Functions and notions

Cause and result

We can express cause and result with the words in the tables. Examples of each of these
structures are included below the tables.

Cause expressions

Conjunctions Prepositions Verbs

because of + noun / verb + -ing cause + noun / infinitive verb

since + clause due to + noun / verb + -ing be caused by + noun / verb + -ing

because + clause on account of + noun / verb + -ing bring about + noun

Result expressions

result in + noun / verb + -ing

lead to + noun / verb + -ing

Cause expressions
Since

Since is quite formal, and it means the same as because. Sinceconnects two clauses and
introduces the subordinate clause. When the subordinate clause is at the beginning of a
sentence, a comma separates the two clauses.

• I had to get a taxi since it was raining.

• Since it was raining, I had to get a taxi.

Because

Because is a conjunction, so it is followed by a clause. It behaves the same way as since.

• Because she arrived at work late, Jane had to make up her hours.
• Jane had to make up her hours because she arrived at work late.
Because of / due to

Because of and due to are two-word prepositions, so they are followed by a noun or a verb + -
ing.

• Because of the rain, the football match was postponed.

• The football match was postponed because of the rain.
• The football match was postponed because of fallingrain.
• Many matches are cancelled due to bad weather.
• Due to bad weather, many matches are cancelled.
• Due to doing too much exercise, many athletes get injuries.

On account of

On account of is used in the same way as due to, but is more informal.

• Many athletes get injuries on account of hard physical training.

• On account of hard physical training, many athletes get injuries.
• On account of doing too much exercise, many athletes get injuries.

Cause and be caused by

Be caused by is the passive form of the verb cause. Be caused by is followed by a noun, or by a
verb + -ing.

• Too many injuries caused Helen to eventually give up sports.

• Helen's problem was caused by too many injuries.
• Helen's problem was caused by having too many injuries.

Bring about

Bring about is a phrasal verb. It means the same as cause. Bring about is followed by a noun. It
is often used in the passive.

• Helen's excessive sports training brought about both physical and mental collapse.
• Obesity is brought about by an excess of eating and a lack of exercise.

Result expressions
Result in and lead to

Result in and lead to are both verbs which refer to results.

• The need to win competitions results in athletes taking drugs.

• Exercising 10 hours a day leads to physical problems later in life.