Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Meredith Et Al. - 1989 - Alternative Research Paradigms in Operations Editado
Meredith Et Al. - 1989 - Alternative Research Paradigms in Operations Editado
JACK R. MEREDITH*
AMITABH RATURI*
KWASI AMOAKO-GYAMPAH*
BONNIE KAPLAN**
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Due to the heritage and history of operations management, its research methodologies have been
confined mainly to that of quantitative modeling and, on occasion, statistical analysis. The field has been
changing dramatically in recent years. Firms now face numerous worldwide competitive challenges,
many of which require major improvements in the operations function. Yet, the research methodologies in
operations have largely remained stagnant. The paradigm on which these methodologies are based, while
useful, limits the kinds of questions researchers can address.
This paper presents a review and critique of the research in operations, itemizing the shortcomings
identified by researchers in the field. These researchers suggest a new research agenda with an integrative
view of operations' role in organizations, a wider application of alternative research methodologies,
greater emphasis on benefit to the operations manager. cross-disciplinary research with other functional
areas, a heavier emphasis on sociotechnical analysis over the entire production system, and empirical
field studies. Sorne of the alternative research methodologies mentioned include longitudinal studies,
field experiments, action research, and field studies.
Following a description of the nature of research, three stages in the research cycle are identified:
description, explanation, and testing. Although research can <leal with any stage in this cycle, the
majority of attention currently seems to focus on the explanation stage. The paper then discusses
historical trends in the philosophy of science, starting with positivism, expanding into empiricism, and
then leading to post-positivism. The impacts of each of these trends on research in operations (which
remains largely in the positivist mode) are described. Discussion of the importance of a plurality of
research methods concludes the section.
A framework for research paradigms is then developed based on two key dimensions of research
methodologies: the rational versus existential structure of the research process and the natural versus
artificial basis for the information used in the research. These dimensions are then further explored in
terms of thirteen characteristic measures. Next , research methodologies commonly used in other fields as
well as operations are described in reference to this framework. Methodologies include those traditional
to operations such as normative and descriptive modeling, simulation, surveys, case and field studies as
well as those more common to other fields such as action research, historical analysis, expert panels,
scenarios, interviewing, introspection, and hermeneutics. Examples from operations or allied fields are
given to illustrate the methodologies.
Past research publications in operations are plotted on the framework to see the limitations of our
current paradigms relative to the richness of other fields. We find that operations methodologies tend to
Manuscript received November 15, 1988; accepted December 22, 1989, after two revisions.
"University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0130
** American University, Washington, D. C. 20016
INTRODUCTION
The field of operations, or operations management (OM)t, faces multiple new research
challenges in the areas of service operations, productivity, quality, technology and many other
areas. Never before has the need for pragmatic research, directly useful to the operations
manager, been so important to the field, and to industry and society. One perspective on this is
offered by Galliers and Land ( 1987) in reference to information systems, but just as applicable to
operations: "[It is] an applied discipline, not a pure science. It follows, therefore, that if the
fruits of our research fail to be applicable in the real world, then our endeavors are relegated to
the point of being irrelevant. '' Yet, OM researchers still tend to employ a limited range of
research paradigms to address the new challenges in operations.
A part of the reason is historical. Originally, the research orientation of operations was
entirely pragmatic: What procedures should be used in what situations? The presentation in
early textbooks on production (e.g., Mitchell (1939)) focused on the organization and
transformation process through a combination of descriptive and prescriptive discussion
(Andrew and Johnson (1982)). The unit of analysis was the production manager and the
definition of production management centered around what the production manager did. For
example, in explaining why plant location was left out of his book, Mayer (1962, p. v) stated:
''... there is a reason to believe that the productíon manager will play a relatively minor role in
these areas of decision making."
Then in the 1950s, the Ford (Gorden and Howell (1959)) and Carnegie (Pierson (1959))
Foundations' reports severely criticized business colleges for their lack of rigor or a scientific
approach to business education and research (Laidlaw (1988)). Operations research (OR) was
moving from war applications into the business and industrial arena and with it, the opportunity
for business schools to gain academic respectability. OR quickly developed into a favorite too)
(e.g., Holt, Modigliani, Muth, and Simon (1960)) for conducting research in operations (Buffa
(1965, p. v.), Nistal (1979-80); Andrew and Johnson (1982)). It also allowed, for the first time,
the development of a systematic body of knowledge in operations based on a consistent and
rigorous framework.
Although useful to numerous areas of business, the predominant application of OR was to the
area of operations (Buffa (1968, p. 4)). Marketing, finance, and organizational behavior also
used the new tool but found it somewhat límited in íts applicabilíty to their problems (Hudson
and Ozanne (1988)). Ackoff (1979, p. 94), for example, remarked that the OR approach "carne
to be identified with the use of mathematical models and algorithms rather than the ability to
formulate management problems, solve them, and implement and maintaín their solutions in
turbulent environments.'' Marketing and organizational behavior, in particular, developed a
number of other paradigms drawn heavily from the fields of psychology and sociology to address
their research problems.
But OM researchers were having great success with the new algorithmic modeling tools and
found no need to explore other paradigms (Andrew and Johnson (1982)). The new area of
operations research/management science (OR/MS) was steadily replacing the function of
FIGURE 1
THE ONGOING CYCLE OF RESEARCH STAGES
Description. Descriptive research seeks to report and chronicle elements of situations and
events. As noted previously, the predominant activity of early research in operations was
descriptive. The approaches and techniques available for capturing this information depend on
the field and on the nature of the situations and events of interest. The result is a well-
documented characterization of the subject of interest. This characterization then may be used
for generating or testing theories, frameworks, and concepts regarding the situation. For
example, Meredith (1984) describes the complications that arose in the simple process of
attempting to purchase a copying machine for a university department and Heller ( 195 l)
describes investment decisions in general.
A finer, more detailed leve! of description about a particular facet of the subject may require
what is sometimes known as exploratory research. Here, a particular aspect is investigated more
fully, based on the understanding that the preliminary descriptive research gave. This
RATIONAL
-1 -1
<( <(
a:
� DIRECT ARTIFICAL
o
¡¡:
� OBSERVATION RECONSTR'CTN -
z w �
a:·>- <(
!_za�.
UJ 1-
- c >-
o a:
o
!:::w
:r
1-
EXISTENTIAL
Hounshell ( 1988, p. 61) provides a historical perspective of sorne basic axioms of manufacturing
management.
The logical positivistlempiricist perspective assumes that the phenomenon under study can be
isolated from the context in which it occurs and that facts or observations are independent of the
Iaws and theories used to explain them. This is the basis for most survey research. For example,
Anderson, Schroeder, White, and Tupy (1980) use this perspective to derive conclusions about
critica] MRP implementation factors. Isolated from the context, one concludes that top
management commitment is essential for implementation success. The question that naturally
follows is what leads to Iack of commitment. Are there competing demands for management
commitment? lf so, then the phenomenon is much more complex than we have assumed. lf not,
the results are tautological. "Good" management is essential for implementation success, but
"good" is defined by a successful implementation.
FIGURE 3
A FRAMEWORK FOR RESEARCH METHODS
NATURAL - � ARTIFICIAL
EXISTENTIAL
FIGURE 4
DISTRIBUTION OF JOURNAL ARTICLES ON OM TOPICS
NATURAL:: ; ARTIFICIAL
CRJTICAL THEORY
'
EXISTENTIAL
The inescapable conclusion is that our research in operations is still overwhelmingly artificial
in nature, though breaking the methodological tie with the field of management science has
allowed us to begin moving toward more existential (primarily interpretive) paradigms and to
move away from the more rationalistic, "scientiñc" paradigms (both axiomatic and logical
positivist/empiricist). We believe that a much stronger movement toward naturalistic paradigms
(especially direct observation via case, action, and field studies) and existential (primarily
ENDNOTES
tThroughout this paper we follow the example of the other functional business fields of finance, marketing, and human
resources and drop the unnecessary "management."
REFERENCES
l. Abernathy, W.J., and J.E. Corcaran. "Relcarning from the Old Masters: Lessons of the American System of
Manufacturing." Journal ofOperations Management, vol. 3, no. 4, August 1983, 155-167.
2. Ackoff, R. "The Future of Operational Research is Past." Journal of the Operational Research Society. vol. 30,
no. 2, 1979, 93-104.
3. Agar, M.H. Speaking of Ethnography. Sage University Paper Series on Qualitative Research Methods, vol. 2.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1986.
4. Alexander, C.P. "Quality's Third Dimension." Quality Progress, July 1988, 21-23.
5. Arnoako-Gyampah, K., and J.R. Meredith. "The Operations Management Research Agenda: An Update."
Journal of Operations Management, vol. 8, no. 3, 1989, 250-262.
6. Anderson, J.C., R.G. Schroeder, E.M. White, and S.E. Tupy. "MRP: The State of the Art." APICS Monograph.
Falls Church, VA: American Production and lnventory Control Society, !ne., Fall 1980.
7. Anderson, J.C., N.L. Chervanay, and R. Narasimhan. "Is Implementation Research Relevant for the OR/MS
Practitioner?" Interfaces, vol. 9, no. 3, May 1979, 52-56.
8. Andrew, C.G., and G.A. Johnson. "The Crucial Importance of Production/Operations Management." Academy of
Management Review, vol. 7, no. 1, 1982, 43-147.
9. Antill, L. "Selection of a Research Method." In Research Methodsfor Information Systems, E. Mumford and R.
Hirschheim (eds.) Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1985.
10. Argyris, C., R. Putnam, and D.M. Smith. Action Science: Concepts, Methods, and Skills for Research and
Intervention. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985.
11. Babbie, E.R. Survey Research Methods. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1973.
12. Basu, A., and R.G. Schroeder. "Incorporating Judgments in Sales Forecasts: Application of the Delphi Method at
American Hoist & Derrick." Interfaces, vol. 7, no. 3, May 1977, 8-27.
13. Beged-dov, A.G., and T.A. Klein. "Research Methodology in the Management Sciences: Formalism or
Empiricism." Operational Research Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 3, 1970, 311:326.
14. Benbasat, l., D.K. Goldstein, and M. Mead. "The Case Research Strategy in Studies of Information Systems."
MIS Quarterly, vol. 11, no. 3, Sept., 1987, 369-386.
15. Benson, P.G., A. V. Hill, and T.R. Hoffmann. "Manufacturing Systems of the Future-A Del phi Study."
Production and lnventory Management, vol. 23, no. 3, Third Quarter 1982, 87-106.
16. Bonorna, T. V. "Case Research in Marketing: Opportunities, Problems, and a Process." Journal of Marketing
Research, vol. 22, no. 2, May 1985, 99-208.
APPENDIX
THE HISTORY OF RESEARCH ANO POST-POSITIVIST THOUGHT
This appendix briefly reviews the historical and philosophical development of research thought. It also describes a
number of attributes of modern post-positivist thinking. It then concludes with a discussion of the need to employ a
plurality of research methods in operations. More detailed discussion on these copies can be found in Meredith, Raturi,
Kaplan, and Amoako-Gyampah ( 1988) or the indicated references.
The history of research, scientific inquiry in particular, covers three main periods: the era of the positivists and the
associated development of the scientific method, the era of che empiricists and the application of new methodologies to
the social sciences because the positivist approach was found warning, and che post-posirivist era, which includes the
present. By limiting our discussion to these three approaches. we ignore a number of other philosophies pertaining to
metaphysics and epistemology. sorne of which occurred within the same periods. That is, we are following only one
philosophical thread here.
Also, positivism. our first topic, was not the first philosophy but developed as a reaction to other philosophies. And in
its turn. empiricism was only one of che alrernatives posed to positivism. We only briefly sketch these eras to give a
foundation for the discussion on research paradigms.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857) was a sociologist who initiated deliberations on positivist thought. The term "positive"
refers to positive, or "observable," data; that is, sensory experience of externa!, objective reality (Martineau (1896)).
The positivist approach holds that only empirically verifiable or analytic propositions are meaningful (see, for example,
Hemple (1965)).
One theme that has consistently emerged from historical developments in the philosophy of science is that the methods
of the physical sciences (largely positivist) are only a subset of the methods for providing explanation and conducting
research. Yet, as Beged-dov and Klein (1970) andLee (1987) point out, the positivist approach remains the cornerstone
for conducting research in management science. As Klein and Lyytinen (1985, p. 136) note: "The scientific method
turns into scientistic orthodoxy when it entails a commitment to [the belief that reality exists independently of the
researcher, language, and culture; the empirical-analytical method is the only valid approach to research; and that
scientism applies not only to the domain of the so-called exact (viz. physical and mathematical) sciences, but also to
those of ali other fields, in particular the study of human behavior.] It has found its most extreme implementation in the
practice of Management Science as manifested in most of the TIMS publications and likewise outlets."
Researchers in the social sciences in the l 9th century encountered significant problems trying to operate under these
guidelines. Difficulties arose in reconciling laws of behavior with human free will. More significantly, there were severe
problems trying to predict social events based u pon multiple causal events through the use of the then-popular too! of the
physical sciences-the laboratory experiment. Recognizing the need for a new research paradigm, philosophers, al the
behest of social scientists, again addressed the basic question of what constitutes a scientific explanation and what <loes
not.
A number of philosophies were proposed as alternatives to positivism. Here we follow the antecedents of positivism
to a later development, the work of John Locke (1632-1704) and David Hume (1711-1776) on empiricism. Empiricism
is the doctrine that ali knowledge is based on experience, or obtained through the senses. The power of empiricism
derives from "predictiveness." Friedman (1974) argues that the causal structure leading to "true" predictions may rest
upon false assumptions, but we are not bothered by it as long as the predictions remain true. He argues that across
scientists and across different time periods, certain phenomena are considered self-explanatory, or "natural."
Explanation consists of relating other phenomena to these natural phenomena.
The primary methodology of empiricism is through rejection of the hypothesis (Popper ( 1963)). Because confirmation
cannot be empirically established, hypotheses have to be set so that they can be rejected, or "falsified." Popper
proposed that research activity is the method of the "irrational rationals": one is looking for statements to reject. Lee (
1987) notes, in addition, that the discipline of statistics has ''distanced itself from the notion of induction.'' Statisticians
are careful to point out that the action of increasing the sample size <loes not increase the probability that the observation
is true; rather, it increases the researcher's leve! of confidence.
Post-Positivist Approaches
The two primary research approaches in operations have been management science and statistics. As argued earlier,
the normative thinking implicit in the former and the problems of verification in the latter are problematic, especially for
operations systems that include people. Since socio-cultural and organizational issues are implicit in our definition of
operations as a field, researchers have to <leal with the criticisms of the positivist/normative and empiricist approaches.
While much has been written about problems with the positivist/normative approach in operations (e.g., Ackoff
( 1979), Lee (1987)) there are problems with empiricism for the field of operations also. One is the limits of the stimulus-
response paradigm of laboratory experimentation and other empírica! research modes, such as surveys, in producing
usable observations. We are not commenting here on experiments done in artificial settings, or with convenience
samples; this is the accepted practice of curren! research activity in most areas of management. Rather, we are concerned
with the much more stringent and dangerous assumption that social beings respond to a stimulus (e.g., the alternatives in
a questionnaire) in a finite number of ways that can be captured by experiments or instruments.
Also, because we seek universal laws concerning operations, we tend to do research using transhistorical or
transcultural generalizations. Recent research efforts concerning manufacturing systems in different nations (e.g.,
Whybark and Rho ( 1988)) conclude that it is difficult to discover laws or principies that are val id across time or cultures.
Critica! social theorists like Habermas ( 1971, 1979) (also see McCarthy ( 1978)) considera researcher's subjectivity and
a proposition's cultural bias as significan! research problems.
There are additional problems concerning observer neutrality. It is hard, or impossible, to study social systems from a
value-free perspective. Further, the repeatability of research findings is another positivist notion that presumes the