MP1

M3

SHORT NOTES

Introduction to Welding of Metals:

The AWS definition for a welding process is "a materials joining process which produces
coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temperatures with or without the
application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone and with or without the use of filler
material".

Welding finds huge application in industry as a most efficient method of joining metals.
Welding is extensively used in construction or manufacture of automobile cars, aircrafts,
electronic equipment, ships and bridges etc.

The heat source may be:

• an electric arc: as in electric arc welding.

• a gas flame: as in gas welding.
• electric resistance heating: as in resistance welding.
• LASER beam
• Electron beam
• Plasma Arc
• Friction
• Advantages of welding:
• Gives a permanent and sound joint compared to other joining processes.
• The welded joint can be stronger than the parent.
• Some welding processes can be easily automated.
• Welding is usually the most economical way to join components in terms of
material usage and fabrication costs.
• Some welding processes are portable and can be used onsite and for repair
works.

Limitations:
Most welding operations are performed manually and are expensive in terms of
labour cost.
Since welding accomplishes a permanent bond between the components, it does not
allow for convenient disassembly.
Creates Heat Affected Zone of the base metal.
Fraught with various defects.
High operator skill and certification is required.
Some welding processes are dangerous.

Weldability: Weldability may be defined as the capacity of being welded into inseparable joints
having specified properties such as definite weld strength, proper micro structure. Different
metals have different weldability.

The weldability of a metal depends upon several criterions like, alloying elements, impurities,
filler material, processing history, grain structure, melting point, thermal conductivity, thermal
expansion, surface condition, specific heat and surface tension etc.

Classification of welding:

All welding processes can be classified under two broad headings:

Plastic Welding or pressure welding:

–In plastic welding, the pieces of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and
then forced together by external pressure.
–This procedure is used in resistance welding, thermit welding where pressure is
required.
Fusion Welding or non-pressure welding:
–In fusion welding the metals to be joined are heated to a molten state and are
allowed to solidify together into an inseparable joint.
–This includes all arc welding and gas welding processes.

Edge preparation:
To obtain sound welds, it is desirable that weld should completely penetrate the
metal thickness. The heat will not be able to melt the joint edges to their entire
thickness if thick plates are to be welded. It becomes more important in case of butt
joints. Hence to obtain good butt joints edge preparation is required. Edge
preparation may of the following types:

• Square
• Single V
• Double V
• Single U
• Double U
• Single Bevel
• Double Bevel
• Single J
• Double J
Types of welded joints:
(a) Butt joint. In this joint type, the parts lie in the same plane and are joined at their
edges.
(b) Corner joint. The parts in a corner joint form a right angle and are joined at the
corner of the angle.
(c) Lap joint. This joint consists of two overlapping parts.
(d) Tee joint. In a tee joint, one part is perpendicular to the other in the approximate
shape of the letter ‘‘T.’’
(e) Edge joint. The parts in an edge joint are parallel with at least one of their edges in
common, and the joint is made at the common edge(s).
Welding Terminologies:
Base Metal: The metal to be joined is termed as the base metal.
Weld pass: A single movement of the welding torch or electrode along the length of
the join which results in a bead, is a weld pass.
Weld bead: Bead or weld bead is the metal added during single pass of welding. The bead
appears as a separate mater from the base metal.

Crater: In arc welding, a crater is a depression in the weld metal pool at the point where the
arc strikes the base metal.

Deposition rate: The rate at which the weld metal is deposited per unit time, is the deposition
rate and is normally expressed in Kg/ Hr.

Weld face: It is the exposed surface of the weld.

Root: It is the point at which the two pieces to be joined by welding is nearest.

Toe of the weld: It is the junction between the weld face and the base metal.

Penetration: It is the depth up to which the weld metal combines with the base metal, when
measured from the top surface of the joint.

Tack Weld: A temp weld for work holding for actual welding.

Deposition efficiency: It is the ratio of deposited weight to melted weight. SMAW:

60 to 74%; GMAW: 90 to 95%; GTAW: 90 to 100%; Submerged Arc Welding: around
95%
Operation factor: It is the ratio of total actual welding time to time the welder spends
in executing the welding.
Spatter: Droplets of electrode material that land outside the weld fusion area and
may or may not fuse to the base material

Gas Welding/Oxy-Fuel Welding:

Welding Torch: It is the tool by means of which oxygen and the fuel gas is mixed in
required proportions. The mixture burns at the end of the tip of the torch. They are of
two types: (a) Equal pressure or medium pressure type, (b) Injector type or low-
pressure type. The medium pressure type is more common of the two types.
Welding Tip: It is that portion of the welding apparatus through which the gases pass
prior to their ignition and burning.
Pressure regulator: The function of pressure regulator is: (i) to reduce the cylinder
pressure to the required working pressure, (ii) to produce steady flow of gas
regardless of the pressure variation at the source.
Cylinders: Gas welding requires two cylinders one for the oxygen and the other for
the fuel. The cylinders are made of steel. The oxygen cylinder is black in colour and
the fuel cylinder is maroon in colour.
Hose: Hose is a rubber tube which permits the flow of gases. Two hoses are used to
carry oxygen and fuel gas. They connect the regulator and the torch. Generally green
colour is adopted for oxygen and red for acetylene.
Spark lighter: A spark lighter is used for igniting the gas mixture.
Goggles: Goggles are used to protect the eyes.
Gloves: Gloves are used to protect the hand.
a group of welding processes which produces coalescence by heating materials with an
oxy fuel gas flame or flames with or without the application of pressure and with or
without the use of filler metal."

Gas welding is fusion welding process in which the heat source is a flame, produced by
combustion of a fuel gas and oxygen. The temperature of the flame is sufficiently high
(around 32000C) to melt the edges of the surfaces to be joined. The molten metal is allowed
to solidify together resulting in a continuous joint upon cooling. Filler material if required is
provided separately by means of a filler rod/welding rod.

The fuels that are used for gas welding are hydrocarbons like Acetylene, Natural gas,
Propane, Propylene, Hydrogen and Methyl Acetylene Propadiene (MAPP).
Acetylene is most widely used fuel in gas welding.
The combustion of oxygen and acetylene takes place in two stages.
In the first stage the oxygen and acetylene react to produce carbon monoxide and
hydrogen.
This reaction occurs near the tip of the torch.
The second stage of the reaction involves the combustion of CO and H2 and occurs
beyond the first combustion zone.

The oxygen for these secondary reactions is generally obtained from the surrounding
atmosphere.
The two-stage combustion produces a flame having two distinct regions: inner cone
and outer cone. The maximum temperature occurs near the end of the inner cone,
where the first stage of combustion is complete.
Most welding is performed with torch positioned so that the point of maximum
temperature is just above the metal being welded.
The outer envelope of the flame serves to preheat the metal and at the same time,
provides shielding from oxidation, since oxygen from the surrounding air is used in
the secondary combustion.
Applications:
In production applications, the gas welding process have largely been replaced by arc
welding.
However, gas welding is still common in field work, in maintenance and repairs.
Gas welding is used for welding thinner sections only.
Gas welding is recommended for the following metals: Cast Iron, Low carbon and low
alloy steels, lead, zinc and aluminium (less than 1 inch thick).
Advantages of gas welding:
The equipment is comparatively inexpensive.
Low maintenance cost.
The equipment is versatile; besides gas welding the equipment is used for preheating,
brazing and metal cutting.
Since the source of heat and filler metal are separate, the welder has control over the
filler material deposition.
Disadvantages of gas welding:
The flame temperature is less than the temperature of the arc, as a result it takes
more time.
The heat source in gas welding is not concentrated, a large area of the metal is
heated, and distortion is likely to occur. The heat affected zone is more.
Heavy sections cannot be joined economically.

Types of flames in oxy-acetylene welding

Neutral Flame
When equal volume of oxygen and acetylene is supplied to the torch, the flame so
obtained is neutral flame.
The maximum temperature obtained in this flame is about 32000C. Most welding is
done with a neutral flame, since it will have least chemical effect on the heated metal.
A neutral flame has two distinct zones:
–A sharp brilliant inner cone extending a short distance from the tip of the torch.
–An outer cone or envelope of bluish colour.
Oxidizing Flame:
Oxidizing flame is one in which there is an excess of oxygen.
The maximum temperature obtained in this type of flame is more than that of the
neutral flame (around 35000C).
This type of flame is used for welding copper and copper alloys, Zinc alloys but is
generally considered inappropriate for welding steel because the excess oxygen
present reacts with the carbon, decarburizing the region around the weld.
This flame has two distinct zones:
–A small inner cone, which is purple.
–An outer cone or envelope.
Carburizing Flame
A Carburizing Flame is one in which there is excess of acetylene. The excess fuel
decomposes carbon and hydrogen, and the flame temperature is about 30000C.
When welding is done with this type of flame the metal is well protected from
oxidation.
Carburizing flames are suitable for applications requiring low heat, such as in brazing,
soldering, and flame hardening operations. This flame has three distinct zones:
–Sharply defined inner cone.
–An intermediate cone of whitish colour.
–Bluish outer cone.

Oxy-Fuel Cutting:
Oxy-fuel Cutting is a very popular method of thermal cutting.
The Oxy-fuel Cutting apparatus is similar to that of the Oxy-fuel welding except for
the torch.
Here the torch tip has a provision for preheating the plate as well as providing the
oxygen jet.
An Oxy-fuel Cutting torch has a valve lever.
When this lever is pulled up, the valve opens and oxygen at high pressure flows
through the centre opening of the torch tip.
If the work piece already hot as when steel is cut in the mill immediately following hot
processing, no extra heating is required and only a supply of oxygen through a small
pipe is all that is needed to initiate and continue a cut.
This is known as oxygen lance cutting (LOC).
Oxy-fuel gas cutting (OFC) is a group of oxygen cutting processes that uses heat from
an oxy-fuel gas flame to raise the temperature of the metal to its kindling
temperature before a high-pressure stream of oxygen is directed onto the metal,
causing it to be cut.
The kindling temperature of a material is the temperature at which rapid oxidation
(combustion) can begin.
When the metal being cut is non-ferrous the metal is merely melted by the flame of
the Oxy-fuel Cutting torch and blown away to form a gap or kerf.
However, when cutting ferrous, the principle is based on the fact that oxygen has a
strong affinity for steel at elevated temperatures.
Thus, it possible to rapidly oxidize iron and steel when it is heated to a temperature
between 8000C to 10000C.
When a high oxygen jet is directed against a heated steel plate the oxygen jet burns
the metal and blows it away, thus making a cut.
GAS CUTTING TORCH TIP:

GAS CUTTING APPLICATIONS

Oxy-fuel Cutting works best on metals that oxidize readily but do not have high
thermal conductivity.
Thus Oxy-fuel Cutting is used for those metals whose oxidization temperature is
below their melting point, otherwise the metal would melt away before oxidization
and no clean-cut edge will be obtained.
Oxy-fuel Cutting is also used for preparation of edges for welding.

Physics of Welding Arc:

A welding arc is an electric discharge that develops primarily due to flow of electrons
and ions between cathode and anode.
Flow of current through the gap between electrode and work piece needs column of
charged particles for having reasonably good electrical conductivity.
These charged particles are generated by various mechanisms such as thermal
emission, field emission secondary emission etc.
Density of charged particles in gap governs the electrical conductivity of gaseous
column.
In an electric arc, electrons released from cathode (due to electric field or thermo-
ionic emission) are accelerated towards the anode because of potential difference
between work piece and electrode.
These high velocity electrons moving from cathode toward anode collide with
gaseous molecules and decompose them into charged particles i.e., electrons and
ions.
These charged particles move towards electrode and work piece as per polarity and
form a part of welding current.
Ion current becomes only about 1% of electron current as ions become heavier than
the electrons so they move slowly.
Eventually electrons merge into anode.
Arc gap between electrode and work piece acts as pure resistance load.
Heat generated in a welding arc depends on arc voltage and welding current.
Free electrons and charged particles are needed between the electrode and work for
initiating the arc and their maintenance.
Ease of emitting electrons by a material assessed on the basis of two parameters
work function and ionization potential.
Emission of electrons from the cathode metal depends on the work function. The
work function is the energy (ev or J) required to get one electron released from the
surface of material.
Ionization potential is another measure of ability of a metal to emit the electrons and
is defined as energy/unit charge (v) required for removing an electron from an atom.
Ionization potential is found different for different metal.
Methods of Initiation of Welding Arc:

Touch Start
In this method, the electrode is brought in contact with the work piece and then
pulled apart to create a very small gap.
Touching of the electrode to the workpiece causes short-circuiting resulting in flow
of heavy current which in turn leads to heating, partial melting and even slight
evaporation of the metal at the electrode tip.
All these events happen in very short time usually within few seconds.
Heating of electrode produces few free electrons due to thermal ionization;
additionally, dissociation of metal vapours (owing to lower ionization potential of the
metal vapours than the atmospheric gases) also produces charged particles (electron
and positively charged ions).
On pulling up of the electrode apart from the work piece, flow of current starts
through these charged particles and for a moment arc is developed.
To use the heat of electric arc for welding purpose it is necessary that after initiation
of arc it must be maintained and stabilized.

Field Start
In this method, high strength electric field (107 V) is applied between electrode and
work piece so that electrons are released from cathode electro-magnetic field
emission.
Development of high strength field leads to ejection of electron from cathode spots.
Once the free electrons are available in arc gap, normal potential difference between
electrode and work piece ensures flow of charged particles to maintain a welding arc.
This method is commonly used in mechanized welding processes such as plasma arc
and GTAW process where direct contact between electrode and work piece is not
preferred.

Physics of Welding Arc: Emission of Free electrons

Thermo-ionic emission: Increase in temperature of metal increases the kinetic energy
of free electrons and as it goes beyond certain limit, electrons are ejected from the
metal surface. This mechanism of emission of electron due to heating of metal is
called thermo ionic emission, The temperature at which thermo-ionic emission takes
place, most of the metals melt. Hence, refractory materials like tungsten and carbon,
having high melting point exhibit thermo ionic electron emission tendency.
Field emission: In this approach, free electrons are pulled out of the metal surface by
developing high strength electro-magnetic field. High potential difference (107 V/cm)
between the work piece and electrode is established for the field emission purpose.
Secondary emission: High velocity electrons moving from cathode to anode in the arc
gap collide with other gaseous molecules. This collision results in decomposition of
gaseous molecules into atoms and charged particles (electrons and ions).

Arc Blow (Mainly happens in DC source)

Arc blow is basically a deflection of a welding arc from its intended path i.e., axis of
the electrode.
Deflection of arc during welding reduces the control over the handling of molten
metal by making it difficult to apply the molten metal at right place.
A severe arc blow increases the spattering which in turn decreases the deposition
efficiency of the welding process. According to the direction of deflection of arc with
respect to welding direction, an arc blow may termed as be forward or backward arc
blow. Deflection of arc ahead of the weld pool in direction of the welding is called
forward arc blow and that in reverse direction is called backward arc blow.

ARC WELDING:
In arc welding process the heat source for the welding is an electric arc, developed
between an electrode (a metal rod) and the work piece.
The electrode and the work piece are connected to the two terminal of an electric
power supply. The current is established in the circuit by touching the electrode to
the work piece. After the current is established in the circuit, the welding rod is kept
at a slight distance from the area to be joined of the work piece. As a result, an arc is
produced. separately.
The heat generated by the arc is sufficient to melt the metal near the arc. This molten
metal is allowed to solidify together to form a solid inseparable join.
During some arc welding process, the electrode also melts by the heat of the arc and
forms a solid union with the molten metal at the joint. Such electrodes are called
consumable electrodes or welding rods and often have a flux coating over them.
When non-consumable electrodes are used, filler materials and fluxes if required are
provided separately.

Arc Welding Power Source: (Not important)

One of the main requirements of a welding power source is to deliver controllable

current at a voltage desired according to the demands of the welding process. Each
welding process has distinct features from other processes in the form of process
controls required. Therefore, arc welding power sources play very important role in
successful welding. The conventional welding power sources are:
(i) Welding Transformer AC
(ii) Welding Rectifier DC
(iii) Welding Generators AC/DC
(IV) Inverter type (IGBT) welding power source DC: Increases frequency of incoming
primary power, Constant current, constant voltage, or both, Produce A.C. or D.C.
welding current. (IGBTstands for insulated-gate bipolar transistor)
VERY IMPORTANT

Welding machines are usually classified as constant current (CC) or constant voltage (CV);
(very important)

A constant current machine varies its output voltage to maintain a steady current while a
constant voltage machine will fluctuate its output current to maintain a set voltage.
Shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding will use a constant current
source and gas metal arc welding and flux-cored arc welding typically use constant
voltage sources but constant current is also possible with a voltage sensing wire
feeder.
The nature of the CV machine is required by gas metal arc welding and flux-cored arc
welding because the welder is not able to control the arc length manually.

Open-Circuit Voltage:

The open-circuit voltage of a welding power source is an important electrical characteristic to

its operation. The open-circuit voltage is the voltage the source delivers without an arc, that
is with zero current being delivered. This is the voltage that exists at its output terminals
when it is on, but an arc is not established.
Higher the open circuit voltage, easier is to set arc

Presence of low ionization potential elements such as K, Na and Ca in electrode coating/flux in

optimum amount reduces OCV setting required for welding.

Electrodes used in Arc Welding:

Non-Consumable Electrode:

These electrodes do not get consumed during arc welding.

While using non-consumable electrodes, if filler material is required, has to be

provided separately

Consumable Electrode:

Consumable electrodes are made of various materials depending on the purpose and
chemical composition of the metals to be welded. Thus, they may be steel, cast iron,
brass, bronze or aluminium. These electrodes melt during the welding and form a part
of the weld.
Consumable electrodes may be (i) bare electrode, or (ii) coated electrode.
–Bare electrode: Bare electrodes are used in submerges arc welding and metal inert
gas welding.
–Coated electrode: Generally, a consumable electrode contains coating of fluxes and
alloying elements. Coated electrodes are again subdivided into (a) Light coated, and
(b) Heavily coated.
We decided if an electrode is heavily coated or light coated by the ratio of the actual
electrode wire diameter to the coater electrode wire diameter
Functions of electrode coating

• To protect the weld from atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen by producing a

shield of gas along the arc and the weld pool.
• To stabilize the arc.
• To provide the flux, which react with oxides and impurities to forms slag.
This slag being lighter floats and forms a layer over the molten metal. This
layer of slag protects the molten metal from oxidation and rapid cooling.
• To add alloying elements to the weld metals.
Manual Metal Arc Welding/ Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
an arc welding process which produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc
between a covered metal electrode and the work-piece. Shielding is obtained from decomposition
of the electrode covering. Pressure is not used and filler metal is obtained from the electrode.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding uses a coated consumable electrode. This coating produces a gas
shield and slag to protect the weld from the atmosphere.

To start the arc, initially the welder has to briefly touch the tip of the electrode to the work
piece to complete the circuit. Then the electrode is removed to a slight distance from the
work piece, this initiates an arc.

Selection of the proper power parameters depends on the metals being welded, electrode
type and length, and depth of weld penetration required. The arc so produced generates
intense heat which melts the tip of the electrode, the coating and a portion of the adjacent
base metal. This molten metal is allowed to solidify together to form a solid inseparable join.
As the coating on the electrode melts and vaporizes, it forms a protective atmosphere that
stabilizes the arc and protects the molten and hot metal from contamination. Fluxing
constituents unites with any impurities in the molten metal and form slag which floats on the
surface of the molten metal. This slag coating protects the hot molten metal from oxidation
and slows down the cooling rate to prevent formation of hard brittle structure. The slag
solidifies over the metal and is then easily chipped from the weld when it is cooled. In
Shielded Metal Arc Welding both AC and DC can be used.
The American Welding Society (AWS) numbering system can tell a welder quite a bit
about a specific stick electrode including what application it works best in and how it
should be used to maximize performance. With that in mind, let's take a look at the
system and how it works.
The prefix "E" designates an arc welding electrode. The first two digits of a 4-digit
number and the first three digits of 5-digit number indicate minimum tensile strength.
For example, E6010 is a 60,000-psi tensile strength electrode while E10018
designates a 100,000-psi tensile strength electrode.

The next to last digit indicates position. The "1" designates an all-position electrode, "2" is for
flat and horizontal positions only; while "4" indicates an electrode that can be used for flat,
horizontal, vertical down and overhead. The last 2 digits taken together indicate the type of
coating and the correct polarity or current to use.

Important E-6013, can be used with both DC polarity as well as AC

Few important points on the parameters related to electrode

1) The diameter of the electrode decides the range of the current we will use
2) The diameter of the electrode depends upon the average thickness of plate or
section to be welded

Some special features in modern SMAW or MMAW machines

HOT START IN SMAW: Hot Start is a special feature for MMA (stick-electrode)
welding where the machine delivers a peak of current when striking the arc. This is
important as it significantly increases the ease of starting electrodes, especially in
difficult conditions such as damp electrodes, imperfect job surface, or when using
‘difficult to run’ electrodes, etc.
The hot start device facilitates the striking of the electric arc, by supplying an
overcurrent every time welding restarts.

ANTI STICK IN SMAW: Anti-Stick allows the stick welding electrode to be easily detached, if
it does begin to stick to the job. When the machine senses that the electrode is sticking, it
will collapse the welding current to stop the electrode from continuing to weld itself to the
job, allowing it to break free easily.

ARC FORCE CONTROL IN SMAW: It is a temporary increase of the output current

during welding once the arc turns too short.

Advantages:
It is the simplest of all arc welding processes.
The equipment is portable and less costly.
Wide range of metal and their alloys can be welded.
This process finds innumerable applications, because of the availability of a wide
variety of electrodes
Limitations
Because of the limited length of each electrode and brittle flux coating on its
mechanization is difficult.
Because of flux coated electrodes, the chances of slag entrapment and other related
defects are more compared to others.
Applications

• Almost all the commonly employed metals and their alloys can be welded
by this process.
• Shielded metal arc welding is used both as a fabrication process and for
maintenance and repair jobs.
• The process finds application in
• Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrications.
• Ship building
• Pipes and penstock joining
• Building and bridge construction
• Automotive and aircraft industry etc.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) or Metal Inert Gas Arc welding
(MIG)

an arc welding process which produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc
between a continuous filler metal (consumable) electrode and the work piece. Shielding is
obtained entirely from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture.

The electrode wire for GMAW is continuously fed into the arc and deposited as weld metal.
This process has many variations depending on the type of shielding gas, the type of metal
transfer, and the type of metal welded.

A fixed relationship is maintained between the rate of burn off and the welding current so
that welding machine at a given wire feed rate will produce necessary current to maintain the
arc. The current ranges from 100A to 400A, depending upon the diameter of the wire. The
speed of the melting of the wire may be up to 5m/min. The end of the welding gun where arc
is produced is water cooled. The welding wire is often bare. Sometimes very light coating is
also used. The diameter varies from 0.9 to 1.6 mm.

Shielding Gas:
The shielding is obtained from an inert gas such as helium or argon or a mixture of the two.
Sometimes CO2 is also used. The shielding gas displaces the air surrounding the arc and the
weld pool. This prevents contamination of the weld metal by oxygen and nitrogen in the air.
How to Choose a Shielding Gas

Material Type. This may be the biggest factor to consider for the application. For example,
carbon steel and aluminium have very different characteristics and therefore require different
shielding gases to achieve the best results. You also have to take into account the material
thickness when selecting a shielding gas.

Filler Metal Type. The filler metal matches the base material, so understanding the material
should give you a good idea about the best gas for the filler metal as well.

Welding transfer mode. It may be short-circuited, spray-arc, pulsed-arc, or globular transfer.

Each mode pairs better with certain shielding gases. For example, you should never use 100
percent argon with a spray transfer mode. Instead, use a mixture such as 90 percent argon
and 10 percent carbon dioxide. The CO2level in the gas mixture should never exceed 25
percent.

CO2 and Helium produce globular transfer. Impossible to produce spray transfer!
Argon has low thermal conductivity. This produces spray transfer
The 90/10 rule: To ensure a smooth spray transfer 90% Inert gas (Ar/He) 10% Active
gas (Active gas component)-These could be CO2/O2 combinations.
Which gases pair best with different base materials?
Aluminium. You should use 100 percent argon for aluminium.
Mild steel. You can pair this material with a variety of shielding gas options, including 100
percent CO2 or a CO2/argon mix.

Carbon steel. This material pairs well with 100 percent CO2 or a CO2/argon mix.

Low-alloy steel. A 98 percent argon/2 percent oxygen gas mix is well suited for this material.

Stainless steel. Argon mixed with 2 to 5 percent CO2 is the norm.

What is the Difference Between MIG and MAG?

MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding is a welding process in which an electric arc forms
between a consumable wire electrode and the work piece. This process uses inert
gases or gas mixtures as the shielding gas. Argon and helium are typically used for the
MIG welding of non-ferrous metals such as aluminium.
MAG (Metal Active Gas) welding is an arc welding process where an electric arc is
created between a consumable wire electrode and the material to be joined. MAG
welding uses active shielding gases, primarily for the welding of steels. These
shielding gases are mixtures of carbon dioxide, argon and oxygen.

Electrode Extension and Contact Tip to Work Distance

The electrode extended from the end of the contact tip to the arc is properly known
as electrode extension. The popular non-standard term is electrical stick out (ESO).
In GMAW, this is the amount of electrode that is visible to the welder.
The electrode extension includes only the length of the electrode, not the extension
plus the length of the arc. The use of the term electrode extension is more commonly
applied for semiautomatic welding than it is for robotic or mechanized welding
operations.
Contact tip to work distance (CTWD) is the standard term used in the latter.
Contact tip to work distance (CTWD) is a term that lends itself well to the electrode
extension for mechanized or robotic welding applications. It is measured from the end
of the contact tip to the work piece.
–Increasing electrode extension increases the resistance to the flow of current in the
electrode, and the current in the arc is decreased.
–Decreasing the electrode extension decreases the resistance to the flow of current
in the electrode, and the current in the arc increases.

Modes of metal transfer

GMAW is a process that features several distinctive, individual methods and types of
metal transfer
The mode of metal transfer is determined by several welding variables
–Voltage
–Amperage
–Shielding Gas
By changing one or more variables, you can go from one metal transfer mode to
another

Short-circuit transfer:

Further developments in welding steel with GMAW led to a variation known as short-circuit
transfer (SCT) or short-arc GMAW, in which the current is lower than for the globular
method. As a result of the lower current, the heat input for the short-arc variation is
considerably reduced, making it possible to weld thinner materials while decreasing the
amount of distortion and residual stress in the weld area. As in globular welding, molten
droplets form on the tip of the electrode, but instead of dropping to the weld pool, they
bridge the gap between the electrode and the weld pool as a result of the lower wire feed
rate. This causes a short circuit and extinguishes the arc, but it is quickly reignited after
the surface tension of the weld pool pulls the molten metal bead off the electrode tip. This
process is repeated about 100 times per second, making the arc appear constant to the
human eye. This type of metal transfer provides better weld quality and less spatter than the
globular variation, and allows for welding in all positions
Globular transfer:

Metal droplets travel across the arc gap under the influence of gravity. Low welding current
(180A). This mode of transfer is obtained at intermediate current and voltage levels or at high
current and voltage levels with 100% CO2 shielding gas. Has higher heat input and
penetration than short circuit transfer. Larger weld pool makes it more difficult to weld in
over-head position. It produces significant amounts of spatter.

GMAW with globular metal transfer is considered the least desirable of the three major
GMAW variations, because of its tendency to produce high heat, a poor weld surface, and
spatter. The method was originally developed as a cost-efficient way to weld steel using
GMAW, because this variation uses carbon dioxide, a less expensive shielding gas than argon.
Adding to its economic advantage was its high deposition rate, allowing welding speeds of up
to 110 mm/s (250 in/min)

Advantages of Globular Transfer

Uses inexpensive CO2 shielding gas but is frequently used with argon/CO2 blends.
Can make welds at very high travel speeds.
Inexpensive solid or metal-cored electrodes.
Welding equipment is inexpensive.
Limitations of Globular Transfer:
Higher spatter levels result in costly clean-up.
Welding is limited to flat positions and horizontally fillet welds
High spatter level reduces electrode efficiency to a range of 87 – 93%

Spray transfer:

Occur above a critical current level (280-320A). Small metal droplets travel across the gap
under the influence of the electromagnetic force at much higher frequency and speed than in
the globular mode. Spray is achieved at higher welding currents and voltages with argon or
Helium based shielding gas (over 80% Ar). This high-heat-input, deep-penetrating weld limits
the application to the flat position. This mode produces little or no spatter and is known for
the high deposition rate (higher productivity). Pulsing the current where spray transfer occurs
allows for better control for out of position welding.

Advantages of spray arc transfer:

• High deposition
• Good fusion and penetration
• Good bead appearance
• Presence of very little spatter

Limitations of spray arc transfer:

• Used only on material 3 mm and thicker (hand held)

• Limited to flat and horizontal fillet weld position (except for some spray
transfer on aluminium)
• Welding fume generation is higher.
• The higher-radiated heat and the generation of a very bright arc require
extra welder and bystander protection.

Pulsed Spray Transfer:

A variation of the spray transfer mode, pulse-spray is based on the principles of spray
transfer but uses a pulsing current to melt the filler wire and allow one small molten droplet
to fall with each pulse. The pulses allow the average current to be lower, decreasing the
overall heat input and thereby decreasing the size of the weld pool and heat-affected zone
while making it possible to weld thin workpieces. The pulse provides a stable arc and no
spatter, since no short-circuiting takes place. This also makes the process suitable for nearly
all metals, and thicker electrode wire can be used as well. The smaller weld pool gives the
variation greater versatility, making it possible to weld in all positions.

In comparison with short arc GMAW, this method has a somewhat slower maximum speed
(85 mm/s or 200 in/min) and the process also requires that the shielding gas be primarily
argon with a low carbon dioxide concentration. Additionally, it requires a special power
source capable of providing current pulses with a frequency between 30 and 400 pulses per
second. However, the method has gained popularity, since it requires lower heat input and
can be used to weld thin workpieces, as well as nonferrous materials.
Advantages of Pulsed Spray Transfer

• Absent or very low levels of spatter.

• Excellent weld bead appearance.
• Offers an engineered solution for the control of weld fume generation.
• Reduced levels of heat induced distortion.
• Ability to weld out-of-position.

Limitations of Pulsed Spray Transfer

• Equipment to support the process is more expensive than traditional

systems.
• Blends of argon based shielding gas are more expensive than carbon
dioxide.
• Higher arc energy requires the use of additional safety protection for
welders and bystanders.
• Adds complexity to welding.

Advantages of GMAW (MIG Welding)

• High operating factor: The welder does not have to stop and clean slag or
change electrodes.
• Because of continuously fed electrode, MIG welding process is much faster
as compared to TIG or stick electrode welding.
 • Clean process with little or no slag and spatter - High efficiency (93-98%).
No flux is used. MIG welding produces smooth, neat, clean and spatter free
weld surfaces.
• It can produce joints with deep penetration.
• Thick and thin, both types of work pieces can be welded effectively.
• Large metal deposition rates are achieved by MIG welding process.
• The process can be easily mechanized

• GMAW can be used to weld all commercial metals and alloys

• Due to the gas shielding, no additional flux is required for the protection of
molten pool
• It can be used to weld in all positions.
• Higher deposition rates than shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
• This process can be easily automated

Limitations of GMAW (MIG Welding)

• The GMAW equipment is more complex, costlier, and less portable than
that for shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
• Due to the absence of flux covering, chances of faster cooling rates
exist which may affect badly
• Shielding of molten weld pool is quite difficult during windy and drifty
environments. High chances of porosity in the weld metal during windy
environments.
• MIG welding requires moderate cleaning of joints prior to welding

Applications

• The process can be used for the welding of carbon, silicon and low alloy
steels, stainless steels, aluminium, magnesium, copper, nickel and their
alloys, titanium etc.
• For welding tool steels and dies.
• For the manufacture of refrigerator parts.
• MIG welding has been used successfully in industries like air craft,
automobile, pressure vessel and ship building.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas Arc
welding (TIG)

an arc welding process which produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc
between a tungsten (non-consumable) electrode and the work piece. Shielding is obtained from a
gas or gas mixture

reverse polarity is rarely used as it tends to melt the tungsten electrode.

The selection of a shielding gas depends on several factors, including the type of
material being welded, joint design, and desired final weld appearance.
Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas for GTAW, since it helps prevent
defects due to a varying arc length. When used with alternating current, the use of
argon results in high weld quality and good appearance.
Another common shielding gas, helium, is most often used to increase the weld
penetration in a joint, to increase the welding speed, and to weld metals with high
heat conductivity, such as copper and aluminium. A significant disadvantage is the
difficulty of striking an arc with helium gas, and the decreased weld quality associated
with a varying arc length.
Argon-helium mixtures are also frequently utilized in GTAW, since they can increase
control of the heat input while maintaining the benefits of using argon. Normally, the
mixtures are made with primarily helium (often about 75% or higher) and a balance of
argon. These mixtures increase the speed and quality of the AC welding of aluminium,
and also make it easier to strike an arc.
Electrode in GTAW
The electrode used in GTAW is made of tungsten or a tungsten alloy, because
tungsten has the highest melting temperature among pure metals, at 3,422 °C. As a
result, the electrode is not consumed during welding, though some erosion (called
burn-off) can occur.
SIZE OF THE ELECTRODE
The size of the electrode you chose comes down to the current you are primarily
using. It is not a matter of ‘one size suits all’ circumstances, although a 2.4mm
diameter electrode is most probably the most versatile size.
Using too large an electrode for the current, particularly on AC, can create arc
starting and stability issues.

This then allows the electrode negative (EN) portion of the cylce to melt the base metal and fuse the
join

Cold Wire TIG Welding: The filler material added is cold , the welding speed increases and the filler
metal is fed preciesly and evenly to the weld pool

TIG HOT-WIRE WELDING- The filler material added is heated, the deposition amount and rare
increases, the welding speed rises and the fusion is reduced

Advantages

• No flux is used, hence there is no danger of flux entrapment when welding

refrigerator and air conditioner components.
• Because of clear visibility of the arc and the job, the operator can exercise
a better control on the welding process.
 • This process can weld in all positions smooth and sound welds with fewer
spatters.
• TIG welding is very much suitable for high quality welding of thin materials
(as thin as 0.125 mm).
• It is very good for welding non-ferrous metals (like aluminium) and stainless
steel.

Disadvantages.

• Under similar conditions, MIG welding is much faster process as compared

to TIG welding, since TIG welding requires a separate filler rod.
• Tungsten if it transfers to molten weld pool can contaminate the same.
Tungsten inclusion is hard and brittle.
• Filler rod if it by chance comes out of the inert gas shield can cause weld
metal contamination.

Applications

• Welding aluminium, magnesium, copper, nickel and their alloys, carbon,

alloy or stainless stee, high temperature and hard surfacing alloys like
zirconium, titanium etc.
• Welding sheet metal and thinner sections.
• Welding of expansion bellows, transistor cases, instrument diaphragms and
non-sealing joints.
• Precision welding in atomic energy, aircraft, chemical and instrument
industries.
• Rocket motor chamber fabrications in launch vehicles.

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), Plasma-Arc-Welding (PAW)

Processes, Stud Arc Welding
an arc welding process which produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc or arcs
between a bare metal electrode or electrodes and the work piece. Pressure is not used and filler
metal is obtained from the electrode and sometimes from a supplementary welding rod.

It is normally limited to the flat or horizontal position.

This process is so named because the arc is shielded by a blanket of flux.
In this process instead of flux covered electrodes granular flux and a bare electrode is
used.
Flux is deposited continuously in front of the electrode.
The flux feeder and the electrode move as the welding proceeds.
The flux is of sufficient depth to completely submerge the arc column so that no smoke or
spatter and the weld is shielded from the effect of all atmospheric gases. As a result, smooth
weld is obtained.

The arc is started either by striking the electrode beneath the flux on the work or by
placing steel wool between the electrode and the work piece before switching the
welding current. The intense heat of the arc immediately produces a pool of molten
metal in the joint and at the same time the flux adjacent to the arc column melts and
floats on top of the molten metal. This forms a blanket that eliminates spatter losses
and protects the welded joint from oxidation.
A portion of the flux melts and acts to remove impurities from the rather large pool of
molten metal, while the unmelted excess flux provides additional shielding.
The unmelted flux is recovered by vacuum system and can be reused.
Submerged arc welding is done manually or automatic and semi-automatically.
Typical applications include thick-plate welding for shipbuilding and fabrication of pressure
vessels; circular welds on pipes can also be made, provided that the pipes are rotated during
the welding operation. The quality of the weld is very high, with good toughness, ductility,
and uniformity of properties.

Fluxes used in SAW are granular fusible minerals containing oxides of manganese, silicon,
titanium, aluminium, calcium, zirconium, magnesium and other compounds such as calcium
fluoride. The flux is specially formulated to be compatible with a given electrode wire type so
that the combination of flux and wire yields desired mechanical properties. All fluxes react
with the weld pool to produce the weld metal chemical composition and mechanical
properties. It is common practice to refer to fluxes as 'active' if they add manganese and
silicon to the weld, the amount of manganese and silicon added is influenced by the arc
voltage and the welding current level. The main types of flux for SAW are:
Bonded fluxes- produced by drying the ingredients, then bonding them with a low melting
point compound such as a sodium silicate.

Fused fluxes- produced by mixing the ingredients, then melting them in an electric furnace to
form a chemically homogeneous product, cooled and ground to the required particle size.

Agglomerated fluxes are manufactured much the same way that bonded fluxes are
made. However, instead of a liquid binder, a ceramic binder is used. A higher drying
temperature is used, too.

Fluxes that are mechanically mixed are combinations of two or more bonded or agglomerated
fluxes.

SAW Power source

SAW can be operated using either a DC or an AC power source. DC is supplied by a
transformer-rectifier and AC is supplied by a transformer.
In DC operation, the electrode is normally connected to the positive terminal, as this gives
more penetration. Electrode negative (DCEN) polarity can be used to increase deposition rate
but depth of penetration is reduced (IDK WHY OPP OF THE ABOVE THEORY)

AC power sources usually have a constant-current output characteristic and are therefore
not self-regulating.

Applications:
Submerged welding is most suitable for making flat butt or fillet welds in low carbon
steels (< 0.3%).
With some pre heat and post heat precautions medium carbon and alloy steels and
some Cast Iron, stainless steel, copper alloys, nickel alloys can be welded.
Advantages:
Deep penetration is obtained due to high current density.
Welding is fast due to high melting rate of electrode.
Quality of the weld is excellent.
Thicker sections can be welded
Limitations:
Large volume of slag is to be removed.
Welding is restricted to horizontal position only, because of gravity feed of the flux.

Plasma-Arc-Welding Processes
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is a special form of gas tungsten arc welding in which a constricted
plasma arc is directed at the weld area. In PAW, a tungsten electrode is contained in a
specially designed nozzle that focuses a high-velocity stream of inert gas (e.g., argon or
argon–hydrogen mixtures) into the region of the arc to form a high velocity, intensely hot
plasma arc stream.

Argon, argon–hydrogen, and helium are also used as the arc-shielding gases.

Temperatures in plasma arc welding reach 11,0000C or greater, hot enough to melt any
known metal.

Although the typical power levels used in PAW are below those used in GTAW, the power is
highly concentrated to produce a plasma jet of small diameter and very high-power density.

Owing to the special features of PAW, its advantages in these applications include good arc
stability, better penetration control than most other AW processes, high travel speeds, and
excellent weld quality. The process can be used to weld almost any metal, including tungsten.

limitations include high equipment cost and larger torch size than other AW operations,
which tends to restrict access in some joint configurations.

Three operating modes can be produced by varying bore diameter and plasma gas flow rate:

Microplasma:0.1 to 15A. The micro plasma arc can be operated at very low welding currents.

Medium current:15 to 200A. At higher currents, from 15 to 200A, the process characteristics
of the plasma arc are similar to the TIG arc, but because the plasma is constricted, the arc is
stiffer.

Keyhole plasma: over 100A. By increasing welding current and plasma gas flow, a very
powerful plasma beam is created which can achieve full penetration in a material, as in laser
or electron beam welding.

Plasma-Arc-Welding Processes: Benefits

The full list of reasons for using the plasma welding process is lengthy but can be
summarized into three main features where customers desire the advantages of at
least one feature.
Precision

Small Part Welding

High Production Welding:

–Long electrode life offers many more hours of welding than TIG before electrode
contamination occurs.
Stud Arc Welding:
Stud: a small piece of metal that sticks out from the rest of the
surface that it is fixed to
Stud Welding Sequence: Welding sequence of control unit and process is broken down into
four steps as shown below.