BAKING INGREDIENTS

AND PRINCIPLE

Learning Outcomes :
- Students can choose ingredients in making bread and pastry
- Students can understand the principle of the baking process
WATER

• Plays a major role in the art and science of baking.

• The amount of water controls the quality, texture, taste, odor,
volume, flavor, and the mouthfeel of bakery products.
• The art of baking involves using the optimum amount of quality
water.
• If the baking process does not call for water as an ingredient, water
is still involved, because it is present in some of the ingredients.
• Water reacts with the baking ingredients and evaporates when
heated.
 • In a bakery product, all ingredients interact
among one another at the molecular and atomic
levels to give the final texture, flavor, taste,
aroma, character, palatability,and mouthfeel.
• Water is a polar substance ➔ it strongly interacts
WATER with other polar ingredients ➔
✓ Water-soluble polar ingredients are
hydrophilic
✓ Interaction between water and nonpolar
ingredients are hydrophobic
• Substances whose molecules have both polar
and nonpolar parts are amphiphilic ➔ ex :
detergents, proteins, aliphatic acids, alkaloids,
and some amino acids.
 Leavening agent
• Leavening agent is a material used to
expand the dough generally due to the
production of CO2 :
✓ Yeast
✓ Sodium bicarbonate ("soda")
✓ Ammonium bicarbonate ("vol")
✓ Acidulan and Acid
✓ Air
✓ Eggs
Yeast
• Plays a role in CO2 production through sugar
fermentation so as to produce a crumb structure and
increase the volume of biscuits.
• Also plays a role in providing flavor
• Commercial yeast is a derivative of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae ➔ isolated, selected and genetically modified
so that it has the characteristics of fast growth and high
biomass formation and high gas production rate during
adona fermentation.
• Used in the production of cream crackers.
• Active at 30 ° - 35 ° C during the dough fermentation,
activity ceases at temperatures above 40 ° C ➔ inactive
during the baking process.
 Sodium bicarbonate (“soda”)
✓ Easy to dissolve and reacts with
acidulant in the dough in the presence
of water ➔ produces carbon dioxide
and decomposes into salt and water.
✓ The speed of the reaction can be
controlled by the type of acidulant.
✓ The dough development process
takes place during mixing and
fermentation.
Amonium bikarbonat (“vol”)

✓Completely decomposes when heated,

producing carbon dioxide, ammonia
and water.
✓The reaction is rapid at 60°C ➔ dough
development takes place during the
early stages of baking.
 Potasium bicarbonat (" KHCO3 ")

Decomposes under the influence of heat, and

releases carbon dioxide.

The complete decomposition process requires

the presence of acid and a longer roasting time

If the decomposition is not complete ➔change

in color and a bitter taste

Often used when the amount of sodium must

be reduced.
 Acidulan and Acid
✓ Baking powder is a mixture of sodium bicarbonate
with acid or salt ➔ will dissociate giving an acid
reaction in the solution
✓ The purpose of this combination of ingredients is to
produce CO2 gas bubbles both before baking and
during the roasting process in the oven.
✓ The gas bubbles form the nucleation for
subsequent expansion when the gas is heated and
the water vapor pressure increases during
roasting.
 Ascorbic Acid and Redox Agent
• Oxidizing and reducing (redox) agents are highly active materials which are widely used in the
baking industry to modify the physical properties of dough and batter systems.
• These include chemical-based materials such as :
✓ Ascorbic acid
✓ Azodicarbonamide Oxidizing agents
✓ Potassium bromate

✓ Sodium metabisulfite
Reducing agents
✓ l-cysteine.

• Other chemical-based redox materials are enzymes :

✓ Glucose oxidase Used in combination with ascorbic acid and requiring presence of
✓ Sulfhydral oxidase oxygen to function effectively

✓ Proteases ➔ to soften doughy system

✓ Transglutaminase ➔hat strengthens dough systems by cross-linking protein chains.
Ascorbic Acid and
Redox Agent
• Hexose Oxidase ➔ from Duponts :
✓ Provides a dough strengthening
effect in the presence of oxygen
✓ Reacts with either mono or
disaccharides
✓ Unlike glucose oxidase, which is
more dependent on flour
variations and procedures ➔
Hexose oxidase has a strong
affinity for its substrates, which
makes it a powerful biological
oxidant.
 Acidulan and Acid
✓ Almost all types of acids can be used as acidulant, such as:
➢ Lactic acid,
➢ Cream of tartar (potassium tartarat) = KHC4H4O6
➢ Monocalcium phosphate monohydrate
(Ca(H2PO4)2.H2O)
➢ Anhydrous monocalcium phosphate (Ca(H2PO4)2)
➢ Sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP)
➢ Sodium aluminium phosphate (SALP ) =
NaH14Al3(PO4)8.4H2O
➢ Sodium aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3. Na2SO4)
➢ Tartaric acid
➢ Glucono-delta-lactone (C6O6H10)
 Ascorbic Acid and Redox Agent
• Ascorbic acid is commonly used as an improver
• In the baking industry and in some countries, it is the only oxidation improver allowed.
• Other dough improvers include potassium bromate and azodicarbonamide to oxidize and
sodium metabisulfite and l-cysteine to reduce gluten-forming proteins.
• Affect the sulfhydral/disulfide reaction ➔ plays an important role in the rheological
properties of bakery systems.
• Enzymes are now used to replace or support the action of the traditional redox materials
Ascorbic Acid and Redox Agent
• Steffolani et al (2012) reported that the addition of 100 ppm
α-amylase, 26 ppm glucosidase and 16 ppm xylanase can
increase the volume and reduce the stickiness of the
bread.
• Baratto et al (2015) showed that the addition of 0.01% α-
amylase, 0.01% -xylanase enzymes and 200 ppm
ascorbic acid to wheat flour would improve dough
properties and bread quality.
Enzyme Function and Application in Bakery Industry

Enzyme Function Application

Amylase Breaks down starch, producing maltose Standardize flour, dough
conditioner, and anti stalling
Hemicelullase Breaks down hemicellulose (xylan, Dough conditioner
xylobiosa, arabonoxylan, and
arabinogalactan)
Protease Breaks down gluten Standardize flour, dough
conditioner
Lipoxygenase Oxydize fat Dough conditioner
Glucose oxidase Oxydize ascorbic acid and modify gluten Dough conditioner
 Basic of Dough Developments
• The addition of oxidizing enzymes will accelerate the oxidation reaction of -D-glucose to
-D-gluconolactone and hydrogen peroxide.
• Hydrogen peroxide can oxidize sulfhydryl groups (-SH) in gluten proteins and form
disulfide bonds to produce dithirosine cross-links and gelation in water-soluble pentoses.
• The glucosidase enzyme can repair damaged gluten by oxidizing the covalent bonds
between the gluten protein subunits ➔ the gluten network can function again in
increasing the strength of the dough when it is stretched
• The xylanase enzyme is able to break down arabinoxylan which can interfere with the
formation of the gluten matrix ➔ the viscosity of the starch paste increases and improves
the stability of the bread dough
• Ascorbic acid is a reducing agent, but can provide an oxidizing effect on the dough after
being oxidized to dehydro ascorbic acid (DAA) if there is oxygen in the air ➔ DAA
oxidizes glutathione
 Sugar and Syrup
• A common sugar ➔ sucrose obtained from sugar
canes and beets ➔ sold in the form of white
crystal sugar, liquid sugar (dissolved in water), or
brown sugar.
• Icing sugar is produced by grinding and sifting
coarse crystalline sugar
• Honey ➔ a special syrup due to its high price ➔
it is used to produce products with a distinctive
flavour
• Maple syrup is produced from maple tree sap
containing 3% sucrose ➔ concentrated to
produce syrup with a sucrose content of 70-75%
➔ used to produce biscuits with a distinctive
flavor, but the price is relatively expensive
• Invert sugar syrup is a mixture of glucose and
fructose ➔produces a sweeter biscuit product
and contributes to a moist and soft texture
 Sugar and Syrup
• Sugar and syrup from starch :
✓ Made from corn starch, wheat, potatoes, tapioca, etc
✓ Starch was hydrolized by acid or enzyme or combination of both ➔ produce soluble
starch and has a sweet taste but its sweetness cannot be measured in absolute terms
 Sugar and Syrup

• Glucose Syrup:
✓ Its function in biscuit manufacture is limited ➔ it
produces reducing sugar to increase the color on
the surface through the Maillard reaction and
gives a crunchy texture without giving a
significant sweet taste to the savory biscuit
product
✓ Glucose syrup also gives soft biscuits ➔ a
preferred texture
✓ Moisture control, sweet taste
✓ 2 grades of glucose syrup :
1. Medium (dextrose equivalent/DE = 42)
2. High (DE=65).
 Sugar and Syrup
• Polyol (Alcohol Sugar):
✓Ex : sorbitol, xyliyol, mannitol, lactitol, and
isomalto
✓It is not a reducing sugar and does not
contribute to the Maillard reaction
✓Its sweetness and caloric value < sucrose
✓Suitable for diabetics
✓May cause laxative and flatulence if
consumed 20-50 g/day
✓Xylitol is the sweetest sugar alcohol and
Isomalt
can prevent it from carrying on the teeth
✓The use of polyols in bakery products is
prohibited in Europe

Lactitol
 Sugar and Syrups
• Gives a sweet taste and develops the texture of the
biscuit.
• Dissolved sugar tends to inhibit starch gelatinization
and gluten formation, resulting in biscuits with a softer
texture.
• Undissolved sugar crystals give a crunchy texture ➔
Sugar crystals melt during baking, and when cooled
become glassy and contain no crystals
• Sucrose melts at 160°C - 186°C.
• Biscuits with melted sugar topping to produce a
smooth and shiny surface require high heat intensity
in the oven so that the sugar can melt completely.
 Coarse Granulated sugar
Decorative sugar
grain sugar

Screened granulated sugar Nib sugar

Fondant Icing sugar Brown sugar

sugar
Various types of sucrose for food applications
High-intensity sweeteners (non-nutritive sweeteners
or low-calorie sweeteners)
 Fats
• Serves to produce the texture, mouthfeel, and bite of the desired biscuit.
• Crackers and hard biscuits have a relatively low fat content, whereas
cookies have a high amount of fat.
• Recipes with a high fat content call for less water to produce a cohesive
dough and produce a soft dough.
• During mixing, fat coats the flour particles, inhibiting hydration and
interfering with gluten formation.
• Fat also tends to inhibit yeast activity, the diffusion of carbon dioxide in the
dough during baking and this results in a softer, smoother texture.
• If more fat and sugar are added, it will produce a soft and chewy texture.
Fats
• Blended vegetable oils (blending oils) are solid at room
temperature and melt over a wide temperature range.
• The fat used in the manufacture of biscuits has a melting point
below body temperature (36.9°C ➔ avoiding a greasy taste in
the mouth.
• Solid Fat Index (SFI) fat is the percentage of solid fat in total fat
➔ SFI for biscuits 18% at 25°C and 12% at 30°C.
 Emulsifier
• Materials that can maintain a uniform dispersion of 2 insoluble substances,
such as oil and water
• Used to lower the surface tension to produce an even dispersion in the
dispersion phase.
• Emulsifier is a polar lipid ➔ has a polar part which will react in the water phase
(hydrophilic part), and a non-polar part which will react in the weak phase
(lipophilic part)
• They are generally esters of fatty acids with polyvalent alcohols such as
glycerol, sorbitol, propylene glycol and sucrose.
• Some components of starch and protein also have properties as emulsifiers
• The term surfactant or surface active agent is actually more appropriate than
emulsifier.
• Added in small amounts to the dough (<2%) minor ingredient
 Emulsifier
• The types of emulsifiers commonly used in bread and pastry
products :
✓Lecitin
✓Mono/di glycerida
✓Poligliserol ester
✓Acid derivative from monogliserida
✓Propilen glycol ester
✓Stearoyl Lactylates
✓Sucrose and sorbitol ester
Emulsifier
• Emulsifier mechanisms:
✓Stabilizes oil-in-water emulsions
✓Stabilizes water-in-oil emulsions
✓Modify fat crystallization
✓Changing dough consistency, stickiness and gel formation in starch
through the formation of starch, protein and sugar complexes
✓Lubrication dough with low fat content
 Antioxidant
• Inhibiting the process of oxidation and rancidity in fat ➔ extending
the shelf life of biscuits
• Commonly used antioxidants are BHA (Butylated Hydroxyanisole),
BHT (Butylated Hydroxytoluene), propyl error, and TBHQ (Tertiary
Butyl Hydro Quinone).
• BHA :
✓ Effective on animal fats but relatively less effective on vegetable
fats
✓ Not soluble in water
• BHT :
✓ Cheaper than BHA but has the same properties as BHA
Antioxidant
• Propyl Galat :
✓Stabile in vegetable oil
✓Heat sensitive, damage on 148 oC (baking
temperature)
✓Give a bad characteristics on bakery
products
✓Very Unsoluble both in oil and water
• TBHQ :
✓Effective in oil especially vegetable oil
✓Fat soluble
✓Give a good properties on product
 Dairy ingredient
• Milk, eggs, and their processed
products, such as butter and
cheese
• The type of milk used in bakery
products :
✓Fresh milk
✓Full Cream Milk Powder
(FCMP)
✓Skimmed Milk Powder (SMP)
✓Evaporated or Condensed Milk
Typical composition of milk products (%)
 Dairy ingredient
• Butter and Butter Oil :
✓Used as shortening and give the flavor on
products
✓Variation in quality depends in source, the
content of whey cream, and the using of
lactic yeast in their processing
✓Sold in salted (contains 1.5% salt) or
unsalted
 Dairy ingredient
• Cheese and Cheese Powder :
✓ Made from milk with a series of processes including inoculation
with certain bacteria, separation of semi solid curd from liquid
whey
✓ There are several types of cheese, but the ones most widely
used in making biscuits are Mature Ceddar and Parmesan
which have a strong flavor.
✓ A fresh cheese is often a problem in the dough ➔ a cheese
powder is preferred but tends to produce a weak flavor.
✓ One of the most preferred savory flavors ➔ it is stable at
baking temperatures
Dairy ingredient
Typical analysis of cheddar cheese powder
 Dairy ingredient

• Whey Powder :
✓ Whey is casein free skimmed milk
✓ Liquid fraction of curd separation during cheese production
✓ The casein protein is coagulated by acids or enzymes and
separated from the fat to form cheese and the rest is whey
✓ Rich in lactose and minerals as well as serum protein i.e.
albumin
✓ The type of whey depends on the type of cheese making ➔
whey from Cheddar cheese and Swiss cheese has a sweet
taste, while cream cheese has a sour taste
✓ Whey is dried like milk powder ➔ widely used to replace
SMP because it is cheaper
✓ Whey powder is used as a filler in sandwich cream
 Dairy ingredient
• Other Dairy Products :
✓Through the separation technique, lactose,
demineralized whey, and whey protein concentrate
can be obtained
✓Lactose is used for savory and non-sweet biscuit
products
✓Whey protein is used as an egg replacer (egg
substitute)
✓Yogurt is used to produce a healthier biscuits and have
a distinctive flavor
✓Calcium caseinate is produced from skim milk and has
a protein content of 90% ➔ a good protein supplement
for biscuits with a better flavor than soy flour
Calcium caseinate – typical composition (%)
 Dairy ingredient
• Eggs :
✓Only chicken eggs are generally used
in bakery products Typical composition of whole fresh eggs (%)
✓The difficulty in breaking eggs causes
the use of whole eggs in the biscuit
industry to be unusual, usually frozen
eggs or egg flour are used.
✓Egg yolks are rich in lecithin and fat,
and provide flavor to the product
✓Egg flour