Marine Environment IGE FDP 2022 - TF

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FIELD DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

(G11DP)

Introduction to the Marine Environment
Professor Teresa F Fernandes
Centre for Marine Biodiversity and Biotechnology
Institute of Life and Earth Sciences
School of Engineering, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society
Environmental Resource Management

Prof Mark Irvine (Hon.)
Field Development Project (FDP) 

• Objectives of the project are to: 
– …
– 3. Propose a field development plan with alternatives
– …. 
– 7. Incorporate environmental, health and safety 
considerations (all environmental impacts of the 
development, from seismic survey to 
decommissioning)

• Course Deliverables …Summary Environmental 
Statement and Presentation of Findings.
Plan
• Marine environment 
• Environmental Impact Assessment process, including 
monitoring 
• Decommissioning
Why are we here…

• Some of the projects are within the marine environment
• Prospecting, exploration, production, decommissioning…
• Need to consider the environment
• By law an Environmental Impact Assessment is required

• Therefore an understanding of marine systems, living and 
non‐living components, is essential!
(http://www.unep.org/vitalwater/)
Linking terrestrial and coastal environments

Different processes / habitats / communities
Bathymetry (i.e. depth measurement) across the North Atlantic Ocean along a 
latitude close to 39° N. At the point −30° W is the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge (MAR).
The deepest place in the Ocean, is located within the Mariana 
Trench (west Pacific), called the Challenger Deep

(8,848 m)

(10,902 m)
The deepest place in the Ocean, is located within the Mariana 
Trench (west Pacific), called the Challenger Deep
Away from the coast….

you will also find different types of processes taking place, 
different pressures and opportunities, and therefore, different 
adaptations and communities…
Plate tectonics
When considering the different zones away from the coast, there is a 
distinction between the benthic and the pelagic systems, as well as the 
different depths….

http://wnct.com/blog/2016/02/26/ocean-zones-and-what-creatures-live-in-them/
Light in the Oceans
Light attenuation with
depth – the lines show
the limits of light
attenuation in the
clearest of ocean and
coastal waters.
Attenuation also
depends on the
wavelength of light
Sea Surface Temperature

oceanworld.tamu.edu
Sea surface temperatures show the uneven distribution of solar radiation –
with a surplus lying between 38 degrees N and 38 degrees S.
Average Ocean temperatures
The Coriolis Effect

Due to the rotation of 
the Earth the 
movements of objects 
and fluids, such as air 
and water, are 
deflected to the right
in the Northern 
hemisphere, and to 
then left in the 
Southern hemisphere
The Coriolis Effect

Due to the rotation of 
the Earth the 
movements of objects 
and fluids, such as air 
and water, are 
deflected to the right
in the Northern 
hemisphere, and to 
then left in the 
Southern hemisphere
Atmospheric circulation
Ocean currents

• Moving seawater
– Surface ocean currents
• Wind driven
• Transfer heat from warmer to cooler areas
• Similar to pattern of major wind belts
• Affect coastal climates
– Deep ocean currents
• Density driven (related to temperature and salt content)
• Provide oxygen to deep sea
– Both influence habitats and marine life
Deep Ocean Currents Driven by Density of 
Seawater

hawaiianphotos.net melindawebster.com

What affects water density?
• Colder water       Denser (to 4°C)
• Saltier water        Denser
Deep water forms when:

● Surface water flows to 
the poles and gets 
colder
● When seawater 
freezes it leaves salt 
behind, increasing 
salinity
● Water becomes 
denser and sinks 
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/
Global Conveyor Belt
Sinking Cold,
Salty Water
Global Conveyor Belt

Thermohaline Circulation
– Thermo = temperature
– Haline = salinity
Why is thermohaline circulation important?

• Major influence on climate
• Transfers heat from equator to poles
• Nutrient cycling
• Brings oxygen to deep ocean organisms
• Brings nutrient rich‐water to the surface
Tides and tidal zones

•The wide exposure of mud, sand and rocks around the coast is 
due to the rise and fall of the tide resulting from gravitational 
forces.

•The tidal rise and fall is produced by the gravitational pull of the 
sun and the moon, acting on waters of the Earth. The resulting 
water movements have a horizontal component (tidal currents) 
and a vertical component (tidal range).

•Oceans of the world are divided into natural basins and the 
gravitational pull of the sun and the moon keep these water 
bodies oscillating.
Production 
• There are two types of organisms in any given ecosystem:
autotrophs and heterotrophs
 autotrophs make their own food (organic matter) from inorganic
nutrients (C, N, P, S, trace metals and vitamins) and either light
or chemical energy, they ‘fix’ CO2
– Autotrophs ‘fix’ CO2 via photosynthesis (light E) or chemosynthesis
(chemical E, i.e. H2S)

6 CO2 + 12 H20 C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2


light OR
chemical E

– autotrophs form the base of the food web (i.e. primary producers) and are
ultimately responsible for all life in the world’s oceans
– marine examples include phytoplankton, cyanobacteria, macroalgae,
benthic diatoms, and sulphide oxidizing bacteria (i.e. at hydrothermal
vents)
– phytoplankton are the most abundant primary producers in the oceans
Productivity and dynamics in the pelagic environment

https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Phytoplankton/page2.php
Plankton
• Drift with ocean currents
• Some can propel themselves weakly or in a vertical 
direction
• Phototrophs = Phytoplankton
• Heterotrophs = Zooplankton
• Plankton holds most of the earth’s biomass
• Includes larger animals and plants (e.g. jellyfish 
(macroplankton) and some algae (megaplankton))

• Microplankton = smaller plankton (fine meshed nets)
• Nanoplankton = too small to be filtered (microfilters) 
• Haloplankton = entire life in plankton
• Meroplankton = portion of their life cycle in the 
plankton
Some examples of the phytoplankton
Some examples of the zooplankton
Some examples of the zooplankton
Nekton

• All animals that move independently of the ocean currents


• May be capable of long migrations
• Fish
• Squid
• Marine mammals (e.g. whales, dolphins, seals)
• Reptiles (e.g. turtles)
• Might be limited in their lateral range by gradual changes in
temperature, salinity and food
• Vertical range is determined by pressure for fish, with swim bladders,
and mammals
Deep Sea Fish

Swallower

Angler fish

Coelacanth
Benthos
• Live on or in the sea/ocean bottom
• Autotrophs or Heterotrophs (macro or micro)
• Infauna = live buried in sand, shells or mud
• Epifauna = live attached to rocks or move over the surface of the 
bottom
• Nektobenthos = live on the bottom but move through the water 
above with relative ease e.g. flounder, crab, starfish
• Meiobenthos and Microbenthos – the smaller benthic organisms
• Macroscopic algae are found in the littoral and shallow sublittoral 
zones
• Nearshore zones offer a great diversity of physical and nutritive 
conditions
• Sea bottom is characterised by coldness, stillness and darkness
Macroalgae:
Green algae, brown algae, red algae
Shorelines in general have
linear features with
lichens
patterns of epibenthic
zonation

channel wrack

spiral wrack

bladder wrack

serrated wrack
Intertidal sandy and muddy shores

Sandy and muddy shores also 
exhibit patterns of zonation, but 
these are less evident as there is 
no opportunity of macroalgae
and most organisms live within 
the sediment
Providing an abundant source of food for birds
Saltmarshes

Saltmarshes experience similar physical extremes as


estuaries, and are often associated with them, providing a
source of organic matter into the estuary. Characterised by
a unique flora, and often subject to nature conservation
designations.
World Distribution of Mangroves 
and Saltmarshes

http://sky.scnu.edu.cn/life/class/ecology/chapter/chapter3.files/image044.jpg
Coral reefs
Marine Food Chains

https://water.europa.eu/marine/topics/state‐of‐marine‐ecosystem/marine‐food‐webs
Sensitivity of coastal marine habitats

Cedre (2007)
NATURE CONSERVATION INITIATIVES IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
At present there is a range of designations:
International: Ramsar sites (wetlands; Convention), Biosphere 
reserves, World Heritage sites, Ecologically or Biologically Significant 
Marine Areas (both United Nations)
European: Special Protection Areas (SPAs) under the Birds Directive 
and Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) under the Species and 
Habitats Directive.
National: extends these with both statutory and voluntary 
designations, so this includes in the UK for example Areas of 
Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs ‐ England and Wales) and 
National Scenic Areas (NSAs ‐ Scotland), plus a range of local and 
voluntary designations.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have already been established in the 
UK, and this work is still progressing and will continue to link to 
international initiatives.
https://www.cbd.int/ebsa/
Examples of Biotopes protected in the UK:
• Areas with high densities of marine mammals 
and seabird feeding areas
• Lophelia pertusa (now Desmophyllum pertusum;  
the cold water coral) within different SACs and 
MPAs
• Other biogenic structures:
•Maerl – a calcareous red seaweed which 
creates a coral‐like network of complex 
geometry on the seabed.
•Reefs – Modiolus modiolus (Horse Mussel) 
and serpulid reefs 
•Seagrass meadows (Zostera marina in the 
UK)
•Also some very large sea areas (e.g. Dogger 
Bank, SAC)
http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page‐5201
https://mpatlas.org/zones/
Recent deep sea Marine Protected Area
(West of Scotland, UK)

https://www.communitiesforseas.scot/new-deep-sea-
marine-protected-area/
Known feeding and breeding grounds of the North Atlantic humpback whale. 
Lines indicate exchange between areas, not actual migration routes.  ©Center for 
Coastal Studies (http://coastalstudies.org/humpback‐whale‐research/yonah/)
(2011)

https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10082
(2011)

a, Monthly mean latitudes of predators residing within or migrating to the California Current large marine ecosystem (CCLME). Black line segments 
denote gaps where no data were available. Sample sizes indicate the numbers of individual tracks contributing to the time series. b, Seasonal 
climatologies in the California Current for tunas (Pacific bluefin, blue; yellowfin, black), sharks (salmon shark, brown; shortfin mako, black; white 
shark, blue) and blue whales relative to median chlorophyll a densities and sea surface temperature (SST) values between 2000 and 2009.
Introduction to the Marine Environment

End of Part 1

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