Reconstructing Compressor

Nonuniform Circumferential Flow

Field From Spatially
Fangyuan Lou1
School of Mechanical Engineering, Undersampled Data—Part 2:

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Purdue University,
West Lafayette, IN 47907
e-mail: louf@purdue.edu
Douglas R. Matthews
School of Mechanical Engineering,
Purdue University,
West Lafayette, IN 47907
e-mail: matthe18@purdue.edu
Nicholas J. Kormanik III
School of Mechanical Engineering,
Purdue University,
West Lafayette, IN 47907
e-mail: nkormani@purdue.edu
Nicole L. Key
School of Mechanical Engineering,
Purdue University,
West Lafayette, IN 47907
e-mail: nkey@purdue.edu
Practical Application
for Experiments
In the previous part of the paper, a novel method to reconstruct the compressor nonuniform
circumferential flow field using spatially undersampled data points is developed. In this part
of the paper, the method is applied to two compressor research articles to further demon-
strate the potential of the novel method in resolving the important flow features associated
with these circumferential nonuniformities. In the first experiment, the static pressure field
at the leading edge of a vaned diffuser in a high-speed centrifugal compressor is recon-
structed using pressure readings from nine static pressure taps placed on the hub of the dif-
fuser. The magnitude and phase information for the first three dominant wavelets are
characterized. Additionally, the method shows significant advantages over the traditional
averaging methods for calculating repeatable mean values of the static pressure. While
using the multi-wavelet approximation method, the errors in the mean static pressure
with one dropout measurement are 70% less than the pitchwise-averaging method. In the
second experiment, the full annulus total pressure field downstream of Stator 2 in a
three-stage axial compressor is reconstructed from a small segment of data representing
20% coverage of the annulus. Results show very good agreement between the reconstructed
total pressure profile and the experiment at a variety of spanwise locations from near hub to
near shroud. The features associated with blade row interactions accounting for passage-
to-passage variations are resolved in the reconstructed total pressure profile.
[DOI: 10.1115/1.4050434]

Keywords: circumferentially nonuniform flow, flow reconstruction, multi-wavelet

approximation, centrifugal compressor, multi-stage axial compressor, measurement
techniques

Introduction features, errors can be introduced to the calculated mean flow prop-
erties and can further propagate into calculations of the component
The flow field in a compressor is circumferentially nonuniform
performance. For instance, Stummann et al. [1] conducted a full
due to the wakes from upstream stator row(s), the potential field
annulus unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (URANS)
from both upstream and downstream stator rows, and their aerody-
simulation of a 3.5-stage axial compressor at midspan and
namic interactions. Characterization of this nonuniform flow is of
showed that the circumferentially nonuniform flow can cause
great importance since it can affect stage performance and blade
more than a one-point error in compressor stage performance mea-
forced response. Historically, experimental characterization of cir-
surements. In a recent study, Chilla et al. [2] investigated the instru-
cumferential variations in the flow field is achieved by circumferen-
mentation errors caused by circumferential flow field variations in
tial traverses, either utilizing a probe traverse mechanism or fixed
an eight-stage axial compressor representative of a small core com-
instrumentation while actuating the stator rows circumferentially.
pressor in an aero-engine. The analysis showed that a baseline probe
This involves costly design and development of complex traverse
configuration with three equally spaced probes around the annulus
mechanisms and introduces challenges in sealing the flow path.
yields a maximum of 0.8% error in flow capacity and 2.8 points in
Additionally, in many component or engine tests, implementa-
error for compressor isentropic efficiency.
tion of traverse mechanisms is not possible. Rakes placed at
Therefore, it is of great value to resolve the compressor nonuni-
several stations around the annulus are used to characterize the com-
form circumferential flow field using spatially undersampled data.
ponent performance. At each station, the thermodynamic properties
However, there is very limited research available in the open liter-
acquired from the probes at different locations are averaged to a
ature on this topic. To bridge this gap, a novel method to reconstruct
single value to represent the mean flow property. Therefore,
the compressor nonuniform circumferential flow field using spa-
depending on the location of the probes and nonuniform flow
tially undersampled data points from a few probes instrumented
at fixed circumferential locations is proposed in Part 1 of this pub-
lication [3]. The method includes two core techniques: a particle
1
Corresponding author. swarm optimization algorithm for selection of optimal probe posi-
Contributed by the International Gas Turbine Institute (IGTI) of ASME for tion and a multi-wavelet approximation method to reconstruct the
publication in the JOURNAL OF TURBOMACHINERY. Manuscript received November 12,
2020; final manuscript received January 25, 2021; published online April 26, 2021. nonuniform circumferential flow field from several dominant
Tech. Editor: David G. Bogard. wave numbers. Validation of the method is performed using a

Journal of Turbomachinery Copyright © 2021 by ASME AUGUST 2021, Vol. 143 / 081003-1
representative total pressure field in a multi-stage compressor avail-
able in the open literature. The flow variations are characterized
using full annulus URANS simulations, which constitute the
“true” pressure field. The circumferential total pressure field is
reconstructed from eight spatially distributed data points using a
triple-wavelet approximation method. Results show good agree-
ment between the reconstructed pressure field and the “true” pres-
sure field. Following that, a sensitivity analysis of the method is
conducted to study the influence of probe spacing on the error in
the reconstructed signal. The method is robust and capable of recon-
structing circumferentially nonuniform compressor flow field with
good accuracy.
In this part of the paper, the method is applied to two compressor
research articles to further demonstrate the potential of the novel
method in resolving the important flow features associated with
these circumferentially nonuniformities. The first experiment was
performed in a high-speed centrifugal compressor for aero-engine
applications to reconstruct the circumferential pressure field
upstream of the diffuser leading edge. As a key component in
modern centrifugal compressors, the performance of the vaned diffu-
ser is of great importance and is typically the bottleneck component
of the stage. The performance of the vaned diffuser is characterized in
terms of static pressure recovery coefficient, and the mean value of
the static pressure at the diffuser leading edge is one of the three
key parameters to evaluate the diffuser performance. However, the
pressure field is strongly nonuniform at the diffuser leading edge pri-
marily due to the potential field of the diffuser. Therefore, proper
placement of the static pressure taps and robust methods for evalua-
tion of the mean static pressure at the diffuser leading edge is critical.
In addition to the influence in calculating the diffuser performance,
this circumferential nonuniform pressure acts as a temporal excita-
tion to the rotating impeller and can cause blade vibration or
failure at resonance. For example, Lusardi [4] showed that as the
impeller blade sweeps through the nonuniform static pressure field
of the diffuser inlet, it experiences high pressure when in close prox-
imity to the diffuser vane and low pressure between vanes. This is one
of the primary sources for the unsteady loading on impeller blades.
As compressor designs advance toward higher efficiency and
compact size, the gap between the impeller and the diffuser are
greatly reduced in modern designs. This results in stronger diffuser
potential field interactions with the impeller blades and, conse-
quently, leads to higher forced response vibration levels of the impel-
ler blades. As a result, it is of great value to characterize the strength
of the diffuser potential field.
In the second experiment, the method is applied to reconstruct the
total pressure field downstream of an embedded stator in a multi-
stage axial compressor. The compressor, first reported by Fulayter
Fig. 1 Sketch of (a) the compressor flow path and (b) distribution of the diffuser leading edge static pressure taps
081003-2 / Vol. 143, AUGUST 2021
[5], represents the geometrically scaled up design of the rear stages
of a Rolls-Royce high-pressure compressor used for a jet engine
core, matching representative Mach numbers and Reynolds
numbers. With multiple stages and realistic flow conditions, the facil-
ity offers the opportunity to analyze the impact of blade row interac-
tions for computational tool validation. Though studies of the rotor
wake variability have been thoroughly carried out by Key et al. [6]
and Smith et al. [7], there are limited findings on passage-to-passage
flow variations for the vane rows. In this experiment, three circumfer-
ential segments of the annulus were experimentally characterized by
indexing the stators, with respect to one another, past a fixed total
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pressure rake. The full annulus circumferential flow field is recon-
structed from a small portion of data representing 20% coverage of
the annulus, and comparisons between the reconstructed total pres-
sure profiles and experimental results are made.
Reconstruction of Diffuser Leading Edge Pressure Filed
in a Single-Stage Centrifugal Compressor
The first experiment was conducted on a single-stage centrifugal
compressor research facility at Purdue University, and the objective
is to reconstruct the pressure field at the diffuser leading edge using
measurements from nine static pressure taps. The flow path of the
compressor and distribution of the steady instrumentation is
shown in Fig. 1(a). The entire stage includes an inlet housing, a
transonic impeller, a vaned diffuser, a bend, and deswirl vanes.
The inlet housing delivers the flow to the impeller eye. The impeller
is backswept and has 17 main blades plus 17 splitters. The diffuser
consists of 25 aerodynamically profiled vanes. The compressor
design speed is about 45,000 rpm, and the entire stage produces a
total pressure ratio near 6.5 at design condition. Steady performance
of the compressor stage is characterized using the total pressure and
total temperature measurements at compressor inlet (station 1) and
deswirl exit (station 5), and static pressure taps are located through-
out the flow passage to characterize the stage and component static
pressure characteristics, as shown in Fig. 1(a). The details of the
research facility can be found in Ref. [8].
The diffuser leading edge static pressure measurements are
selected as the focus for this study for four reasons:
(1) The pressure field at the diffuser leading edge is primarily
dominated by the potential field of the diffuser vanes, and
thus provides an ideal case to examine the methodology.
(2) The instrumentation is readily available in the original exper-
iment setup
Transactions of the ASME
 Table 1 Diffuser leading edge static pressure tap locations

Circumferential position Pitchwise position Passage

Description (deg) (%) no.

P1 52.0 60 4
P2 85.1 90 6
P3 103.9 20 8
P4 165.8 50 12
P5 198.9 80 14
P6 217.6 10 16
P7 279.5 40 20

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P8 312.7 70 22
P9 350.1 30 25

Fig. 3 Plot of diffuser leading static pressure along the (a) cir-
cumferential and (b) pitchwise direction

and low pressure between vanes, which agrees with the findings
from Lusardi in Ref. [4].

Reconstruction of the Diffuser Leading Edge Pressure Field

Using a Multi-Wavelet Approximation Method. According to
the empirical guidelines presented in Part 1 of the paper for selec-
tion of wavenumbers of most importance, a total of ten wavenum-
bers of interest were selected. These include the first two harmonics
from the wakes at station 1 caused by the struts and rakes (Wn = 4
and 8), the first five harmonics of the diffuser counts (Wn = 25, 50,
Fig. 2 Compressor normalized total–total pressure map 75, 100, and 125), and the interactions between the compressor inlet
struts and the vaned diffuser (Wn = 21, 17, and 34). The condition
numbers of the probe set for the ten selected wavenumbers are
(3) The performance of the vaned diffuser is evaluated in terms shown in Fig. 4. The values of all the condition numbers fall in
of static pressure recovery coefficient, and precise calculation the range between 1.0 and 2.0 indicating the probe set is able to
for the mean static pressure at the diffuser leading edge is of characterize all wavenumbers of interest. However, it is worth
great value in evaluating the aerodynamic performance of the noting that this is a unique case. For instance, out of the multiple
vaned diffuser. probe sets instrumented along the flow path at different stations
(4) The diffuser potential field is one of the primary forcing func- (impeller exit, diffuser leading edge, etc.), only the probe set
tions for impeller forced response at resonance [9]. located at the diffuser leading edge yields a reasonable condition
number.
The distribution of the static pressure taps at the diffuser leading Table 2 lists the values of Pearson’s r, the fitting residual, as well
edge is shown in Fig. 1(b). There are a total of nine static pressure as the rank of individual wavenumber. The wavenumber of
taps placed nonuniformly along the circumferential direction. Each 25 yields the best fitting results with highest value in Pearson’s r
of them is placed in a different diffuser passage at a different pitch- and the lowest fitting residual. A single-wavelet approximation
wise location from 10% to 90% pitch. Details of the circumferential using Wn = 25 yields a value for Pearson’s r greater than 0.95.
and pitchwise locations for these pressure taps are shown in Table 1.
Figure 2 shows the performance map of the compressor stage in
terms of normalized total pressure ratio from 60% to 100% cor-
rected speed from choke to high loading conditions. The operating
conditions near the design loading conditions are indicated by the
green circles. In the present study, the static pressure field at the dif-
fuser leading edge was constructed near the nominal loading at
design speed, indicated by a solid circle at 100% corrected speed
on the compressor map.
Figure 3 shows the variation of the diffuser leading edge static
pressure. In Fig. 3(a), the static pressure is shown in terms of the
absolute circumferential locations of the measurements. There is
an approximately 40% peak-to-peak variation in the static pressure
at the diffuser leading edge. There is no apparent trend in the mea-
surements as shown in Fig. 3(a). In contrast, the static pressure data
is more informative when shown in terms of its pitchwise position,
Fig. 3(b). There is a higher static pressure close to the diffuser vane Fig. 4 Condition number at the wavenumbers of interest

Journal of Turbomachinery AUGUST 2021, Vol. 143 / 081003-3

Table 2 Rank of data fitting for a variety of wavenumber
combinations

Wave no. Pearson correlation Fitting residual Rank

4 0.302 8.711 4
8 0.265 8.833 6
17 0.416 8.311 3
21 0.469 8.068 2
25 0.973 2.105 1
34 0.177 8.992 10
50 0.250 8.848 8

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75 0.297 8.725 5
100 0.244 8.860 9
125 0.259 8.825 7

Note: Italics font represents the best fitting results with highest value in
Pearson’s r and the lowest fitting residual.

Table 3 Best combination of wavelets from single-, double-, and

triple-wavelet approximation
Wave no. combination Pearson correlation Fitting residual, %
[25] 0.9731 2.2
[25, 50] 0.9927 1.1
[17, 25, 50] 0.9996 0.25
This indicates that the potential field of the vaned diffuser is dom-
inant in the static pressure field at the diffuser leading edge.
Furthermore, the wavenumber combinations yielding the best
fitting results using single-, double-, and triple-wavelet approxima-
tions are listed in Table 3. As discussed previously, the static pres-
sure field at the diffuser leading edge is primarily dominated by the
potential of the diffuser vanes and, thus, a wavenumber of 25 yields
the best fitting results for single-wavelet approximation. In addition,
results indicate that the addition of the second harmonic wavenum-
ber from the diffuser potential (Wn = 50) yields the best fitting
results for double-wavelet approximation. This agrees with the find-
ings from Sanders and Fleeter [10] showing that the variation in the
static pressure field near the diffuser leading edge is dominated by
the first few harmonics of the diffuser potential field. Finally, for the
triple-wavelet approximation, the optimal wavenumber combina-
tion yielding the best fitting results is realized when including the
effects from inlet strut-diffuser interactions (Wn = 17), and the
primary and second harmonic of the wavenumber from the diffuser
potential field (Wn = 25, 50).
In addition, the deviation between the measurements and fitting
results at individual sensor locations are shown in Fig. 5. There is
a significant improvement in data fitting from the single-wavelet
to triple-wavelet approximation. For instance, there is still an
approximately 4% peak-to-peak deviation between the measure-
ments and fitting data for the base case using the single-wavelet
approximation method. The deviation drops to less than 2.5% by
using the double-wavelet approximation method. Finally, the recon-
structed signal using wavenumbers of [17, 25, and, 50] yields the
best agreement with the measurements at all the sensor locations.
The peak-to-peak deviation between the measurements and fitted
data is less than 0.4%. The confidence of the fit in terms of Pear-
son’s r is 99.7%, indicating no need to include extra wavelets.
Furthermore, the reconstructed pressure field at the leading edge
from the triple-wavelet approximation method is shown in Fig. 6(a).
The measurements at all locations are also shown, indicated by the
circles, and the circumferential coverage of individual diffuser
passage at the leading edge is indicated by the shaded areas. The
pressure field at the leading edge of the diffuser is determined by
the constructive and destructive interactions between the three
wavelets, as shown in Fig. 6(b), and is the primary source for the
Fig. 5 Change of the errors between measurements and the
reconstructed signal using single-, double-, and triple-wavelet
approximation method
passage-to-passage variations. In the present case, the variation in
the pressure field at the diffuser leading edge is dominated by the
potential field from the diffuser vanes. As shown in Fig. 6(c), the
pressure variation due to the presence of diffuser vanes (Wn = 25)
is approximately 14% with respect to the pitch-averaged value.
The second contribution to the static pressure variation is the
second harmonic of the diffuser potential (Wn = 50), yielding an
approximate 4% variation in the circumferential direction at the dif-
fuser leading edge. Finally, there is a small influence from the inlet
strut-diffuser interactions (Wn = 17), causing approximately 2% of
variation in the circumferential pressure field at the diffuser leading
edge.
It is worth noting that there is great value in understanding the
content and interactions between each component in the pressure
field upstream of the diffuser leading edge. For instance, in centrif-
ugal compressors, one of the primary causes for impeller blade
failure is the effect of the potential field from the vaned diffuser.
In the present case, this corresponds to wavelets with wavenumbers
of 25 and 50. The potential field imposes an unsteady pressure to the
impeller blades as it passes by every diffuser passage. The magni-
tude of the wavelet determines the magnitude of the unsteady
force acting on the impeller blades, which determines the vibration
amplitude of the blade if the passing frequency is close to the blade
natural frequency. Although the static pressure field upstream of the
diffuser leading edge in a centrifugal compressor is used to illustrate
the potential of the methods in addressing some of the forced
response challenges, the method can also be applied to other
types of turbomachines including axial compressors and radial
and axial turbines.
Calculation of Mean Static Pressure Using the Multi-Wavelet
Approximation Method. In addition to reconstructing the detailed
flow features, the method can also be used to obtain reliable mean
flow properties for the characterization of engine, component, or
stage efficiency. Historically, the mean flow properties have been
calculated using certain averaging methods. A variety of averaging
methods have emerged during the past few decades including area-
average, mass-average, work-average, and momentum-average
methods. However, without the detailed information of flow prop-
erties around the full annulus, the accuracy of the averaged value
as a representation of the true mean flow property is limited. Addi-
tionally, one challenge occurring in almost every engine test cam-
paign is sensor mortality. In many cases, the measurements are

081003-4 / Vol. 143, AUGUST 2021 Transactions of the ASME


Fig. 6 (a) The reconstructed diffuser leading edge static pres-
sure and (b,c) the first three dominant wavelets
not recoverable and, thus, result in increased instrumentation error
and even larger uncertainty in the follow-on performance evalua-
tion. Therefore, a robust method for probe arrangement and mean
value calculation is of great value.
Table 4 lists the nondimensional mean value of the diffuser leading
edge static pressure obtained from circumferential-averaging,
pitchwise-averaging, and triple-wavelet approximation methods. In
the present case, all mean values obtained from the three methods
are very close to each other. There is less than a 0.5% difference
between the values from pitchwise-averaging and triple-wavelet
approximation methods, and there is approximately a 3% difference
between the values obtained from the circumferential-averaging
and the triple-wavelet approximation methods.
However, for cases with sensor dropout, the method using triple-
wavelet approximation yields more repeatable values in comparison
with the two averaging methods. For instance, as shown in
Fig. 7(a), for the case with one malfunctioning pressure measure-
ment, the variation in the mean value of static pressure obtained
using the triple-wavelet approximation method is less than 0.5%.
In contrast, the variation in the mean static pressure obtained
from the pitchwise-averaging method is 1.5 times larger, increasing
to 2%. Additionally, the circumferential-averaging method yields
the largest variation in calculation of the mean static pressure.
Table 4 Comparison of mean diffuser LE static pressure from
different methods
Pitchwise average Circumferential average Multi-wavelet fitting
1.0 0.9695 1.0044
Journal of Turbomachinery
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Fig. 7 Comparison of errors in calculating (a) mean diffuser
leading edge static pressure and (b) static pressure recovery
coefficient using averaging methods and the multi-wavelet
approximation method
There is an approximate 4.1% variation in the mean static pressure
for cases with one sensor dropout. Furthermore, for cases with two
sensor dropouts, the triple-wave approximation method still yields
very repeatable mean values for the diffuser leading edge static
pressure, with less than 1.2% in variation. In contrast, both averag-
ing methods result in significantly larger variations in the mean
values of the static pressure at the diffuser leading edge. For
instance, the pitchwise-averaging method yields 3.7% variation
while the circumferential-averaging method yields 8.1% variation
in the mean value of the diffuser leading edge static pressure.
In addition, the influence of this increased uncertainty (due to
missing measurements) on the calculation of the static pressure
recovery coefficient is investigated. The diffuser static pressure
recovery coefficient is calculated using
P4 − P3
Cp = (1)
Pt3 − P3
The results are shown in Fig. 7(b). In both cases, with one or two
malfunctioning measurements, the method using multi-wavelet
approximation method yields much smaller uncertainty in the calcu-
lated diffuser static pressure rise coefficient. The uncertainties in the
diffuser static pressure coefficient caused by one or two missing
measurements are 0.35% and 1.0%, respectively, using the mean
value of static pressure from the triple-wavelet approximation
method. In contrast, the uncertainties in the diffuser static pressure
coefficient caused by one or two missing measurements are 1.7%
and 3.1%, respectively, using the mean value of static pressure
from the pitchwise-averaging method, and 3.2% and 6.3%, respec-
tively, from the circumferential-averaging method.
In summary, the static pressure field at the diffuser leading edge
of a vaned diffuser in a high-speed centrifugal compressor is suc-
cessfully reconstructed using pressure readings from nine static
pressure taps placed on the hub of the diffuser. Both the magnitude
and phase information of the three most relevant wavelets are char-
acterized using a triple-wavelet approximation method. In addition,
compared with more traditional averaging methods, the multi-
wavelet approximation method yields more repeatable mean
values for static pressure at the diffuser leading edge.
AUGUST 2021, Vol. 143 / 081003-5

Fig. 8 Reduced S1 vane count configuration of PAX101
Reconstruction of Stator Downstream Total Pressure
Field in a Multi-Stage Axial Compressor
The second experiment was conducted in the Purdue 3-Stage
(P3S) Axial Compressor Research Facility using the PAX100 com-
pressor with a reduced-vane count for stator 1 (denoted PAX101).
Information associated with the layout of the facility can be found
in Refs. [11,12]. The PAX100 compressor design features an inlet
guide vane (IGV) followed by three stages, shown in Fig. 8. All
three of the rotors are integrally bladed and each stator row is
uniquely manufactured as a 180-deg segment featuring a shroud
on both the inner and outer diameters. Between each stage, instru-
mentation ports in the casing endwall allow for various probes to be
inserted into the flow field. While the compressor is in operation,
each stator row also has the capability to individually circumferen-
tially traverse an angular distance up to approximately 15 deg, or
more than two stator vane passages. This enables vane clocking,
allowing pitchwise measurements including wake traverses. The
circumferential vane position is measured with precision string
potentiometers.
In the original PAX100 configuration, the IGV, stator 1 (S1), and
stator 2 (S2) all have the same vane count of 44 providing a unique
environment to study the effects of vane clocking on compressor
aerodynamic performance as well as rotor forced response.
However, the effects of S1 and S2 on rotor 2 (R2) forced response
are indistinguishable using this configuration. To address this
Fig. 9 Simple model of blade alignment based on reduced-vane
count of S1
081003-6 / Vol. 143, AUGUST 2021
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challenge, a reduced-count S1 vane row was designed with 38
vanes (19 vanes per 180-deg segment) [13]. However, with the
introduction of a different, reduced-vane count for S1 into the
standard compressor configuration, the full annulus could not be
captured in a single vane pass traverse. For the PAX100 configura-
tion, with a uniform blade count of 44 for the IGV, S1, and S2,
one vane passage could effectively characterize the entire annulus
of the compressor (neglecting the effects of S3). For the PAX101
configuration, this characterization gets more complicated as
one vane passage is no longer indicative of the entire annulus. To
illustrate this complexity, a simple model was developed by Korma-
nik [14] to demonstrate how the blades would line up relative to one
another around the annulus, Fig. 9. The circumferential positions for
all blades from S1, S2/IGV (shown as a single row because of the
same vane counts), and S3 are illustrated. In the PAX101 configu-
ration, as all of the stator blade counts have a greatest common
factor of 2, blades of all four stationary rows (IGV, S1, S2, and
S3) only exactly line up every 180 deg (0 deg and 180 deg in
Fig. 9). In addition, with decreasing the vane count of S1 by 6,
the blades of IGV, S1, and S2 approximately line up every
60 deg (0 deg, 60 deg, 120 deg, 180 deg, 240 deg, and 300 deg in
Fig. 9). Thus, a 6/rev pattern and a 2/rev pattern manifest around
the annulus.
Since the instrumentation is stationary, S1 and S3 were clocked
with respect to IGV and S2 in a particular fashion so as to imitate
the location of a probe if it was able to be traversed around the
annulus. These established seven clocking configurations, labeled
in Fig. 9, to map out a 60 deg segment of the annulus. The offset
angles of S1 and S3 with respect to S2/IGV at all seven clocking
configurations are shown in Fig. 10. At each configuration, the posi-
tion of IGV and S2 remains the same, while the position of S1 and
S3 were adjusted with respect to IGV/S2 to match the relative blade
spacing at the different annulus locations. Since the stator rows can
Fig. 10 Clocking configurations of S1 and S3 with respect to
IGV/S2 to achieve 60-deg sector. Annulus coverage from each
traverse is indicated by the shaded area.
Transactions of the ASME

Fig. 11 Compressor normalized total–total pressure map
only be traversed a finite difference, to achieve a full 60 deg sector,
the clocking configuration orientation would have to be reversed
just past the point when the difference between vanes exceeds
4.5 deg (configurations 5, 6, and 7 in Fig. 10).
With the clocking configurations in place, a comprehensive
experimental campaign was conducted at 86% corrected speed on
the 100% corrected speed peak efficiency loading line, shown in
Fig. 11. This part-speed operation was selected to characterize the
forcing functions for R2 forced response near the resonant crossing
of the 38EO excitation of the R2 first torsion vibratory mode. In the
experiment, seven-element total pressure rakes were placed behind
S1, R2, and S2 at three different circumferential locations (noted as
location A, B, and D). At each clocking configuration, all stators
were traversed together over the length of a S1 vane passage at a
resolution of 5% S1 passage, as indicated by the shaded area in
Fig. 10. At the end of the test campaign, a total of 58.6 deg of effec-
tive travel around the annulus for each rake was achieved, and a
total of 47.6% of the entire annulus was mapped using the three cir-
cumferentially placed rakes due to some overlap.
Figure 12 shows the total pressure measurements acquired at
midspan downstream of S2. The measurements from rakes at loca-
tion A, B, and D are presented. The measurements from traverses
one to seven are also indicated in the figure. As expected, the stator-
stator interactions result in complicated patterns of passage total
pressure profile. There are evident passage–passage variations
with a 6/rev feature, indicated by the dashed line.
Fig. 12 Normalized total pressure measured at 50% span down-
stream of stator 2
Journal of Turbomachinery
Reconstruction of Stator 2 Downstream Total Pressure
Profile Using the Full and Reduced Datasets. In the present
study, the total pressure downstream of Stator 2 is selected for
flow reconstruction. Stator 2 is an embedded stage and, thus, pro-
vides an ideal environment to examine the potential of the
method in characterizing the flow features associated with blade
row interaction. The total pressure field downstream of S2 is dom-
inated by the wakes from upstream stator rows, the potential field of
downstream S3, and the interactions between these stator rows.
According to the empirical guidelines provided in Part 1 of the
paper, a set of 20 wavenumbers were selected to reconstruct
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the total pressure field using the full dataset from experiments.
The selected wavenumbers can be categorized into four types:
(1) The first eight harmonics of IGV and S2 wakes (Wn = [44,
88, 132, 176, 220, 264, 308, 352]);
(2) The first four harmonics associated with reduced-vane count
of S1 (Wn = [38, 76, 114, 152]);
(3) The first four harmonics of S3 potential field (Wn = [50, 100,
150, 200]); and
(4) The wavelets associated with IGV-S1-S2-S3 interactions
(Wn = [2, 6, 12, 24]).
This set of wavelets yields a condition number of 3.15 using the
full dataset from the experiment. The reconstructed total pressure
profile (black) at midspan downstream of S2 is shown in
Fig. 13(a). In addition, the total pressure profile acquired from
experiments is plotted on top of the reconstructed total pressure
profile for comparison. The reconstructed total pressure profile
agrees well with the results from experiment. The features associ-
ated with passage–passage variations are resolved in the recon-
structed total pressure profile. For instance, the 6/rev features due
to the S1-S2/IGV interaction are characterized in the reconstructed
profile. Despite some deviations in the depth of the pressure deficit
between the reconstructed and measured total pressure profiles,
there is a very good overall agreement achieved between the recon-
structed and measured total pressure profiles.
Furthermore, efforts were made to reconstruct the total pressure
profile using a reduced wavelet set. The considerations for selection
of the reduced wavelet set are twofold and need to be balanced.
While a smaller number of wavelets would require fewer data
points to reconstruct the flow, the reduced wavelet set should still
be able to characterize the flow features of interest. After comparing
the magnitudes of all the wavelets in the reconstructed total pressure
profile, the first 12 dominant wavelets were selected: Wn = [6, 12,
38, 50, 44, 88, 132, 176, 220, 264, 308, 352]. The reduced
wavelet set includes all eight wavelets associated with S2/IGV
wakes but eliminates the higher harmonics associated with S1,
S3, and the stator–stator interactions. This reduced wavelet set
yields a better condition number (1.69) using the full dataset from
the experiment, as shown in Table 5. The total pressure at
midspan downstream of S2 was reconstructed using the first 12
dominant wavelets, and the results are shown in Fig. 13(b). There
are very small differences between the reconstructed total pressure
profile using 20 wavelets and the reconstructed total pressure profile
using 12 wavelets. Good agreement between the reconstructed total
pressure profile and the results from experiment are achieved by
using a reduced number of wavelets. Therefore, 12 wavelets are suf-
ficient to reconstruct this total pressure profile at high fidelity.
Finally, an effort was made to reconstruct the total pressure field
using a reduced data size, for instance, using data from three or four
traverses instead of all seven traverses. To assure a high-fidelity
result, an intelligent selection of the optimal traverse combinations
included in the reduced dataset was exercised to achieve a small
condition number. The selected reduced dataset contains three tra-
verses from each rake including traverse numbers two, three, and
six for the rake at location A; traverse numbers two, five, and
seven for the rake at location B; and traverse numbers two, four,
and seven for the rake at location D. This yields a condition
number of 1.97 for the case when trying to resolve 12 wavelets.
The reduced dataset accounts for 43% of the full dataset and only
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Fig. 13 (a,b) Comparison of the reconstructed total pressure profiles with experiment at 50% span using full dataset and
(c) reduced dataset

20% of the full annulus coverage. The reconstructed total pressure reconstructed with high-fidelity by using a small segment of the
field using the reduced dataset is shown in Fig. 13(c). The segments dataset and inclusion of a limited number of wavelets. Based on
of data used for flow reconstruction are indicated by the blue bands this finding, the total pressure profile at the near hub (12%) and
on the abscissa. Strong agreement in the total pressure profile near shroud (88%) are reconstructed using the reduced dataset
between the reconstructed and experimental results is achieved in with 12 wavelets. The results are shown in Fig. 14. The recon-
the passages where the experimental data are used for flow recon- structed total pressure profile at 65% span is not shown in the
struction. More importantly, good agreement is also achieved in figure due to the physical differences in the spanwise distribution
the passages where the experimental data are not used for flow of the pressure elements for each of the three rakes used (i.e.,
reconstruction. The features associated with passage–passage varia- Rake B has a pressure element at 65% spanwise location while
tions are nicely resolved in the reconstructed total pressure profile Rakes A and D have pressure elements at 70% instead). At the
using the reduced dataset. There are very small differences other six spanwise locations, the reconstructed total pressure pro-
between the two reconstructed total pressure profiles using the files agree well with the results from experiment including the pas-
full and selected reduced datasets. sages where the experimental data are not used for flow
After exploring the influences of the number of wavelets and reconstruction. The patterns associated with passage–passage varia-
the size of the dataset, one important conclusion can be drawn: tions are nicely resolved in the reconstructed total pressure profile.
the full annulus total pressure profile downstream of S2 can be Additionally, comparing to the midspan, there is better agreement in
the depth of the pressure deficit associated with wakes between the
reconstructed and measured total pressure profiles achieved at the
near hub and near shroud regions.
Table 5 Condition number for the full dataset and reduced
dataset
Calculation of Stator 2 Downstream Mean Total Pressure
No. of Reduced Using the Multi-Wavelet Approximation Method. The mean
Wave no. combination wavelets Full dataset dataset total pressure obtained from the multi-wavelet approximation
method are compared with the mean total pressure obtained from
[44 88 132 176 20 2.99 5.81 experimental data using a pitchwise-averaging method, and the
220 264 308 352 results from all seven spanwise locations are listed in Table 6.
38 76 114 152
50 100 150 200 The column labeled F-20 contains results obtained using the full
2 6 12 24] dataset with inclusion of 20 wavelets. Correspondingly, F-12 and
[6 12 38 50 44 88 132 176 12 1.53 2.66 R-12 represent the results obtained using either the full or
220 264 308 352] reduced dataset with inclusion of 12 wavelets. At all the spanwise
locations, the mean total pressures obtained using the multi-wavelet

081003-8 / Vol. 143, AUGUST 2021 Transactions of the ASME

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Fig. 14 Comparison of the reconstructed total pressure profiles with results from experiment at different spanwise locations
using reduced dataset

method are almost identical to the values calculated using the
pitchwise-averaging method, with the maximum deviation less
than 0.025%. In addition, the multi-wavelet method yields very
repeatable values for the mean total pressure for all cases (including
the full or reduced datasets with inclusion of 20 or 12 wavelets).
In summary, the full annulus total pressure field downstream of
S2 is reconstructed from a fraction of experimental data represent-
ing 20% of full annulus coverage using a multi-wavelet approxima-
tion method. The reconstructed total pressure profile agrees well
with the results from the experiment at a variety of spanwise

Journal of Turbomachinery AUGUST 2021, Vol. 143 / 081003-9

Table 6 List of normalized mean total pressure at all spanwise Additionally, the method shows significant advantages over the tra-
locations ditional averaging methods to calculating suitable mean flow prop-
erties. For instance, in the first experiment, the errors in the mean
Multi-wavelet Approx. static pressure with one malfunctioning measurement using multi-
Span, % Exp. F-20 F-10 R-10 Max dev, % wavelet approximation method is 70% less in comparison with
the pitchwise-averaging method. In the second experiment, the
12 1.1464 1.1464 1.1464 1.1463 0.0052 multi-wavelet method yields very repeatable values for the mean
20 1.1473 1.1473 1.1474 1.1473 0.0071 total pressure at all the selected spanwise locations for all cases of
35 1.1480 1.1481 1.1482 1.1482 0.0184 using a full or reduced dataset.
50 1.1468 1.1470 1.1471 1.1471 0.0238 The method bridges the gap between sparsely distributed exper-
70 1.1457 1.1457 1.1459 1.1458 0.0226 imental data and the detailed flow field of a full annulus. Through

Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/turbomachinery/article-pdf/143/8/081003/6687668/turbo_143_8_081003.pdf by Tsinghua University, Fangyuan Lou on 23 January 2022

80 1.1437 1.1436 1.1439 1.1437 0.0231 the two experiments in different types of compressors, the
88 1.1407 1.1407 1.1409 1.1407 0.0212
method shows great potential in obtaining suitable mean flow prop-
erties for performance calculations as well as resolving the impor-
tant flow features associated with circumferential nonuniformity.
The method can be disruptive to the gas turbine community con-
locations from the near-hub to near-shroud regions. The patterns
cerning: expectations of experimental data; how and where to
associated with passage-to-passage variations are resolved in the
place the probes; and the method to calculate suitable mean flow
reconstructed total pressure profile. Additionally, the method
properties.
proves robust in yielding a repeatable mean total pressure.
Finally, it is also worth noting that there are deviations between
the reconstructed and experimental total pressure profiles. For
instance, the agreement between the reconstructed and experimental Conflict of Interest
total pressure profile over the traverses from Rake D is not as good There are no conflicts of interest.
as those from Rakes A and B. There are deviations in predicting the
depth of the pressure deficit associated with the wake for several
passages. One possible reason for these inconsistences can be the Data Availability Statement
instrumentation errors associated with rake hardware variations or
sensor variations contributing to measurement uncertainties, The datasets generated and supporting the findings of this article
which will be investigated in future research. are obtainable from the corresponding author upon reasonable
request.

Conclusions
In this two-part publication, a novel method is introduced in
Part 1 of the paper to reconstruct the compressor nonuniform cir-
cumferential flow field using spatially undersampled data. The
method includes two core techniques: a particle swarm optimization
algorithm for selection of optimal probe position and a multi-
wavelet approximation method to reconstruct the nonuniform
circumferential flow field from several dominant wavenumbers. A
roadmap for implementation of the method was established includ-
ing practical guidelines for selection of most important wave-
numbers and evaluation of the confidence in the reconstructed
circumferential flow. Validation of the method was performed
using computational fluid dynamics calculations available in the
open literature of the total pressure field of a multi-stage compres-
sor. The method was shown to be robust and capable of reconstruct-
ing compressor circumferential flow with good accuracy.
In the present paper, Part 2, the method is applied to two com-
pressor component-level experiments to further demonstrate the
potential of this novel method in resolving the important flow fea-
tures associated with circumferential flow field’s nonuniformity. In
the first experiment, the static pressure field at the diffuser leading
edge of a vaned diffuser in a high-speed centrifugal compressor is
reconstructed using pressure readings from nine static pressure
taps placed on the hub of the diffuser. The magnitude and phase
information for the first three dominant wavelets are characterized.
In the second experiment, the full annulus total pressure field down-
stream of Stator 2 in a three-stage axial compressor representing the
rear stages of high-pressure core is reconstructed from a small
segment of data representing 20% of the full annulus coverage.
Results show very good agreement between the reconstructed
total pressure profile and that from experiment at a variety of span-
wise locations from near hub to shroud. The features associated
with blade row interactions that account for passage–passage varia-
tions are nicely resolved in the reconstructed total pressure profile.
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081003-10 / Vol. 143, AUGUST 2021 Transactions of the ASME