G11RE_DECEMBER_2022-2023_HWOL_TOC_TZ1_3hrs

SCHOOL OF ENERGY, GEOSCIENCES, INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIETY

Institute of GeoEnergy Engineering

G11RE

RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

TIMED ONLINE COURSEWORK

December Examination and Assessment Diet 2022

Duration: 3 hours

INSTRUCTIONS

1. Attempt ALL questions. Total 100 marks. The allocation of marks for each
question is shown in brackets.

2. For descriptive questions provide the answers in your own words and adhere to
the word limits shown. Any additional words will not be marked. Equations,
numbers or figures are not counted as words.

3. For calculation questions clearly state any assumptions and include all
intermediate steps.

4. Symbols have their usual meaning.

Attached: Unit Conversion Tables

Heriot-Watt University G11RE_DECEMBER_2022-2023_HWOL_TOC_TZ1_3hrs

Question 1

A major international energy company has identified 400 MMstb as reserves for one
of its oil fields. It has initially quoted 200 MMstb of these reserves as proven. A year
later the company quotes 300 MMstb of these reserves as proven.

With reference to the definition of proven reserves, give three examples of conditions
that may have led to this increase in proven reserves.
(3 marks)
(Word Limit: 150)

Question 2

Describe the concept of pseudo–components in the compositional model of an oil

reservoir.
(3 marks)
(Word Limit: 100)

Question 3

Describe the objectives of the flash and differential liberation tests. Discuss how
conditions in these tests compare with conditions in the reservoir during production.
(5 marks)
(Word Limit:150)

Question 4

A gas condensate reservoir produces liquids and gas with a producing gas to oil ratio
(GOR) of 25,000 SCF/STB. The compositions of the produced liquids and gas are
provided in Table 4.1. Determine the composition of the reservoir gas.

Table 4.1 – Compositions of the produced liquids and gas.

Gas Liquid
Component
(mole fraction) (mole fraction)
Methane 0.83 0.00
Ethane 0.10 0.00
Propane 0.03 0.17
Butane 0.03 0.42
Pentane 0.01 0.25
Hexane 0.00 0.16
Total 1 1

(8 marks)

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Question 5

Discuss two effects causing the oil-water capillary pressure curve of a water-wet
sandstone to be lower for water flooding than for the original drainage process. Use
sketches where relevant. 
(8 marks) 
(Word Limit: 200) 
 
Question 6

i. Discuss how rock compressibility affects oil and gas recovery and discuss how it
is incorporated in the material balance equation.
ii. Name three natural drive mechanisms, or stages of drive mechanisms, for
which rock compressibility in an oil reservoir may be neglected and explain why
this is the case.  
(6 marks) 
(Word Limit: 150) 
  
Question 7

The relative permeability curves and the corresponding water fractional flow curve
for water injection under diffuse flow conditions into a medium heavy oil reservoir,
with viscosity ratio µo / µw = 8, are presented in Figure 7.1.

i. For a linear displacement sketch the water saturation profile between injector and
producer before water breakthrough, indicating the values of the relevant
saturations.
ii. At water breakthrough estimate the volume of oil recovered as a fraction of the
total pore volume.

Assume now that the relative permeability curves are the same as above, but that
the viscosity ratio is µo / µw = 2.

iii. Sketch the corresponding water fractional flow curve and discuss how the water
breakthrough time for µo / µw = 2 changes compared to the case with µo / µw = 8.

(8 marks)

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Figure 7.1 – Relative permeability curves and water fractional flow curve.

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Question 8(a)

A water drive reservoir is considered to extend to a radius of 10,000 ft. The aquifer
radius is 40,000 ft. As a result of sealing faults the reservoir-aquifer system only forms
part of a full radial configuration with an included angle of 140º, as shown in Figure
8.1. Additional properties of the aquifer are given in Table 8.1.

i. Calculate the volume of water the aquifer could deliver under an overall pressure
drop from 5,000 to 4,500 psi.

After 1 year of production the reservoir pressure has declined from 5,000 to 4,850 psi
and the aquifer has produced a water influx of 1.5 MM bbls.

ii. Estimate the aquifer permeability.

iii. Calculate the water influx after 2 years, when the pressure has further declined to
4,500 psi.

(15 marks)

Table 8.1 – Reservoir and aquifer properties.

Reservoir radius, Ro 10,000 ft
Aquifer radius, Re 40,000 ft
Reservoir thickness, h 50 ft
Water compressibility, cw 4.0E-06 psi-1
Rock compressibility, cf 8.0E-06 psi-1
Porosity,  0.21  
Water viscosity, w 0.85 cP
Initial reservoir pressure, Pi 5,000 psi

Figure 8.1 - Reservoir and aquifer geometry.

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Question 8(b)

Discuss the step-by-step procedure that Havlena and Odeh proposed to calculate
the aquifer influx constant B from the form of the material balance equation shown in
Figure 8.2 below. Discuss also the significance for the aquifer if B varies during the
life of the reservoir.

(6 marks)
(Word Limit: 250)

Figure 8.2 – Graph of material balance equation.

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Question 9(a)

Draw the pressure profiles around a well illustrating the effect of a negative skin
factor. Describe the situation leading to a negative skin factor.
(3 marks)
(Word Limit: 60)

Question 9(b)

A well in an oil reservoir produces at a constant flow rate of 250 stm 3/day. The
reservoir reaches an average pressure of 248.7 and 224 bar at time t = 100 hours
and t = 2000 hours respectively. Using the properties shown in Table 9.1, and
assuming no flow across the reservoir boundary, calculate:

i. the wellbore flowing pressure at time (a) t = 100 hours and (b) t = 2000 hours.
ii. the pressure at the external boundary of the reservoir at time (a) t = 100 hours and
(b) t = 2000 hours.

(15 marks)

Table 9.1 – Fluid and reservoir properties.

Oil formation volume factor, Bo 1.2 rm3/stm3

Oil viscosity, 𝜇 2.1 x 10-3 Pa s
Permeability, k 120 mD
Porosity, 𝜙 0.22
Compressibility, c 4.0 x 10-9 Pa-1
Net formation thickness, h 30 m
Wellbore radius, rw 0.15 m
External radius, re 340 m
Skin, s 0
Initial reservoir pressure, Pi 250 bar
γ̅ 1.781

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Question 10(a)
A sandstone gas reservoir has been discovered, which also appears to contain
significant volumes of water, and a single appraisal well has been drilled. The
measured reservoir properties are presented in Table 10.1. Assume that the water
compressibility is zero.

Pressure measurements are presented in Table 10.2. At depth 7,000 ft only water
was found, while at depth 6,825 ft both gas and water were found. Log data
indicated the top of the reservoir at a depth of 6,750 ft and a gas-water contact
(GWC) at a depth of 6,950 ft. Additionally, an average water saturation of 0.35 and
an average porosity of 0.18 were determined. Assume that gas properties derived for
the pressure at depth 6,825 ft are representative for the entire reservoir.

i. Calculate the reservoir gas density.

ii. Estimate the volume of gas in place (GIP) in standard cubic feet (scf), assuming
constant reservoir thickness.
(8 marks)

Table 10.1 – Gas reservoir characteristics.

Area, A 1.60E07 ft2

Temperature, T 175 °F
Gas Apparent Molecular Weight, AMW 23.2 lb/lb mole
Water density, rw 63.43 lb/cu ft

Table 10.2 – Pressure measurements

Depth TVDSS Pressure

(ft) (psia)
6,825 3,258.2
7,000 3,283.5

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Question 10(b)
For the gas reservoir described in part (a), there is additionally evidence of three
distinct horizontal layers, which are assumed to extend throughout the reservoir, in
the configuration shown in Figure 10.1. The corresponding measured gas-water
capillary pressure Pc,gw vs. water saturation Sw curves are presented in Figure 10.2.
The porosities and endpoint capillary pressure values for the layers are given in
Table 10.3.

i. Determine the gas-water capillary pressure at depth 6,825 ft.

ii. Using the capillary pressure vs. saturation data, confirm the depth of the gas-
water contact (GWC) indicated in part (a) and Figure 10.1.
iii. Estimate the volume of gas in place (GIP) in standard cubic feet (scf), based on
the layer data.
(12 marks)

Table 10.3 – Layer core measurements.

Porosity 𝜙 (%) Pc,gw @ Sw=1

(psi)
Layer 1 15 15.5
Layer 2 21 5.18
Layer 3 18 8.63

Figure 10.1 – Cross-section of layered reservoir with depths TVDSS.

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160

140

120

100
Pc (psi)

80 layer 1

60 layer 2
layer 3
40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw

Figure 10.2 – Gas-water capillary pressure data.

END OF PAPER

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Unit Conversion Tables

1. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF UNITS

To convert from To Multiply by

acre meter2(m2) 4.046873E+03
atm MPa 1.013250E-01
atmosphere pascal (Pa) 1.013250E+05
bar pascal (Pa) 1.000000E+05
bar MPa 1.000000E-01
barrel meter3 1.589873E-01
bbl/day meter3/day 1.589873E-01
centimeter of mercury (0°C) pascal (Pa) 1.333220E+03
centimeter of water (4°C) pascal (Pa) 9.806380E+01
centipoise pascal second (Pas) 1.000000E-03
meter2 per second
centistokes (m2/s) 1.000000E-06
cp Pas 1.000000E-03
cSt mm2/s 1.000000E+00
cu in meter3(m3) 1.638706E-05
cubic yard meter3(m3) 7.645549E-01
darcy m2 9.869233E-13
degree (angle) radian (rad) 1.745329E-02
degree API g/cm3 141.5/(131.5+˚API)
degree Celsius kelvin (K) Tk = Tc + 273.15
degree Fahrenheit degree Celsius Tc = (TF -32)/1.8
degree Fahrenheit kelvin (K) Tk = (TF + 459.67)/1.8
degree Rankine kelvin (K) Tk = TR /1.8
dyne newton (N) 1.000000E-05
dyne cm newton meter (Nm) 1.000000E-07
dyne/cm2 pascal (Pa) 1.000000E-01
foot in (inch) 1.200000E+01
foot meter 3.048000E-01
foot of water (39.2°F) pascal (Pa) 2.988980E+03
ft lbf joule (J) 1.355818E+00
ft lbf/hr watt(W) 3.766161E-04
ft lbf/min watt(W) 2.259697E-02
ft lbf/s watt(W) 1.355818E+00
ft/hr meter per second (m/s) 8.466667E-05

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ft/min meter per second (m/s) 5.080000E-03

ft/s meter per second (m/s) 3.048000E-01
meter per second2
ft/s2 (m/s2) 3.048000E-01
ft2 meter2(m2) 9.290304E-02
ft3 meter3(m3) 2.831685E-02
kilogram per meter3
g/cm3 (kg/m3) 1.000000E+03
gallon (U.K.Liquid) meter3 (m3) 4.546092E-03
gallon (U.S.Liquid) meter3 (m3) 3.785412E-03
hour second 3.600000E+03
hydraulic horsepower hhp kW 7.460430E-01
inch meter 2.540000E-02
inch meter (m) 2.540000E-02
inch of mercury (32°F) pascal (Pa) 3.386380E+03
inch of mercury (60°F) pascal (Pa) 3.376850E+03
inch of water (39.2°F) pascal (Pa) 2.490820E+02
inch of water (60°F) pascal (Pa) 2.488400E+02
kelvin degree Celsius Tc = Tk - 273.15
kgf m newton meter (Nm) 9.806650E+00
kgf s2/m (mass) kilogram (kg) 9.806650E+00
kgf/cm2 pascal (Pa) 9.806650E+04
kgf/m2 pascal (Pa) 9.806650E+00
kgf/mm2 pascal (Pa) 9.806650E+06
kilogram force (kgf) newton (N) 9.806650E+00
kilogram mass (kgm) lbm 4.420751E-02
kilowatthour (kW hr) joule(J) 3.600000E+06
km/hr meter per second (m/s) 2.777778E-01
lbf N 4.448222E+00
lbf/in2 GPa 6.894757E-06
lbm kilogram (kg) 4.535924E-01
lbm kg 4.535924E-01
lbm/ft3 kg/m3 1.601846E+01
litre meter3(m3) 1.000000E-03
micron meter (m) 1.000000E-06
mile meter (m) 1.609300E+03
millibar pascal (Pa) 1.000000E+02
millidarcy m2 9.869233E-16
µs/ft µs/m 3.280840E+00

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ohm centimeter ohm meter ( m) 1.000000E-02

pascal (Pa) psi 1.451000E-04
poise pascal second (Pas) 1.000000E-01
pound force (lbf) newton (N) 4.448222E+00
ppg psi/ft 5.200000E-02
psi MPa 6.894757E-03
psi/ft kPa/m 2.262059E+01
psi-1 Pa-1 1.450377E-04
scf/bbl standard m3/m3 1.801175E-01
sq in meter2(m2) 6.451600E-04
meter2 per second
stokes (m2/s) 1.000000E-04
tonne kilogram (kg) 1.000000E+03
ton (UK) kilogram (kg) 1.016047E+03
watt Js-1 1.000000E+00
yard foot 3.000000E+00

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2. SI UNIT PREFIXES

multiplication factor SI prefix Symbol

1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deka da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro µ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a

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