2: ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Question/key idea Notes

Electrons, protons and neutrons

The charge and mass of the three main fundamental sub-atomic particles are shown in the table below.

charge mass/a.m.u.

proton +1 1 (approx)
neutron 0 1 (approx)
electron –1 1/1836

Masses here are measured on the 12C scale where 1 a.m.u. = one-twelfth of the mass of one atom of carbon-
12.

The nucleus and isotopes

(a) Modern ideas about the structure of atoms began with the celebrated experiment performed by Geiger
and Marsden in 1910 in which alpha particles (i.e. fast-moving helium nuclei) were shot at a thin sheet of
gold. Some of the particles were found to bounce back towards the source, and this provided direct evidence
for a tiny, positively charged region within the atom, containing almost all the mass: this is called the
nucleus. Further experiments over the next twenty years confirmed the presence within nuclei of protons
and neutrons. Electrons occupy the space around the nucleus. A typical atom has a radius of about 0.1–0.2
nm while a nucleus has a radius of about 0.01 pm (i.e. 10-5 of the radius of the atom); any atom is thus
mostly space, which contains the electrons.

The Atomic Number (or Proton Number), Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus of one atom. This
number determines the identity of the element e.g. any atom with 6 protons in its nucleus must be an atom
of carbon.

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 Question/key idea Notes
The Mass Number (or Nucleon Number), A, of an isotope is the total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of one atom. Most elements can have different types of atom, with different numbers of
neutrons, and these are called isotopes. For example most carbon atoms contain six neutrons but about
one in every hundred contains seven.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons, but a different number of
neutrons in the nucleus.
Nuclei can be represented in the form: ZA C e.g. 136 C
Isotopes may be conveniently referred to either by an abbreviated symbol e.g. 12C, 13C or by name e.g.
carbon-12, carbon-13.

(b) Distribution of mass and charges within the atom

From the discussion above, it follows that:

number of neutrons in atom = mass number – atomic number
or N = A – Z
Since the atomic number determines which element is involved, the number of positive charges on the
nucleus of a particular atom cannot be changed. Electrons, however, can be lost or gained, forming ions.
Example: identify the following species —
(a) an atom with 13p, 14n and 10e.
This must be element 13, i.e. Al. Its mass number is 13+14 = 27.
Its charge is +13 –10 = +3. Therefore it is 2713 Al
3+

(b) an atom with 7p, 8n, 10e.

This must be element 7, i.e. N. Its mass number is 7+8 = 15.
Its charge is +7 –10 = –3. Therefore it is 157 N 3- .

(c) Relative masses of atoms and isotopes

See ‘1: Moles, Equations & Acids’ for a definition and explanation of relative masses.

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 Question/key idea Notes
(d) Determination of relative isotopic masses and relative abundancies of isotopes.

The analysis of a sample of an element using a mass spectrometer provides quantitative information about
the masses of the individual isotopes in a.m.u. (which will necessarily be whole numbers) and the relative
abundance of each isotope in the sample. From this information the relative atomic mass can be calculated.

Example 1: A sample of rubidium consists of 2 isotopes, rubidium-85 and rubidium-87 in the ratio 72:28.

To calculate the relative atomic mass:

Total mass of 100 atoms (72 + 28) = (72 x 85) + (28 x 87) = 8556
Total mass of 1 atom = 8556/100 = 85.56.

Example 2: A sample of magnesium consists of 3 isotopes, 24Mg, 25Mg and 26Mg in the ratio 63.0 : 8.1 : 9.1.

To calculate the relative atomic mass:

Total mass of 80.2 atoms (63.0 + 8.1 + 9.1) = (63 x 24) + (8.1 x 25) + (9.1 x 26) = 1951.1
Total mass of 1 atom = 1951.1/80.2 = 24.33

NB: You do not need to have knowledge of the workings of a mass spectrometer.

Electronic energy levels, atomic orbitals, ionisation energies, periodicity

(a) Electronic energy levels.

Our current model of the atom has developed from observations of how and in what ratio elements react,
atomic absorption and emission spectra and ionisation energies. Applying wave mechanics (quantum
theory) provides a more complete description and explanation for the behaviour of electrons in the atom
and is the widely accepted theory on which the descriptions below are based. (A detailed explanation of
how the model is derived from the Schrodinger equation can be found in any advanced textbook).

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 Question/key idea Notes
Electron configurations:
1. Electrons in different shells have different amounts of energy. We call the shells “principal energy
levels”. These are labelled n=1, n=2, n=3 etc. Each principal energy level can hold up to a maximum
of 2n2 electrons. So the n=1 level can hold 2 electrons, the n=2 can hold 8 elections and the n=3 can
hold 18 electrons.
2. Each principal energy level consists of sub-shells. The table below summarises the sub-shells in each
level.

Energy Level (shell) Number of sub-shells

1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4

Each sub-shell has a particular label. The first sub-shell is always called the s sub-shell, the second is
p, the third is d, the fourth is f.

Sub-shell Number of orbitals

s 1
p 3
d 5
f 7

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 Question/key idea Notes
Putting it all together gives us the following conclusion about the number of electrons in each shell:

Shell Sub-shells Total number of electrons

1 s 1x2 = 2

2 s, p 1x2 + 3x2 = 8

3 s, p, d 1x2 + 3x2 + 5x2 = 18

4 s, p, d, f 1x2 + 3x2 + 5x2 + 7x2 = 32

3. Each sub-level is made up of orbitals. Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons. An orbital is
a region in space in which there is a 95% probability of finding a given electron. In the lowest energy
(or ‘ground’) state of an atom, the orbitals are filled in the order of their energies, lowest first. If two
or more orbitals have the same energy, electrons will, if possible, go into different orbitals, with
parallel spins, rather than occupying the same orbital. This reduces repulsion between electrons.

The energies of the orbitals for the first 36 elements are shown overleaf. Each box represents an
orbital, capable of holding two electrons.

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 Question/key idea Notes

A significant point is that, because they are repelled strongly by lower-energy electrons, the 3d orbitals
are higher in energy than the 4s, so the 4s fills before the 3d.

This diagram helps you to work out the order in which orbitals fill:
1s 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, …..

2s 2p However, it can be easier to read across the periodic table, but remember
that the first transition metal row is 3d:
3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f
1s 1s
5s 5p 5d 5f 2s 2p

6s 6p 6d 3s 3p

4s 3d 4p
7s 7p

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 Question/key idea Notes
Examples of electronic configurations, obtained from the diagram, are given below:

boron (5 electrons): 1s2 2s2 2p1

oxygen (8 electrons): 1s2 2s2 2p4 — here the three 2p orbitals can be shown separately as 2p x 2 2p y 1
2p z 1 to make the distribution clearer.
argon (18 electrons): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
potassium (19 electrons): [Ar] 4s1 — here [Ar] means the complete argon configuration: note 3d is
empty.
scandium (21 electrons): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d14s2 or [Ar] 3d14s2 — note that 3d1 is always written
before 4s, even though it was filled afterwards.

From Sc to Zn the 3d-orbitals fill up, then the 4p orbitals begin to fill; from Ga: [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1 across to Kr:
[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p6. Krypton is a noble gas, as it has eight electrons in its outer shell.

We can refer to elements as being in certain ‘blocks’ in the periodic table, depending on which sub-shell is
being filled at that point. Thus Groups 1&2 make up the s-block, Groups 3-8 are the p-block, in between
Groups 2&3 is the d-block and below the table is the f-block.

s p
d

NB – Hydrogen and helium do not fit easily into this classification.

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 Question/key idea Notes
The configuration of an ion in the s and p-blocks will be the same as that of the element with the same total
number of electrons.
Examples:
Al3+ has lost three electrons, so has ten left. Like Ne it is 1s2 2s2 2p6.
Se2– has gained two electrons, making 36. Like Kr it is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6.
Ca+ has lost one electron, so now has 19. Like K it is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1.

(b) Shapes of orbitals

An orbital has no edge: the electron density just tails off more and more. However, we can calculate the
surface which would contain a given percentage (95%) of the electron density, and use this to gain an idea
of the shape of the orbital (below). It is important to remember that the electron density is not uniform
within this shape. The s-orbital is always spherically symmetrical, while the three 2p orbitals each point
along one particular axis, at right angles to the other two. Remember that when one electron occupies a 2p
orbital it occupies both halves; when two electrons occupy it, they both occupy both halves.

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 Question/key idea Notes
(c) Ionisation Energies
The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove one electron from each of one
mole of gaseous atoms.
i.e ΔHө for the process: X (g) → X+ (g) + e-

Note that the second ionisation energy is the energy required to remove the second electron from the 1+
ion:
i.e. X+ (g) → X2+ (g) + e-

Therefore the energy required to remove two electrons is the sum of the first two ionisation energies.
The factors which affect ionisation energies are: the nuclear charge, the distance away from the nucleus of
the electron, and the shielding of the nucleus by other electrons, which depends on the electronic
configuration. In general a noble gas configuration provides very good shielding for electrons outside it, and
is described as a “closed shell” (although the shell may not be technically full ― e.g. no 3d electrons in Ar
below).

Examples: Ne 1s22s22p6
Ar 1s22s22p63s23p6

Successive ionisation energies are the energies required to remove successive electrons from one mole of
gaseous ions. They will increase in size: it is always more difficult to remove an electron from X+ than from
X. There is a very steep rise when a closed shell is broken into because the next shell is considerably closer
to the nucleus and less shielded. Here are successive I.E. values in kJ mol-1 for two elements:

element X 1010 1900 2900 5000 6300 21300 25400 29800

element Y 590 1150 4940 6480 8120 10700 12300 14600 18200 20400 57100

Clearly, for X there is a sharp rise between the 5th and the 6th values, so X must have five electrons outside
a closed shell, and be placed in Group 5. Y shows a jump between the second and third values, so it is in

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 Question/key idea Notes
Group 2. The next high value is the 11th I.E., suggesting it has 2 electrons in the outer shell, and 8 in the next
one down.

Trends in first ionisation energies across periods 2 and 3, and down a group.

The first ionisation energies for the first 20 elements are shown below:

First I.E Across First 20 Elements

2500

2000

First I.E / kJ/mol

1500

1000

500

0
H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca

The general trend across a period in the Periodic Table, e.g. from Li to Ne, is for the values to increase
sharply.

Due to:
• Increasing nuclear charge/number of protons across a period
• No change in shielding
• Electron more strongly attracted to nucleus, so increasingly more difficult to remove

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 Question/key idea Notes
However, there are two “kinks”:

In Group 3 boron, 2s22p1, is lower than expected.

Due to:
• 2p electron is higher in energy and slightly further from the nucleus
• 2p electron shielded (weakly) by the 2s2 pair
• So overall attraction to the nucleus to be lower than it was in Be.

Oxygen electron in a box notation

In Group 6 oxygen, 2s22p4, is also low.

Due to:
• Fourth p electron in oxygen pairs up with another electron already in a p orbital
• Experiences repulsion from the other electron in the same orbital
• Therefore easier to remove than unpaired p-electron in nitrogen

A similar pattern is followed in Period 3, with low values in Group 3 and Group 6.

The general trend down a group is for ionisation energies to fall by a small amount. For successive elements
in the group the outer electron is in a higher shell. Although the nuclear charge increases, this is outweighed
by increased distance from the nucleus and shielding from the extra inner shell. The outer electron is further
away, and is therefore attracted less strongly.

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