutive cementite plates is
known as its inter lamellar spacing (). The cementite plates are more widely spaced in coarse
pearlite. The finer details of coarse pearlitic structure are visible under optical microscopes.
Nital (2% nitric acid in alcohol) the most common etching reagent for steel attacks only the
boundary between ferrite and cementite. However the width of a cementite plate is so thin
8 that it appears as a dark line. Its width is approximately 1/7th the width of a ferrite plate. Let us
now look at the mechanism of decomposition of austenite into pearlite in a little more detail.
This is shown in slide 3 by a set of sketches representing the redistribution of carbon within
austenite resulting in the nucleation of a pearlite nodule.

Pearlitic transformation
Cm plate  plate
%C
(a) (b)
0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8%

  
Distance
  Slide 3
%C as a function %C as a function
of distance  of distance
0.8% 0.8%
 

(c)

The sketch (a) in slide 3 shows how % carbon in austenite would change when a tiny plate of
cementite (Cm) forms. Recall that % C in eutectoid austenite and Cm are 0.8 and 6.67
respectively. When a tiny plate of Cm forms the carbon content at the interface drops
significantly. However %C in austenite away from the interface still remains at 0.8%. This is
represented schematically as a plot of %C as a function of distance on the two sides of a Cm
plate. The carbon profile keeps changing with time as the Cm plate becomes thicker. When %C
at the interface drops below a critical limit ferrite plates nucleate on the two sides of the Cm
plate. %C in ferrite is as low as 0.02%. Therefore nucleation of ferrite is accompanied by the
rejection of excess carbon into austenite. The %C in austenite increases beyond 0.8%. The
sketch (b) in slide 3 shows the variation of %C as a function of distance from the ferrite
austenite interface. This too keeps changing with time. When it exceeds beyond a critical point
Cm plates nucleate at the two ferrite austenite interfaces as shown in sketch (c) of slide 3. This
too is accompanied by a change in carbon concentration at the interfaces. This is how the
pearlitic transformation in steel may be assumed to be taking place. On the basis of this
assumption it is possible to find a relation between the lamellar spacing () of pearlite and the
temperature of isothermal hold. This is illustrated in slide 4.
The sketch (a) in slide 4 shows a pearlite nodule consisting of alternate layers of ferrite and
9 cementite. The sketch (b) shows the relevant part of the Fe‐Fe3C phase diagram. The dotted
horizontal line denotes the temperature at which the pearlite nodule has formed. The line
representing the composition of austenite that can coexist with ferrite as a function of
temperature has been extended to intersect the dotted horizontal line denoting temperature at

a point . This represents the concentration of carbon at the / interface. The line
representing the composition of austenite that can coexist with cementite as a function of
temperature has been extended to intersect the dotted horizontal line at a point . This
represents the concentration of carbon at the Cm/ interface. Note that . Therefore
the growth of the nodule should be determined by the flow of carbon atoms from the /
interface to the Cm/ interface. The real interfaces are curved not straight (see Fig 4).
Pearlite growth kinetics

Assumption: growth depends only on carbon diffusion
within austenite from  interface to /cm interface


Ccm  C m
 T Slide 4
(a)  (b)
C Pearlite 0.8
austenite Ccm C
Pearlite
Growth depends on diffusion. G increases initially with
increasing T as T decreases diffusivity becomes low
& the growth becomes slow

CCm
Fig 4: The interface between austenite and ferrite is not
Cm C J
G straight as shown in slide 4 but curved as in this figure.
  The cementite plate is too thin. Therefore the curvature is
Direction of
not visible.
flow of carbon
Figure 4 indicates the direction of growth of pearlite. The growth may be assumed to be
determined by the flow of carbon atom. This is governed by Fick’s law of diffusion. J denotes
the flux of carbon atoms. Its direction is denoted by the arrow labeled J in figure 4.
10
(1)

The growth rate (G) is is determined by J. It is directly proportional to the diffusivity of carbon in
austenite and the concentration gradient that depends on the difference in carbon
concentration within a specified zone of austenite. Note that ∝ ∆ (see sketch (b)
in slide 4). It is therefore obvious from equation 1 that as T approaches zero (the isothermal
transformation temperature is close to the eutectoid temperature) the growth rate is expected
to be very slow. This is why the magnitudes of both ts & tf are large. As T increases the growth
rate increases; the magnitude of ts & tf decreases. When the temperature becomes too low the
transformation rate is dominated by the diffusivity of carbon in austenite. Therefore the growth
rate again becomes slow and the magnitudes of ts & tf start increasing. This explains the ‘C’
shaped nature of the transformation diagram.
Isothermal transformation of austenite to pearlite:

We have just seen how a nucleus of pearlite once formed could grow within a grain of super
cooled austenite. The effect of nucleation rate was ignored. Yet it is possible to explain why the
time temperature transformation diagram of a diffusion controlled transformation has a
characteristic C shape. The nucleation rate too like the growth rate depends on the degree of
super cooling. Let us now look at the process of transformation at a constant temperature. The
kinetics of transformation at a constant temperature is best followed by monitoring fraction
transformed as a function of time. Module 24 explains various ways of monitoring the kinetics
of such transformation. Slide 5 shows the isothermal transformation (or TTT) diagram of
eutectoid steel and beside it there is a plot of fraction transformed (f) as a function of time (t)
at a constant temperature (T). The temperature at which the transformation has been
monitored is shown as a horizontal dotted line on the TTT diagram (sketch (a) in slide (5)). The
sketch (b) in slide 5 gives a plot of f as a function of time at a constant temperature T. Note that
it has a characteristic ‘S’ shape. The transformation starts when the hold time t exceeds ts.
Initially the rate of transformation is slow but it increases until it reaches a maximum.
Thereafter the rate of transformation keeps decreasing until the transformation is complete at
time t = tf.
11

Pearlitic transformation
t0.5
1
ts
f
tf
T 0.5
Slide 5
t0.5
time 0 ts time tf
(a) (b)
A’S’ shaped plot can be represented by the following equation where  is a characteristic time
and n is a constant that depends on the nature of the transformation.
1 (2)
Equation 2 can also be expressed as: (3)
This suggests a method of estimating n &  from the plot in the sketch (b) of slide 5. A plot of
versus ln(t) is linear. The slope of the plot = n whereas the intercept = ‐
nln((see fig 5).

Slope = tan( = n

1
 Fig 5
1

Intercept = ‐nln()

12
0

The slope n tells us about the mechanism of transformation. Slide 6 illustrates with the help of a
set of sketches the most commonly cited nucleation and growth mechanisms of isothermal
transformation.
Nucleation & growth process
(a) Constant nucleation &

growth rate
Austenite (t1) (t2) (t3)
(b) Nucleation followed by Slide 6

constant growth
Austenite
(c) Cellular transformation
with fixed nucleation
Effect of
impingement
t Pearlite

Slide 6 explains with the help of sketches at three different times how the transformation
proceeds by nucleation and growth. The case (a) represents a situation where both nucleation
and growth occur at a constant rate. At time t1 there are four nodules of pearlite within a grain
of austenite whereas at time t2 two more nodules have formed. Note that the nodules that
were present at t1 have grown bigger. At a still higher time (t3) the number of nodules increases
and the pre‐existing nodules grow in size. Note that the diameters of the nodules are different.
The larger nodules are amongst the first to have formed.
The case (b) in slide 6 represent a situation where growth starts only after nucleation is
complete. This represents a sequential process. There are fixed sites within an austenite grain
where a nodule of pearlite may nucleate. Once all of these sites are occupied by pearlite
nodules then only growth sets in. This is often referred to as site saturation model. Note that in
this case the dimensions of all the nodules are identical.
The case (c) shows the effect of impingement. It can occur in either of the two situations
13 described above although the sketches shown are applicable for the case (b). As long as the
nodules are small they can grow in all directions (see the sketches at time t1). When the
nodules become bigger they may impinge on a neighbor as shown in the sketch at time t2 of
case (c). The nodules can no longer grow in these directions. On completion of transformation

in this case a single grain gets divided into four nodules. It is shown by a set of lines. Having
introduced the physical concept of transformation let us now try to derive an expression for
fraction transformed (f) in terms of number of nucleation site / unit volume (N), growth rate
(G), and time (t). Slide 7 explains how to account for the effect of impingement by introducing a
concept of extended volume fraction.
Extended volume fraction: concept

Pearlite nodule Pearlite nodule
(a) (b)
Slide 7
V1 V2 V1 V2
Austenite Austenite
The sketch (a) in slide 7 shows two pearlite nodules of volume V1 & V2 within an austenite grain
of volume VT. If these are wide apart (there is no impingement) the volume fraction (f) is given
by:

(4)
It represents the true volume fraction of pearlite. However if there is overlapping as shown in
the sketch (b) of slide 7 the volume fraction estimated by equation (4) is going to be more than
the true volume fraction. Let this be represented as the extended volume fraction (fext).

(5)
The relation between infinitesimal changes in true and extended volume fractions is given by
14 1 (6)
Note that effect of overlap or impingement is negligible if the magnitude of f is low. The effect
shows up as f increases.

Assume that N = the number of nucleation site / unit volume, G = rate of growth in mm / sec, r
= average radius of the nodules = Gt. At any instant t the extended volume of all the nodules is
given by:
(7)
Differentiation of equation 7 gives 3 (8)
On substituting equation 8 in equation 6:
1 4 (9)
Integrate equation 9 & substitute the initial condition that at t = 0, f =0 to get:
1 (10)
Where the parameter  is given by
/
(11)
Note that  is a characteristic time. It corresponds to a fixed value of f = fc. Put t =  in equation
10. This gives:
1 0.632 (12)
The characteristic time  corresponds to 63% of transformation. The method of estimating n &
 has already been explained. If n = 3 it may be concluded that the transformation takes place
at a constant growth rate after nucleation has occurred at all the available sites.

Summary:

In this module we looked at how by proper selection of transformation temperatures and / or
direct quenching from austenite a wide range of properties can be obtained in eutectoid steel.
This is best described by an isothermal transformation (IT) or time temperature transformation
(TTT) diagram. The transformation below the critical temperature (723°C) and above Ms results
15 in a mixture of ferrite and carbide. It is controlled by diffusion. At a given temperature it takes
some time for the transformation to start (ts) but it can go to completion at the same
temperature after a time tf. The transformation occurs by nucleation and growth. The fraction
transformed at a given temperature is zero until time t reaches ts. Thereafter it increases at

increasing rate till the transformed regions touch each other. Beyond this f still continues to
increase but at reduced rate until time tf when the transformation is complete. The f versus t
plot at a given temperature has a characteristic ‘S’ shape. We also discussed how this can be
explained by simple models based on nucleation & growth. The transformation product above
the knee of the TTT diagram is called pearlite and that below it is called bainite. The kinetics of
this transformation is a function of both time and temperature. We have seen how it can be
explained in terms of diffusivity of carbon in austenite. The low temperature transformation
products are much finer those at higher temperatures. As against these the transformation that
takes place below Ms is entirely different. There is no diffusion at all. It occurs as long as
temperature keeps dropping. The transformation ceases if the temperature is held constant.
The product is a super saturated solid solution (known as Martensite). There is no precipitate. It
is extremely hard. The wide variety of transformation characteristics forms the basis of a wide
range of heat treatments that can be given to steel. We shall learn more about it in subsequent
modules.
Exercise:

1. If a piece of steel having 0.2% carbon is quenched after soaking at a temperature just
above A1 what type of structure will you get? Estimate approximate amounts of phases
present and their compositions.
2. In a hypothetical experiment on steel having 0.2%C, a sample after soaking above A3 is
quenched in a lead bath at 800⁰C and the structural change is followed with time.
Assume that after some time austenite () boundary is covered by a thin layer of ferrite
() and it continues to grow. This is known to be a diffusion controlled process. (a) Draw
carbon profile perpendicular to  interface after some time has elapsed. (b) Derive an
approximate expression for the thickness of ferrite as a function of time (c) If diffusivity
of carbon in austenite at 800⁰C is 3x10‐12 m2/s‐2 plot thickness as a function of time.
3. Carbon atoms occupy octahedral interstitial sites in austenite and ferrite. Estimate
fraction of these sites that are occupied in these if carbon contents are 0.1 and 0.01wt%
respectively.
4. Use Fick’s first law to derive an expression for growth rate of pearlite nodule.
5. Show that the inter‐lamellar spacing of pearlite is inversely proportional to the degree
of under cooling.
6. Microstructure of isothermally transformed pearlite should have identical spacing in all
colonies. However often its microstructure often shows that lamellar spacing varies
16 from colony to colony. Why is it so?

Answer:

1. A piece of steel when kept at just above A1 temperature will have ferrite and austenite.
% ferrite = (0.8‐0.2)/0.8x100 = 75%. Assumption: %C in austenite =0.8% where as that
in ferrite is negligible. If quenched 25% austenite present at soaking temperature will
convert into Martensite. The structure at room temperature will consist of 75%ferrite
and 25%Martensite having 0.8% carbon.
2. (a) Carbon profile on the two sides of  interface is as follows:
GB 910 910 800

Growth 0.8 0.47
910 723
direction 0.47

800
 723

0.2
0.02
0 c 0.8
(b) To derive a simple relation we assume: densities of austenite and ferrite are the
same. Therefore wt % =vol %. Area of interface = 1. Carbon gradient in austenite is
constant. This is given by following sketch

Carbon gradient in  = ∴ flux of carbon crossing the
C interface in time dt to move this by dx =
austenite ferrite This is equal to flux of carbon rejected by 

C0 as it grows by dx = . L is obtained by
L x
C equating the hatched area of the adjoining figure.
/2
x
From the above one gets: On substituting L :

On integration thickness of ferrite layer at any time t =

17
. .
(c) 10 2.33 10 or 1.53 10 Note that this
. .
estimate is valid only for short time.

3. Number of octahedral site in austenite = 1 / atom of Fe. Atomic wt of carbon = 12 and
. .
Fe = 56. Atom fraction carbon in austenite = . . 0.0047. In one
unit cell there are 4 Fe atoms and 4 interstitial sites. Fraction of these that are occupied
= 0.0047. This mean amongst 100 unit cell the number of carbon atom is approximately
2 (~400x0.0047).
Whereas in ferrite the number of such sites / Fe atom = 3. Atom fraction carbon
.
0.00047. In one unit cell there are 2Fe atoms. Number of carbon atom =
0.00094. There are 6 sites / unit cell. Fraction of these that are occupied = 0.00094/12 =
7.8x10‐5. This means there is approximately one carbon atom in approximately 1000
unit cells.
4. Super cooling is necessary for Pearlite to nucleate:

 Pearlite colony grows as carbon
cm diffuses from  /  interface to
TE
T0  cm /  interface. Flux of C / unit
 
area =

%C

5. Super cooling is necessary to overcome activation hill arising due to creation of new
surface.
For inter‐lamellar spacing of  the total interface

area = 2/ m2 / unit volume. G for this to form is
∆ at TE‐T
given by ∆ ∆ where Vm is molar
G
volume,  is surface energy and ∆ is free energy
G0 for formation of pearlite having infinite inter
lamellar spacing. The transformation will not
18
occur unless G <0. Thus:


Cm
∆ ∆ ∆

6. Pealite is made of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite. Ferrite plates are 7 time

wider than those of cementite. Microstructure gives a sectional view. Colonies of
Pearlite in a microstructure are randomly oriented. The plane of microstructure may
intersect these at different angles. Wherever the plane is perpendicular to ferrite /
cementite plates the spacing between two plates will be the minimum. Whereas those
intersected at an angle will appear to have larger spacing. This is shown in following
sketch:

On plane B spacing would appear
A
significantly larger. If transformation
Pearlite colony Microstructure plane
occurs at a fixed temperature the
minimum spacing is the correct
estimate of lamellar distance.
B
.
19

Heat Treatment Lecture 1

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Module 31

Heat treatment of steel I

Heat treatment of steel I

Pearlite Bainite Martensite

Isothermal transformation diagram

0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8%

Pearlite growth kinetics

Nucleation & growth process

(a) Constant nucleation &

Austenite (t1) (t2) (t3)

(b) Nucleation followed by Slide 6

Extended volume fraction: concept

GB 910 910 800

austenite ferrite This is equal to flux of carbon rejected by 

From the above one gets: On substituting L :

For inter‐lamellar spacing of  the total interface

6. Pealite is made of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite. Ferrite plates are 7 time

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