Carbon Consequences

Sample Student
Geology & Geophysics Major at Missouri University of Science and Technology

CARBON CONSEQUENCES: EFFECTS OF GEOLOGIC CARBON CAPTURE AND

SEQUESTRATION ON GROUNDWATER
Carbon Consequences

Abstract

Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas concentrations have been rapidly increasing in the

atmosphere since the beginning of the industrial revolution, resulting in anthropogenic climate

change. A new technology to combat climate change is geologic carbon capture and

sequestration, in which greenhouse gases are removed from the atmosphere and pumped into

non-potable saline aquifers. However, a large concern is whether leakage from sequestration

sites can contaminate overlying freshwater aquifers that are used for domestic water supplies,

public water supplies, and agricultural/industrial water needs. To evaluate the effects of geologic

sequestration on groundwater supplies, I examined peer-reviewed scientific papers to analyze

three aspects of water quality with respect to geologic sequestration: changes in water chemistry

as a result of carbon dioxide injection, leakage from geologic sequestration sites, and mitigation

of contaminated waters. The results show that waters become acidic after CO2 injection and can

release toxic metals into the aquifer, the potential for leakage is increased after injection due to

increased porosity and pressure build-up, and mitigation techniques rely mainly on preventative

action. For geologic carbon capture and sequestration to be a viable technique for combatting

rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, careful consideration needs to be taken when choosing

sequestration sites to prevent fresh groundwater contamination.

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Carbon Consequences: Effects of Geologic Carbon Capture and Sequestration on Groundwater

Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, the human population has been facing a

growing global issue that threatens civilization: anthropogenic climate change. To limit the

global rise in temperature, the concentrations of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere

need to be reduced. A striking new idea in this conversation is the concept of “negative

emissions” – carbon capture and sequestration (CCS). This is the process by which atmospheric

carbon dioxide and other carbon-based greenhouse gases, such as methane, are captured and

stored. Companies and researchers have been developing promising methods and technologies

for the capture of these gases directly from the atmosphere and in power plants (Realmonte et al.,

2019). The development of geologic carbon capture and sequestration technology is gaining a lot

of attention. Several studies, such as that by Seokju Seo (2019), a Ph.D. candidate at Florida

Atlantic University, and others, compare the effectiveness of injection methods by evaluating the

rate and volume of CO2 dissolution in saline aquifers resulting from various methods. However,

the potential challenges of storing large quantities of carbon-based gases in the ground remains

relatively unexplored. Research has been conducted to evaluate the geochemical reactions and

alteration processes that take place in the host rocks and cap rocks of potential sequestration

reservoirs (Steefel, Molins, & Trebotich, 2013; Kharaka et al., 2013). The results of studies such

as these evaluate factors influencing the effectiveness of geologic CCS in saline aquifers, and the

potential for leakage from said aquifers. Aquifers used for domestic water supplies, public water

supplies, and agricultural and industrial water needs can potentially overlie geosequestration

sites. Therefore, the impacts that geochemical water-rock interactions and leakage from saline

sequestration aquifers have on the water quality of nearby freshwater aquifers is paramount.
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The purpose of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview evaluating the effects

of geologic carbon sequestration on groundwater quality. If geologic CCS techniques were to be

implemented globally to combat climate change, it would be important to know the ways in

which the injection of CO2 into formation water can affect the water chemistry. This knowledge

can aid in the development of mitigation methods for potential contaminants from geologic CCS,

and allow the general public to be proactive in preserving their groundwater supplies before

contamination occurs. In this study, I investigated the impacts of geologic carbon sequestration

on groundwater supplies and aquifers to determine whether carbon sequestration poses a

significant threat to groundwater quality. I reviewed the literature from three databases and

categorized the papers by their main focus: water chemistry, leakage, and mitigation. Overall, the

potential for contamination and extent and severity of contamination is dependent upon the local

geology and local chemical reactions. However, the data shows that waters become acidic after

CO2 injection and can release toxic metals into the aquifer, leakage is likely due to increased

porosity and pressure build-up, and mitigation techniques are sparse, relying mainly on

preventative action. Therefore, the properties of geosequestration aquifers need to be very

specific – such as saline non-karstic carbonate-rich aquifers with unfractured cap rocks – to

prevent leakage and contamination.

Methods

To gather secondary data to evaluate the impact of carbon sequestration on groundwater

supplies, I utilized several databases: GeoRef, GeoScienceWorld, and Scopus. These databases

were chosen because of their specificity to sciences – more specifically, geological sciences.

GeoRef is produced by the American Geological Institute. GeoScienceWorld includes journals

from numerous professional geology societies including American Association of Petroleum

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Geologists (AAPG), Geological Society of America (GSA), Society for Sedimentary Geology

(SEPM), and Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG). Scopus includes a variety of journals

from science and engineering. I used the keywords “groundwater and carbon sequestration,”

“aquifer and carbon sequestration,” “carbon sequestration leakage groundwater,” “reservoir

effectiveness and carbon sequestration,” and “CO2 leakage aquifer geosequestration.” These

keywords helped narrow the topics of the journals. Studies were included if they directly

addressed carbon dioxide leakage from carbon sequestration or carbon dioxide contamination of

groundwater supplies. Included studies only contained scientific investigations and scientific

data. Studies that evaluated economic or political aspects of carbon sequestration were excluded.

Studies were grouped by their approach to the topic: the impact of carbon contamination on

water chemistry, carbon dioxide leakage from geologic carbon sequestration, and mitigation of

carbon dioxide contamination in groundwater. Each of these aspects were investigated separately

and then conjointly to objectively evaluate the impact of potential leakage from carbon

sequestration on water supplies and groundwater quality.

Impact of Contamination on Groundwater Chemistry

Geological carbon sequestration in deep, non-potable, saline aquifers can cause a series

of reactions resulting in the dissolution of several ions, including toxic ions, from their mineral

hosts, according to several researchers. Irina Gaus (2010) asserts that, “the main trigger of

geochemical reactions is dissolution of CO2 in water forming the acid H2CO3… This will cause

an imminent drop in pH of the brine and cause an acid attack on the minerals of the cement

and/or the host rock.” Gaus (2010) explains that the lower pH effect from CO2 injection in

aquifers causes the release of ions from their host minerals, which is a significant reaction

induced by geologic carbon sequestration. Increased acidity increases the solubility of minerals
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and induces their dissolution. This means that ions are released into solution that were previously

locked away in minerals. However, the dissolution of minerals containing toxic elements due to

carbon dioxide injection can create a threat to water quality as the toxic elements are released. A

study by Jiin-Shuh Jean and Huan-Wen Lin (2019) from National Cheng Kung University in

Taiwan, and many others, revealed that concentrations of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and

manganese (Mn) in saline and fresh water with supercritical CO2 exceeded national drinking

water standards. These results showed that toxic trace elements could be dissolved and released

in formation water resulting from water-rock-supercritical CO2 interactions. The release of these

harmful components from the rock material into the formation water occurs as a direct result of

carbon sequestration. These released toxic trace elements in saline sequestration sites can pose a

threat to drinking water quality, especially if they leak from the sequestration site into overlying

freshwater aquifers.

Leakage from Geologic Carbon Sequestration Sites due to Interactions with the Cap Rock

Supercritical CO2-water-rock interactions also occur with the cap rock and can result in

cap rock degradation and leakage. Experimentation by Olivier Regnault, Vincent Lagneau,

Hubert Catalette, and Hélène Schneider (2005) from the Paris School of Mines, France, suggests

that, “minerals/CO2(sc) reactions might potentially degrade the cap-rock sealing properties… and

a possible creation of short-cuts or increased porosity.” Their results showed high mineral

reactivity with supercritical CO2 formation water by dissolution, complete to partial alteration,

and precipitation processes with very fast kinetics. This means that the slightly acidified carbon

dioxide-rich brine water can alter and weaken the rock that it is in contact with, creating paths for

fluid flow out of the sequestration site. Leakage through these new flow paths can be

significantly enhanced during carbon sequestration due to the creation of a very strong pressure
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gradient. Experimentation by Bo Ren (2018), a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Texas at

Austin, showed that:

At the end of post-injection, the average pressure build-up relative to the original

reservoir pressure was about 2000 psi (13.79 MPa). This gives rise to a pressure gradient

(from the storage aquifer to the upper aquifer) around 10 psi/ft (0.23 MPa/m), which is

much larger than the buoyancy pressure gradient (0.18 psi/ft = 4.07 x 10-3 MPa/m).

The injection of a gaseous CO2 phase into a deep, saline aquifer resulted in a pressure build-up in

the aquifer, which is most likely confined. As a result, the pressure, which is much greater than

the regular upward buoyancy force that is exerted by the water, drives the carbon dioxide and

brine solution upward into other aquifers. This leakage from carbon sequestration sites into upper

aquifers, which can potentially be sources of drinking water or agricultural water, is a significant

problem for water quality.

Mitigation of Carbon Sequestration Contamination in Groundwater

The most promising mitigation techniques of groundwater contamination from deep CO2

sequestration are founded on the basis of proactivity – preventing contamination in the first

place. According to Mark G. Little and Robert B. Jackson (2010) from Duke University in North

Carolina, the impact of CO2 leakage into freshwater aquifers can be varied as it is highly

dependent on the amount of carbonate available for buffering of pH, metal availability, the

heterogeneity of the aquifer, and the reduction-oxidation state of the aquifer. Little and Jackson

(2010) advocate for the development of selection criteria for deep sequestration sites and list

these factors as strong influencers on the severity of the impact of CO2 on the groundwater

quality of aquifers. In order to minimize contamination, sequestration sites need to be chosen

very carefully by evaluating the saline sequestration aquifer’s potential for acid buffering when
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CO2 is injected, contamination via the dissolution of toxic metals due to pH lowering, and

potential for reprecipitation due to various conditions in the aquifer. In addition to the chemical

processes affecting the water chemistry in the saline aquifer, the containment capacity of the

sequestration aquifer needs to be examined. Jiin-Shuh Jean (2019) expands upon the selection

criteria and suggests that sequestration sites should have impermeable clay-rich caprock to

prevent the upward migration of potential released trace elements and acidified brine water. Jean

(2019) suggests a very fine-grained rock because it is a very effective aquitard, and clays have

very slow kinetics in chemical reactions. Clay-rich rocks, such as shale, significantly restrict the

flow of groundwater and therefore the upward migration of contaminated brine water carrying

potentially toxic metals. Ensuring that there is minimal leakage through fractures or the cap rock

is a major line of defense for preventing contamination in upper fresh water aquifers used for

drinking water and agriculture.

Discussion

The potential for, and extent and severity of, fresh groundwater contamination is

dependent upon the local geology and local chemical reactions. However, it is evident that

contamination of freshwater aquifers due to geologic carbon sequestration is a real possibility

with real consequences. Waters become acidic after CO2 injection and can release toxic metals

into the aquifer. Increased porosity and pressure build-up as a result of CO2 injection can

enhance leakage from saline sequestration aquifers by enhancing, or creating, new flow paths.

Therefore, water quality is threatened as toxic metals released in sequestration aquifers can travel

to overlying freshwater aquifers. Mitigation techniques for contamination are not reality, and the

protection of water supplies relies on preventative action.

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To prevent contamination of freshwater aquifers from geologic sequestration, careful

consideration needs to be taken when choosing a geosequestration site. Suggested practices

include selection criteria based on stringent caprock performance standards (Fitts & Peters,

2013), potential for metal contamination (Little & Jackson, 2010), and detection criteria based on

regular monitoring for chemical detection of leakage into shallow aquifers from deep

geosequestration sites (Little & Jackson, 2010). Effective geosequestration sites should first

resist the lowering of pH, and thus limit the release of toxic components, while having

impermeable cap rocks to prevent leakage. Therefore, geosequestration sites should be saline

non-karstic carbonate or carbonate cemented sandstone reservoirs located in desert regions with

fine-grained cap rocks. This specific setting provides a plentiful carbonate buffer, in the form of

a carbonate-rich reservoir, and limited flow paths. A strong fine-grained cap rock with little

fracturing will prevent leakage. It is important to choose a carbonate reservoir in a dry climate so

that karst features that enhance fluid flow, such as caves, sinkholes, or enlarged fracture or joints

as seen in carbonate rocks in humid regions, are not present. The careful selection of

geosequestration reservoirs, such as the one described, can help prevent contamination of

essential fresh groundwater resources.

Conclusion

Geologic carbon sequestration is a promising technology for mitigating the effects of

climate change by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in the ground.

However, for this technology to be implemented on a global scale, groundwater resources need

to be secure. This involves the careful selection of geosequestration sites and their regular

monitoring to ensure that groundwater supplies are safe for drinking and agricultural/industrial

use. Then, the technology can help combat the effects of climate change, such as changes in
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precipitation patterns, more frequent heat waves and droughts, increased tropical storm intensity,

melting ice caps and accompanying sea level rise, and numerous forest fires. Limitations of this

study include a small sample of research due to limited time to explore the findings of

researchers and the unavailability of the proprietary findings of companies developing CCS

technologies. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the of the effects of geologic

carbon sequestration on aquifers – allowing scientists to develop CCS technologies and methods

with the protection of groundwater resources in mind, and allowing the general public to be

informed of possible consequences of geosequestration on their groundwater supplies. Further

research on this topic should be done to develop mitigation methods for contaminated freshwater

aquifers, as well as methods to strengthen cap-rock seals to prevent leakage. Extensive standards

for geosequestration need to be developed now to ensure the security of groundwater resources

for generations to come.

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References

Fitts J. P., & Peters C. A. (2013). Caprock Fracture Dissolution and CO2 Leakage. Reviews in

Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 77(1), 459-479.

Gaus I. (2010). Role and impact of CO2–rock interactions during CO2 storage in sedimentary

rocks. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 4(1), 73-89.

Jean J. S., Lin H. W., Li Z., Yang H. J., Hsiang H. I., Yang K. M., Wang C. L., Shen Y. H., Kuo

C. C., & Kuo W. C. (2019). Salinity-enhanced Release of Trace Metals from Sandstone

and Variations in Mineral Compositions after Water-rock Interactions in the Presence of

Supercritical CO2. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 19, 639-648. doi:

10.4209/aaqr.2018.03.0088

Kharaka Y. K., Cole D. R., Thordsen J. J., Gans K. D., & Thomas R. B. (2013). Geochemical

Monitoring for Potential Environmental Impacts of Geologic Sequestration of

CO2. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 77(1), 399-430.

Little M. G., & Jackson R. B. (2010). Potential Impacts of Leakage from Deep

CO2 Geosequestration on Overlying Freshwater Aquifers. Environmental Science and

Technology, 44(23). doi: 10.1021/es102235w

Realmonte G., Drouet L., Gambhir A., Glynn J., Hawkes A., Köberle A. C., & Tavoni M.

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pathway. Nature Communications, 10(1). doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-10842-5

Regnault O., Lagneau V., Catalette H., & Schneider H. (2005). Experimental study of pure

mineral phases/supercritical CO2 reactivity. Implications for geological

CO2 sequestration. Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 337(15), 1331-1339.

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Ren B. (2018). Local capillary trapping in carbon sequestration: Parametric study and

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Seo S., Mastiani M., Hafez M., Kunkel G., Asfour C. G., Garcia-Ocampo K. I., Linares N.,

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Steefel C. I., Molins S., & Trebotich D. (2013). Pore Scale Processes Associated with Subsurface

CO2 Injection and Sequestration. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 77(1), 259-

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