G11FE_DECEMBER_2022-2023_HWOL_TZ1_TOC_3hrs

SCHOOL OF ENERGY, GEOSCIENCE, INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIETY

Institute of GeoEnergy Engineering

G11FE

FORMATION EVALUATION

TIMED ONLINE COURSEWORK

December Examination and Assessment Diet 2022

Duration: 3 hours

INSTRUCTIONS

1. This paper represents 100% of the course assessment.

2. Attempt ALL Questions. The allocation of marks for each question is shown in
brackets below the question in the right hand margin. Where a question has
multiple sections, allocation of marks for each section is shown in square
brackets within the question.

3. All diagrams and charts are included with their questions. State clearly any
assumptions used and intermediate calculations made in numerical questions.
No marks can be given for an incorrect answer if the method of calculation is not
presented.

4. If possible, please type your answers. Make sure to include images of any
sketches created as part of the answer, or annotated diagrams used to answer
the questions, insert your figures in your answer file.

Well logs are included in the attachment

Unit conversion tables are provided at the back of the exam paper
Heriot-Watt University G11FE_DECEMBER_2022-2023_HWOL_TZ1_TOC_3hrs

Question 1

a) Explain the depth of the invasion in a low permeability and a high permeability
formation; give your reasoning for each case.
(4 marks)

b) A drilled borehole is logged using a tool string comprising various tools. The
Caliper tool is often used as part of the tool string. Briefly describe the principle
operation of the Caliper tool. Explain why it is necessary to measure the Caliper
log and how measurements will be used in the interpretation process.
(4 marks)

Question 2

a) In general, porosities tend to change with depth of the sediments. How would
you describe the porosity depth trend? What are the major parameters
controlling porosity changes with depth. Discuss the porosity depth trends in
sandstone, shale and carbonate rocks.
(7 marks)

b) Explain why sometimes the maximum temperature in the borehole is less than
the actual formation temperature? What is your recommendation to determine a
stabilised down hole formation temperature measurement?
(3 marks)

Question 3

a) By drawing a diagram explain SP curve behaviour in clean sand and shale

intervals for various formation water and mud filtrate salinities.
(3 marks)

b) Briefly explain the invasion process during the drilling of the well. Discuss the
parameters (at least 4 parameters) influencing the extent or depth of the flushed
and transition zones.
(4 marks)

Question 4

Describe (at least three qualitative techniques) how you would distinguish between
potentially high permeable zones and low permeable zones in the downhole log
section. In your answers, give details of which relevant logs you would use and why?
(6 marks)

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Question 5

a) Briefly describe the general operating principle of a Borehole Compensated

Sonic (BHC) Tools. Explain the cycle skipping effect in a BHC logging
measurement and name the formations in which cycle skipping is more likely to
happen.
(6 marks)

b) In large-diameter boreholes, it is possible to have a mud wave arrival at the near

receiver before the formation signal. In this case what is your recommended tool
to acquire good quality sonic data? Explain your reasoning.
(4 marks)

Question 6

a) Describe index of oil movability and explain how you would determine invasion
and movable hydrocarbon.
(5 marks)

b) Describe Rwa to Rw comparison procedure with detailed steps for water saturation
estimation.
(5 marks)

Question 7

You have a suite of logs comprising, CAL (in inches), GR (Gamma ray, gAPI), DT
(Sonic μsec/ft), RHOB (Bulk Density, g/cc), NPHI (Neutron Porosity, m3/m3), LLS
(Laterolog Shallow resistivity, ohm.m), LLD (Laterolog Deep resistivity, ohm.m), LLM
(Laterolog Medium resistivity, ohm.m) measured in depth (MD in meters). The bit-
size is 8.4 inches and the mud is salty water-based.

(See Well_A-Logs in appendices at the end of the paper)

(Please NOTE: Attach the logs and charts to your Answer book)

a) Zone the downhole log section by drawing horizontal lines on the section
(Well_A_Logs) at appropriate points. Discuss your reasoning for your zonation.
Identify depth of severe and moderate washed out (overgauged) zones and mark
them on the log section, give your reasoning choosing these zones.
(4 marks)

b) Give a summary table in your answer book indicating the approximate depths of
each zone, with the likely lithology and permeable zones, explaining your
reasoning.
(8 marks)

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c) Identify possible hydrocarbon bearing intervals in the permeable zones on the

Well_A_Logs. State on the sheet or in your answer book whether you think
these hydrocarbon bearing intervals are oil bearing or gas bearing, and explain
the reason for each interval.
(6 marks)

d) Identify possible water zone and mark the contact on the Well_A_Logs, give
your reasoning.
(2 marks)

Question 8

a) Determine the porosity at depth (950m) using the Wyllie Time-Average equation
and the Empirical curves for your chosen lithology using Chart Por-3. Assume
the matrix acoustic velocity is 14100 ft/sec, and that the fluid acoustic is 5,300
ft/sec. compare the results and suggest reasons for any possible differences.
State the lithology you have assumed for this depth. (Note that in Chart Por-3 the
curved lines labelled Field Observation are the values from the Empirical curves).

(4 marks)

b) If the same formation as that in the question above has the matrix and fluid
densities of 2.61 g/cm3 and 1.10 g/cm3 respectively, calculate the porosity using
the density equation. Compare the result with that given by the acoustic methods,
and suggest reasons for any possible differences.
(4 marks)

c) Plot a single data point for depth 950m on an M-N plot (Chart CP-8) using the
relevant data from all three porosity logs. Assume that the transit time of the fluid
(tf) is 189 μsec/ft, the fluid density (ρf) is 1.1 g/cm3, and the neutron porosity of
the fluid (φNf) is 1. Show your methodology. State, with reasons, whether the
results are consistent with your previous choice of lithology at this depth. Discuss
what other ambiguity your M-N interpretation might have with previous
interpretation.
(6 marks)

Question 9

a) From the log Quality Control report, it has been identified that there are a few
anomalies (spikes) in the logs for example at the depth of 750m and close to
850m in Resistivity, Sonic, Neutron and Density logs. Discuss what might have
caused these anomalies explaining your reasoning.
(3 marks)

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b) Determine the formation factor (F) using the Humble formula, and using the
Density derived porosity calculated in question 8. If in the water leg very close to
the hydrocarbon contact, Ro is measured at 0.2 ohm.m, calculate the Rw.
(Assume that the reading from the log is corrected for borehole, invasion, and
bed thickness). Calculate the water saturation in the oil leg using Archie’s
equation. Assume n=m= 2, a=1 and Rt is 12 ohm.m.
(6 marks)

c) Find the volume of the shale in the formation at the depth of 950m based on
the following data.

∆𝑡𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 50 𝜇𝑠/𝑓𝑡
∆𝑡𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 90 𝜇𝑠/𝑓𝑡

Assume at the depth of 950 m lithology is laminated sand-shale. Using the laminated
sand-shale simplified model estimate the True resistivity by a parallel resistivity
relationship in case Rsd (the resistivity of the clean sand laminae) reads 25 ohm.m and
Rsh (the resistivity of the shale laminae) reads 2 ohm.m.
(6 marks)

END OF PAPER

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APPENDICES: Unit Conversion Tables

1. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF UNITS

To convert from To Multiply by

acre meter2(m2) 4.046873E+03
atm MPa 1.013250E-01
atmosphere pascal (Pa) 1.013250E+05
bar pascal (Pa) 1.000000E+05
bar MPa 1.000000E-01
barrel meter3 1.589873E-01
bbl/day meter3/day 1.589873E-01
centimeter of mercury (0C) pascal (Pa) 1.333220E+03
centimeter of water (4C) pascal (Pa) 9.806380E+01
centipoise pascal second (Pas) 1.000000E-03
centistokes meter2 per second (m2/s) 1.000000E-06
cp Pa.s 1.000000E-03
cSt mm2/s 1.000000E+00
cu in meter3(m3) 1.638706E-05
cubic yard meter3(m3) 7.645549E-01
darcy m2 9.869233E-13
degree (angle) radian (rad) 1.745329E-02
degree API g/cm3 141.5/(131.5+˚API)
degree Celsius kelvin (K) Tk = Tc + 273.15
degree Fahrenheit degree Celsius Tc = (TF -32)/1.8
degree Fahrenheit kelvin (K) Tk = (TF + 459.67)/1.8
degree Rankine kelvin (K) Tk = TR /1.8
dyne newton (N) 1.000000E-05
dyne cm newton meter (Nm) 1.000000E-07
dyne/cm2 pascal (Pa) 1.000000E-01
foot in (inch) 1.200000E+01
foot meter 3.048000E-01
foot of water (39.2F) pascal (Pa) 2.988980E+03
ft lbf joule (J) 1.355818E+00
ft lbf/hr watt(W) 3.766161E-04
ft lbf/min watt(W) 2.259697E-02
ft lbf/s watt(W) 1.355818E+00
ft/hr meter per second (m/s) 8.466667E-05
ft/min meter per second (m/s) 5.080000E-03
ft/s meter per second (m/s) 3.048000E-01
ft/s2 meter per second2 (m/s2) 3.048000E-01
ft2 meter2(m2) 9.290304E-02
ft3 meter3(m3) 2.831685E-02
g/cm3 kilogram per meter3 (kg/m3) 1.000000E+03
gallon (U.K.Liquid) meter3 (m3) 4.546092E-03
gallon (U.S.Liquid) meter3 (m3) 3.785412E-03
hour second 3.600000E+03
hydraulic horsepower hhp kW 7.460430E-01
inch meter 2.540000E-02
inch meter (m) 2.540000E-02
inch of mercury (32F) pascal (Pa) 3.386380E+03
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inch of mercury (60F) pascal (Pa) 3.376850E+03

inch of water (39.2F) pascal (Pa) 2.490820E+02
inch of water (60F) pascal (Pa) 2.488400E+02
kelvin degree Celsius Tc = Tk - 273.15
kgf m newton meter (Nm) 9.806650E+00
kgf s2/m (mass) kilogram (kg) 9.806650E+00
kgf/cm2 pascal (Pa) 9.806650E+04
kgf/m2 pascal (Pa) 9.806650E+00
kgf/mm2 pascal (Pa) 9.806650E+06
kilogram force (kgf) newton (N) 9.806650E+00
kilogram mass (kgm) lbm 4.420751E-02
kilowatthour (kW hr) joule(J) 3.600000E+06
km/hr meter per second (m/s) 2.777778E-01
lbf N 4.448222E+00
lbf/in2 GPa 6.894757E-06
lbm kilogram (kg) 4.535924E-01
lbm kg 4.535924E-01
lbm/ft3 kg/m3 1.601846E+01
litre meter3(m3) 1.000000E-03
micron meter (m) 1.000000E-06
mile meter (m) 1.609300E+03
millibar pascal (Pa) 1.000000E+02
millidarcy m2 9.869233E-16
s/ft s/m 3.280840E+00
ohm centimeter ohm meter (m) 1.000000E-02
pascal (Pa) psi 1.451000E-04
poise pascal second (Pas) 1.000000E-01
pound force (lbf) newton (N) 4.448222E+00
ppg psi/ft 5.200000E-02
psi MPa 6.894757E-03
psi/ft kPa/m 2.262059E+01
psi-1 Pa-1 1.450377E-04
scf/bbl standard m3/m3 1.801175E-01
sq in meter2(m2) 6.451600E-04
stokes meter2 per second (m2/s) 1.000000E-04
tonne kilogram (kg) 1.000000E+03
ton (UK) kilogram (kg) 1.016047E+03
watt Js-1 1.000000E+00
yard foot 3.000000E+00

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2. SI UNIT PREFIXES

multiplication factor SI prefix Symbol

1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deka da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro 
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a

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APPENDICES: DIAGRAMS
Well_A_Logs

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