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    (IIT JEE Engineering Entrance Exams Competitions CBSE ISc PU B Sc College) Shanti Narayan Dr. P K Mittal - Shanti Narayan Dr. P K Mittal Integral Calculus Part 1 Upto Definite Integral as a Limit of S

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    (IIT JEE Engineering Entrance Exams Competitions CBSE ISc PU B SC College) Shanti Narayan Dr. P K Mittal - Shanti Narayan Dr. P K Mittal Integral Calculus Part 1 Upto Definite Integral As A Limit of S

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    “INTEGRAL CALCULUS (For B.A. and B.Sc. Students) ‘x F (+) Sf oe” x SHANTI NARAYAN Dr. P.K. MITTAL CONTENTS CHAPTER | ‘Table of Standard Results Agnicis Ll 13. 7 Definition of an integral of a function Indetinite nature of Integration Table of Standard Elementary Integrals. Two simple Theorems Definite integral ‘Two important properties of definite integrals Geometrical [nterpretation of a definite integral Improper definite integrals. CHAPTER 2 Methods of Integration (Integration by Substitution and by Parts) Methods of integration Integration by substitution Three important forms of integrals Integration of Mv (a?—2%), Vy (a-+3%), 1 / (a), V@—X), VETS), V8 a) Integration by parts -52. Integration of e** cos (bx-+-c), e2* sin (bx-++e) Definite Integrals Reduction Formulae CHAPTER 3 Integration of Algebraic Rational Functions General Discussion Case of non-repeated linear factors Case of non-repeated linear or repeated linear factors Case of linear or quadratic non-repeated factors Integration of (Lx-+ M)/(Ax*+ 2Bx+C)" and reduction formula for f dx/(a2+x2)" Integration of algebraic functions by substitution Integration of algebraic functions of e* CHAPTER 4 Integration of Trigonometric Functions Integration of sin" x and reduction formula for j sin x dx. Evaluation of ie sins x dx 2 5 & BOvouwn= 73 i) ArricLe ; 42. Totegration of cos" x and reduction formula for cost x di. Evaluation of [¥" cose x de 43, “Integration of sin? x cost x and evaluation of ae sin? x cost.x dx Reduction formulae for f tant x de, { cotm x de Integration of sec" x, cosect x, and reduction formulae for [secon x dx, f cosec” x dé 46. Integration of sins x cost x when p+q is a nega- tive even integer; various reduction formulie for Be os Pace i 19 85 86 J sin? x cos? x dx 88 47. Integration of a rational function of cos x and sin x 92 481. To integrate (a cos x + b sin x)[(c cos x + d sin x) and (a cos x + b sin x + c)/(dcos x + esinx +f) 98 49. Two properties of definite Integrals 100 4:10. Reduction formula for { cos™ x cos ax dx 104 CHAPTER 5 Integration of Irrational Functions Sl. Integration of a rational function of x and a linear surd (ax-+b)!/" ; n, being a positive integer 113 52. Evaluation of SV (axttbx+ods, f dx]/¥(ax2+bx-+0) 116 53. Integration of { (Ax+ B)dx//(axt-+bx4-0), JCAXLBY/V/(axt + bx-+ ode 118 5-4, Reduction formula for [ x" dx/¥(ax*+bx4c) 119 5:5. To evaluate { dx/(Ax-+B) /(ax*+bx+-c) sr 128) 56. Tocvaluate f dx/(ax?+bx+c)V(AP+Bx+C) =... 124 5-7. Integration of irrational algebraic functions by trigonometric transformations 126 Miscellaneous Exercises 1 131-136 Miscellaneous Exercises 1 136-139 CHAPTER 6 Definite Integral as the Limit of a Sum 61. Introduction : 140 62. Proof of the fundamental theorem 141 63. Summation of series 144 APPLICATIONS CHAPTER 7 Areas of Plane Regions 7-1. Area of a region bounded by a curve, X-axis and two ordinates. we 153 (vii) Page Quadrature of Hyperbola 158 Sectorial Area 162 ‘Area bounded by a closed curve 169 Simpson’s rule for approximate evaluation of definite integrals and areas ws 176 CHAPTER 8 Rectification Lengths of Plane Curves 8-1. Introduction 183 8-2. Expression for tne lengths of curves y = f(x) 183 83. Expressions for the lengths of arcs x =fsx=Sy=esr=LO) 184 8-4. Derivation of intrinsic equations from cartesian __and polar equations ws 189 8-5. Rectification of Ellipse ce 193 CHAPTER 9 Volumes and Surfaces of Revolution 91. Introduction w 196 9-2. Expression for the volume obtained by revolving about either axis w- 196 93. Expression for the volume obtained by revolving about any line. 203 9-4, Area of the surfac¢ of the frustum of a cone 208 9:5. Expression for the surface of revolution 208 9:6. Pappus Theorems 2u 97. Surfaces of revolution 212 Miscellaneous Exercises II 216—220 CHAPTER 10 Centre of Gravity. Moment of Inertia 10-1. Introduction 221 10-2. Centre of Gravity 201 10-3. Centre of Gravity and Moment of Inertia bee 2a2 10-4. Moment of Inertia we 229 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS CHAPTER 11 Differential Equations of-First Order and First Degree 1-1. Preliminary definitions 234 11-2, Arbitrary constants 237 11-3. Equations in which the variables are separable 238 11-4. Linear equations 241 11-5, Equations reducible to the Linear form 245 11-6. Homogeneous Equations ve 246, (vii) ARTICLE 11-7. Equations reducible to the homogeneous form 118. Exact differential equations 11-9. Integrating Factors CHAPTER 12 Equations of the First Order but not of the First pees 121, Introduction 12-2. Equations solvable for p 12:3. Equations solvable for y 12-4. Equations solvable for x 125. Clairut’s Equation 12'6. Geometrical meaning of a differential equation of the first order ve 262 12-7. Singular Solutions v= 263 CHAPTER 13 Trajectories of a Family of Curves 13-1. Definitions 13-2. Cartesian Co-ordinates 133. Polar Co-ordinates CHAPTER 14 Linear Equations 141, Definition of Linear Equations 216 14:2, Complementary Functions and Particular Integrals v+ 276 143. Operators, Commutative Law for Product of * Miscellaneous Exercises Sor see Operators Determination of C.F. Inverse Operators Determination of P.I. Working rules for finding the particular Integrals Homogeneous Linear Equations Miscellaneous Exercises APPENDIX 1 Convergence of Improper Integrals wa 314 Case of Infinite range of integration. Case of infinite integrand 314 Three important comparison integrals 316 Beta function 320 Gamma function 324 Relation between Beta and Gamma Functions Duplication Formula w+ 325 APPENDIX IT Diffentiation under Integral sign. Constant limits 330 Case of Variable limits aH Differentiation under integral sign a 3 Definitions TABLE OF STANDARD RESULTS 1-1. Integral of a function, Integrand. If the differential co- efficient of a function f(x) is F(x), ie., if f(x) we say that f(x) is an Integral or a Primitive of F(x) and, in symbols, write J Fdx = fix). For example, 480X695 xo f cos x ax = sin x ax As another example, we see that dk 1 1 Ws =e | Lars logs The letter x in dx, denotes that the integration is to be per- formed with respect to the variable x.. The process of determining an integral of a function is called Integration and the function to be integrated is called Integrand. Since integration anu differentiation are inverse processes, we have Ex. Show that % { Sia) dx ] = Se). @ [xdx= x42, (ii) § sin x dx = —cos x42. (ili) § at® dt = att/4, (iv) Sify dy = log y—3. 1-2. The study of Integral Calculus consists in developing tech- niques for the determination of integral of a given function, This subject finds extensive applications to Geometry, Natural and Social 2 Integral Calcilus sciences. In this book, we shall be concerned with applications in relation to the determination of Plane areas, Lengths of arcs and Volumes and Surfaces of solids of revolution, Centre of gravity and Moment of Inertia. Historically, the subject arose in connection with the determi- nation of areas of plane regions and was based on the notion of the limit of a type of a sum when the number of terms in the sum tends to infinity and each term tends to zero In fact, the name Integral Calculus has its origin in this process of summation and the words ‘To integrate’ literally means ‘To find the sum of’. It is only after- wards that it was seen that the subject of Integration can also be viewed from the point of view of the Inverse of differentiation. We shall not develop the subject in the historical order and, as done above, start by defining Integration as the Inverse of differentiation. In Chapter 9, we shall consider the summation aspect of Integration also. 13. Indefinite valuedness of Integration. General Integral. Arbitrary Constant. » If (x) is an integral of F(x), then f(x)-+e is also an integral of F(x) ; ¢ being a constant whatsoever, for Af) _ py 2 HUDF 9, Again, let f(x), ¢(x) be two integrals of F(x) so that we have S'®) = @) = FR). ‘*As the differential coefficients of the functions f(x) and 9(x) are equal, the functions differ by some constant, i.e, A(x) - (2) = ¢ Al) = HH) +e, where ¢ is a constant. From these considerations, we deduce that the Integral of a function isnot unique and that if f(x) be any one integral of F(x), then (®) f%)-+e is also its integral ; ¢ being any constant whatso- ever ; (ii) every integral of F(x) can.be obtained from, f(x)-+c, by giving some suitable value to c. Thus if f(x) be any one integral of A(x), then f(x)+e is its General integral. From this it follows that any two integrals of the same function differ by a constant. “*Chapter LV of Author's Differential Calculus, Definitions ‘The constant, c, is called Constant of integration. The constant ofiintegration will generally be omitted and the symbol f F(x) dx wili denote any one integral of F(x). But it must be remembered that the symbol f F(x) dx is really infinite valued. It may happen that, by different methods of integration, ws obtain different integrals of the same function, but it will always. be seen that they differ from each other merely by a constant. Ex. . Show that i) xe is the general integral of 42°, “1 x-+¢ is the general integral of 1/v(1—=*), iii) sec x+-c is the general integral of sec x tan x, where, c, denotes, an arbitrary constant. 1-4. Table of Elementary Integrals. We now give a table of elementary integrals based on the corresponding table of the differen- tial coefficients of elementary functions. « xn “1 dee) [ee Shere) iy on ct d(log x) _ 1 j = dx = log x, Hee) L j edx =e, . a =e. a d(a*/log a) 2 fe dx = Tea pe o. if sin x dx = —cos x, X= 008%) sin x, J cos x de = sin x, Mn) _ cos x, [eoede = uns, Mand) _ sect x f coseors dx =—cot x Asa) = cosec? x, {see x tan x dx = seo x, s He09) _ see xtan x, f cosec x cot x.dx =—cosec x, ‘t pe) = cot x cosec x. 1 aod paar j Tema a = sin? x oF costs, L Asin-2x) . dx Y(—3") — d—os"? =“ *), ‘When m = —1, we have x* = x-1 = I/x whose integral is log x. 4 Integral Calculus 1 1 hp dein? x or moatts, y Mm _ d(—cot-!x) ~ dx 1 7 cig ve Alsecxy i [eeer nn see x or ~coseerts, «> MEE A 7 { cosh x de = sinh x, + eich 2) cost x sigh x de = cosh x, +» M088) = inn x It is important to notice that when m3 —I, the integral of x* is obtained on increasing the index n by I and dividing by the incr eased index, n+-1. Thus, for example, #19 # j ads 35 = 58% 1 \as dx = i xtde Note 1. The result & = log x, requires some explanation. We know that log x is defined for posi. tive values of x only and, therefore, in the statement d(log x)/dx = 1x or, in its equivalent statement J(1/x)dx = log x, itis implied that x is positive. Now, when x is negative, —x is positive, and therefore log (—x) has a meaning. In this case, we have atlog (-2)}_ 1 aa Tider ae Ses Therefore \ + dx = log (—2), if x is negative. ‘Thus the integral of 1/s is log x or log (—x) according as x is positive or negative. Both these results gre included in the single statement 1 j = dx = bog| x], where | x | denotes the absolute value of x. Definitions 5 Note 2. The inverse trigonometrical functions in the above table are single-valued functions as defined in Chapter II of the author's Diferentia Calculus. Thus 1x, tan-.x, cot-?x, cosectx are the angles, iying between —x/2 and x/2, whose sine, tangent, co- tangent and cosecant are x ; also cos"? x, sec! x, are the angles, lying between 0 and = whose cosine and secant are x. Note 3. From the above table, we see that both sin-4x, and —cos"! x are integrals of 1///(1—x%). From this we cannot deduce the equality of sin-t x and —cos-1 x. The only legitimate conclusion is that they differ by some constant. In fact, from elementary trigonometry, we know that sin? x—(—cos-1 x) = sin x-cos-tx = 4n. Ex. Write down the integrals of ‘ Gx, (i) ¥x, (iii) YX, (iv) ¥x°3, (v) 22, (vi) (*, (vii) a, (viii) 8, Aw. (AH, Ui) “ «a wt i) ~28 - © og a OO Fogel aioga 1-5. Two simple theorems, 1-51. First Theorem. J af(x)dx = a f f(x) dx., oA) ie. the integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product of the constant and the integral of the function. The proof will follow from the corresponding theorem of Diffe- rential Calculus which states that the derivative of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product of a constant and the derivative of the function. Differentiating the right-hand side of (A), we obtain Aol ana Joa Gli ax =F), = S afta) dx = af fix) de. Second theorem, JOE) FO] ax = § f(x) ax JF(X) ax BY Le. The integral of the sum or difference of two functions is equal to the sum or difference of their integrals. The proof will follow from the corresponding theorem of Differential Calculus which states that the derivative of the sum or 0 Integral-Calculus diference of two functions is equal to the sum or difference of theit devivatives. Differentiating the right-hand side of (B), we obtain lf A az) A de | = Zl des Fey ax = fix) +R) > STIC)EFG)] dx = J fx) dx JF(x) dx. The ‘theorem can easily be generalised to the case of the algeb- raic sum of a finite number of functions so that we have LAC)EACE AR) Lb f(x = SAG) Bef A@de kb fol@) a. Note. The two theorems prove useful when the integrand can be decomposed into the sum ofa number of functions whose integrals are known, In fact this decomposition of an integrand into the sum of a number of functions with known integrals constitutes an important technique of integration as will be seen later on. Examples L fx ae es aly ax = 2D Slag ay X-pey A b age) de =f agdx+f ax dx+f ayx* dx+ AS nx dx = Oy f ldx-payf x dx tars x* dx... fxn dx oF ame Sage Han be On TT y 2 : L ( cos x42 —e jae 2 j cos x'de+2 \=e-| ede = sin x42 log x—e* j 3—5x2+ Txt—9x8 i( 3 3 4-9) ax > ea dx = a os % Definitions 7 lax = x—tan a head x—tan? x, Ea == —x+tan-1 x. = 53 oe ttant x. x +00s* x si | Sirens = a jaarres =f tan x sec x dx+f cot x cosce x dx = see x—cosec x. 8. fV(l—sin 2x) dx = f¥(sin® x-cost x—2 sinx:cos x) dx JV(sin x cos x)Pdx (sin x—cos x) dx cos x—sin x (cos x+-sin x) 9. f V(L—cos 2x) dx = J ¥(2 sin? x) dx = J v2sinxdx = ¥2 J sin x dx = ~ ¥2 00s x. Exercisee Integraté the following functions :— 1 ty aty x 2 (XP 42x4-3y/xt. 3, (+29? a 243 Perera ° ORET* a tl 6. WEY * oT : x 7 9, Msttl 3 4a! * ear" xT" 5 cost x++7 sin® x 2 sin? x cos* x * . 2 9. 5 cos x—3 sin XS 10. cos 2x MW oa 12. sect x cosect x. 3cos x—4 142 sin x 13. _ : 14, ireow ak 15. tan® x. 16, cot? x. 17. (tan x-+cot x), 18, (1—cos 2x)/(1-+c0s 2x), 19. y(1-+sin 2x). 20. V(I-+c0s 2x). 8 Integral Calculus | Answers ty Pa 2 - GMb 3. —C49x436x93848 log x, 4 HPH)4Stawtx | 5. x2 tantZ, 6. x4 pty a, 76 1 Lis tant), 8. pat petex 2 tant x 9. Ssinx—3 cos x—2 tan x 10. } seo x— § cosecx 11. —sec x cosec x. . 312, —2cot2 x. 13. —4 cot £43 coser x 14. tanx+2 sec. 15. tanx—x. 16. —cot x—x. 17, —2cot 2x. 18, tan x—x 19, —cos x+sin x 20. 2 cose 1-6. Definite Integral. In geometrical and other applications of Integral Calculus, it becomes necessary to find the difference in the values of an integral ofa function f(x) for two assigned values of the independent variable x, say, a,b. This difference is called the Definite integral of f(x).over the interval {a, 6] and is denoted by b "i (x) ax, Thus : ai” dx =F(b)— F(a), where F(x) is an integral of f(x). ‘The difference [F(b) - F(a)] is sometimes denoted as 6 Fe), ‘Thus if F(x) is an integral of f(x), we write b 6 f, f(x)dx = [roel = F(b)—F(a). The number, g, is called the Lower limit and the number, b, the Upper limit of integration. : It should be seen that the value of a definite integral is unique and is independent of the particular integral which we may employ to calculate it, Considering F(x)+-c instead of F(x), we obtain fj, 494 = [reorel -{frw+o}-{ Rare} = Rb)—Fa), so that the arbitra: - constant, c, disappears in the process’and we get ‘the same value 13 on considering F(x). 7 Definitions 9 Examples L ii rar =|Ff - 2S. 2. fo Trt = [tants 5 = tant 1—tan-20 = f= 9 3. ° sin x dx = ‘cos x"? = —cos 5 +608 0— 1. Exercises Evaluate the following definite integrals : 2 L \o x dx. 2. [j @etsxyas. * 4 24 3a. fF tie ae : j © ax, Jo =a & \ b 1 5. i edz. 6 fo x(L +x)? de. 1. JP cos x as. 8. P" sect x de. 2 thd de 243 sin x 9. 0 Stra. ro, fi" 243 sin ae, A 11. ale cosh x de n. fo Vl-peosh 2x) dx. Answers 14 2 12 3. n/6. 4. log 2. 5. ebmet 6. . : A 8 1 9. 2/342 tan-1 2. 10, 2¥3+43. 1. (-Dle- 12. 2sinh 1. 1-7. Two important properties of definite ingrals, © ff fey ae=—[F sd, ON fi Se) dx = fi; Sis de fc fl dx, where c, is a point inside or outside the interval (a, b. 10° Integral Calculus The proofs are quite simple. Let F(x) be an integral of f(x), so that we have if fixjdx = FIb)— Fa). (i) We have [p Zend =|Reaf - Re—FO) = -18b)—Fa] = -f fx) dx. Hence the first result. (i) Now, ff #9 ae = |r =Ro-Re. . fix) dx = [role =F) —Fe). 2 {; fe) ast" ‘fle dx = (Re) Fa FO) — Fe) : = Fb)—Fa) = fi f@) dx. Hence the second result. 1-8. Geometrical interpretation of a definite integral. To show that the definite integral i. fi) dx a denotes the area bounded by the curve y = f{x), the axis of x, and the two ordinates x = a and x = b, Let y = f(x) be the equation of a curve referred to two rec- tangular axes. Let, A, denote the area bounded by the curve, the axis of x, a fixed ordinate AG, (0A = a), and a variable ordinate MP. Let OM = x s0 that MP = y = fle). The area A, depends on the position of the ordinate MP whose abscissa is x, and is, therefore, a function of x. We take a point.O(x+ 4x, y+) on the curve which lies so near P that, as a point moves along the curve from P to Q, its Definitions 11 ordinate either constantly increases (Fig. 1) or constantly decreases Fig. 2). We have ON=x+ox, NQ=yt+oy. MN= ox The increment_o A in A, consequent to the change. Ax in x, is the area of the region MNQPM. The area oA of the figure MNQPM lies between the areas (+ oy) 4x and yox of the two rectangles QM, PN. For figure 1, we have O+4y) Ox > bAD> ax > O+4y) > - >y =) Let Q + P so that ax > Pa Then from (i), we obtain dA & A=). For figure 2, we have YOx > A> (+ hy)ox 24 54 2 ag ay) so that, for this case also, we obtain in the limit dA ZT" SR). Let BH be the ordinate x = b, We have ‘b 'b dA = dp f, toen la (4) 42 Integral Calculus = the value of A for x equal to b. —the value of A for x equal to a. = Area of the region GABHGA—0 = Area of the region GABHGA, which is.the area bounded by the curve y = f(x), x-axis and the two ordinates x = a,x = b. Note. The definition of the area-function, A, as given above, is not complete. To adequately define A so as to cover all possible cases, we agree to define by A the algebraic sum of the areas of all the portions enclosed by the curve, the axis of x and the two ordi- nates ; each portion being equipped with a proper sign + or —, according to the following convention :-— (i) the areas of the portions to the right of the fixed ordinate GA lying above x-axis and also the areas of the portions to, the left of GA lying below x-axis are positive ; (ii) the areas of the portions to the left of GA lying above x-axis and the areas of the portions to the right of GA lying below x-axis are negative. Fig. 3. It is easy to show that with these conventions as to the mean- ing of the areas A, the result of § 1-8 holds whatever be the portion of the variable ordinate MP relative to GA. Examples 1, Find by integration, the area of the triangle the equations of whose sides are y = x, y = O and x = 2 ; also verify your result by elementary geometry. ‘The area, in question, is enclosed by the curve y = x, the axis Definitions 13 of x and the two ordinates x = 0 and x = 2. Therefore, the required area Also; by elementary geometry, the area of the triangle = 4 0A.AB = 4.2.2 =2 Hence the verification. Fig. 4. 2. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y* = 4x and the line y = 4x. ‘The equations to the parabola and the straight line are y? =.4x and y. = 4x, : Their points of intersection are (0, 0), cd, 1). Thereforesthe required area = i (V4x—4x) dx ao te x -|2-F —4. 30 =4@"-20" Fi. ft 1 gd sy rer a Exercises 1, Find the area between the x-axis and the curve y = sin x from x = Oto x= 7 2. Find the area enclosed by the curve y = sec? x; x-axis, y-axis and the ordinate x = 4m. 3. Find the area enclosed by the curve y = e, x-axis and the two ordinates x = —1, x =1. 4, Trace the curves y = sin x, y = cos x as x varies from 0 to $n and find the area of the region enclosed by them and the axis of x. 5. Show that the area of the region enclosed by the hyperbolo xy = 1, x-axis and the two ordinates x = 1, x = 2 is log 2. 14 Integral Calculus 6. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y* = 4ax and its latus rectum, Answers 2% WL 3B Ne 4 2-v2 6 gah 1-9. Improper definite integrals. In the definition of the def- nite integral i fs) dx = and its geometrical interpretation, it is understood that (i) both the limits a, 6 are finite, and (ii) f@8 is continuous in {a, 5). ‘We now generalise the definition so as to include the case of definite integrals for which either (i) @ or b or both are infinite or (ii) for which f(x) becomes infinite at some point of the interval [2, b) ie., there exists point c of [a, b] such that f(x) tends to oo as x tends to c. Integrals of these types are called Generalised, Improper ot Infinite integrals. 1-91. Improper definite integrals of the first type. Suippose that the upper limit b is 00. To obtain the value of the integral {7 A a, Ja we first evaluate the definite integral fi ta, a where fis a number > a. We then examine the limit of the definite integral whose value, of course, depends upon ‘?’ as t + co. This limit, if it exists finitely, is\defined to be the value of the symbol \; fix) dx. In case the limit does not exist finitely, we cannot assign any meaning to [ava and we, then, say this infinite integral does hot exist. Definitions 15 Illustrations 1. To evaluate We first calculate the integral el fo cee We have nhl fo ie dx =| tan-1 x = tan '¢—tan?0 = tant et to x i eer ie Io tee 2. To evaluate el ii va & we first calculate the integral fear l vx We have Ji Se |avef ave which + + 00 as f + co, Thus, we see that the infinite integral] * #z dx does not exist, 192. “Now suppose that the lower limit is —co. To obtain f° Ae a, we first evaluate (i Se) dx. The limit of this integral, as ¢ > —oo, if it exists finitely, is to be the value of the integral t fe) dx. 193. To examine and evaluate, if possible, the infinite integral JZ. eas 16 Integral Calculus We examine the two integrals a * fs) dx and \7 fix) de, and then, if these two latter integrals exist finitely, we write Ji, fae =f fin dee f? se de Ex. 1. Evaluate the following improper integrals {el = dx <1 dx.) (+e 1 @ f; Faw ih Fe Se) j tae Ans. (i) 1, (1, (i) 4, (iy &. Ex. 2, Show that the improper integrals oA e 1 fi dx and f; ta do. not exist. Ex. 3. Find the area bounded by the curve y = 1/x2, the axis of x and the ordinate x = 1. In this case the region whose area is required extends to infinity so that, in the ordinary sense, we cannot speak of its area. A mean- ing may, however, be assigned to it by means of passage to the limit as follows. Let OA =a. Y We take a. variable ordinate MP where OM =¢ and consider P the area .of the finite region Nj GAMPG. If this area tends toa finite limit as the ordinate MP recedes to infinity, then this limit —z is said to be the area of the infinite regio under consideration. Fig. 6 Thus we have ‘Area GAMPG = fi pdx Api LU ~-|g) 4 which + | as ft -» co, Thus the infinite region has a finite area which is equal to 1. When we say that the area of the infinite region is 1, we mean that the area of the region GAMPG can be made as_ near, 1, as we like by taking MP sufficiently far off. Definitions 17 Ex. 4. Examine the area bounded by the curve y = 1/Vx, x-axis and the ordinate x = 1. “Let OM =1,0A =1 Area GAMPG to n = j ame byx if = Avt—-lh which +00 as t-0o so that the areas of the infinite region in this case is not finite. This means that the area of the region GAMPG can be made Fig. 7. as large as we like by taking MP sufficiently far off. Note. The fact that the area of the infinite region in Ex. 3 is finite, whereas that of the infinite region in Ex. 4 is infinite, is intui- tively explained by the fact that in the former case the curve approa- ches the X-axis much more rapidly than in the latter. Ex.5. Examine the area lying in the second quadrant and bounded by the curve y =e* and the two co-ordinate axes, 1-94. Lmproper definite Integrals of the second type. Let f(x) tend to infinity as x tends to 00 and at no other point. Lethbea positive number. We evaluate the proper integral 6 Yon S94 whose value is a function of h. If this function of h tends to a finite limit as A tends to 0, then this finite limit is defined to be the value of the improper integral b fi f(@) dx. In case the limit does not exist finitely, then [i 0) has no meaning. Similarly, if f(x) tends to infinity as x + 6 and for no other point, we examine the limit of the proper integral bh fr" 209 ax, as htends to 0. This limit, if it exists finitely, is defined to be the value of 18 Integral Calculus f. Sa) dx. If f(x) tends to infinity at some point x = ¢ within the interval [a, 6), then we examine the two improper integrals i fix) dx and I fle) dx and if they both exist finitely, we write fa fa) dx = (° fo det? fix) de. Ex. 1, Examine the improper integral 1 1 =n ®- \o vary * The integrand 1/4/(1—x*) tends to infinity as x tends to 1. To examine the value of the integral, we evaluate ret Io sacar We have ‘1h 1 2 te 1-h fc woe | sin +x(t = sin-4(1—A)—sin-1 0 ‘= sin? (1A), ‘1-1 - E a * gay & = jim lim Fen 1(1—A) = sin? 1 =F 1 1 ® = So yas fT: Ex. 2. Examine the area bounded by the curve, y = 1/x, Y-axis and the ordinate x = 1. Here the region extends to infinity and we proceed as in Ex. 3 of § 1-93. Yi Let OA = 1. We take an ordinate MP whose abscissa is A and examine the limit of the area of the region MPGAM G - as the ordinate MP tends towards Y-axis, Le. ash > 0, The area of i the region Aw MPGAM = fi, y de Fig. 8. Definitions 19 = f, ade Sh 1 = | Wa |, = 2-2ve, which - the finite limit 2, as h > 0. Thus in this case we say that the area of the infinite region under consideration is 2. Ex, 3. Examine the improper integrals ® fo Te dx, (ity fo + dx, Ex. 4. Show that the area of the region bounded by the curve JY = I]x', Y-axis and the ordinate x = 2 is not Sinite. Auswers (@ $ @ Does not exist, 2 Methods of Integration Integration by Substitution and Integration by Parts. 2-1. Methods of Integration. The following are the four princi- pal methods of Integration : I, Decomposition of the given integrand as a sum of integrands with known integrals. Il. Integration by substitution. Ill. Integration by parts. IV. Integration by successive reduction. The first method of integration which depends upon the two theorems proved in §1.5, p. 5, has already been illustrated in the preceding chapter. It will be seen in chapter 3 that this method of integration is very largely employed for’ the integration of algebraic rational functions. The other methods will be taken up in this chapter. It will be seen that the method of Integrating by parts is essentially a method by successive reduction for, with its help, we are enabled to express the integral of a product of two functions in terms of another whose evaluation may be simpler. The method of integration by successive reduction is thus also only a development of the method of integra- tion by parts. In the present chapter, we shall be laying emphasis mainly on the different methods of integration and in the following three chapters we shall consider the various Classes of functions and indicate the method of integrating functions belonging to any given class. Note. The process of integration is largely of a tentative nature and is not so systematic as that of differentiation. In general, 20 weetaious of Integration 21 experience is the best guide for suggesting the quickest and the simplest method for integrating a given function. 22, Integration by substitution. This method consists in ex- pressing the integral J f(x) dx, where x is the independent variable, in terms of another integral where some other variable, say ft, is the independent variable; x and being connected by some suitable relation x = $ (1). It leads to the result J f(x) dx = Jf ¢ (O] ¢’ (t) dt, which is proved as follows :— Lety = fftxy de # Ra. ‘Thus we have shown that the integral of a function f (x) with respect to x is equal to the integral of, fe) dx|dt with respect to t. Here x is to be replaced by ¢(1). This method proves useful only when a relation x = ¢(¢) can be so selected that the new integrand f(x)(dx/dt) is of a form whose integral is known. ‘An Important Note. It may be noted that in the result S/@) dx'= S f(b ] 6 Oat dx has been. replaced by ¢'(Adt and this equality can be obtained from dx/dt = ¢’ (t), by supposing that dx and dt are separate quan- tities. This supposition greatly simplifies the presentation of the process of integration by substitution. [Refer Ex. 3, on next page]. The logical justification for this supposition is not required here, for it has only been formally introduced for the sake of convenience. Examples 1. Integrate e* sin e*. 2 ax 1 We pute=taeH ore ot. ae _,\ de ‘ fesine da f(esine \ eae - f( e# sine \é at 22) Integral Calculus = Jsintdt = — cost = — cose. 2. Integrate cos? x sin x. ax -1. oe -sinx Boi —sinx Fp = \Werpaticos at: set = nx s j cos x sin x dx = foos' sin x. Ba = [cos xsin x, tt =[-ea--F 1 7 = AF cost x. ro 3. Evaluate |e ‘We put x*=1 2 6s Ho 2 bts = dt. « fee Jaite arr ~ =pomte = - tan-1x*. Exercises Find the integrals of the following functions :-— 1. (@ et cose, (i) 2xe*, Git) 2ee*, (iv) etn! sect t, (0) eos * [= (i) = eve ) wit we ©) aseey araey 2.) sin x cos x, (ii) -Ysin x cos x, (iti) sin x cos x, (i) 3 sin x sect. cos x tan® x sec! x 3 O Tyne * @ nell (it) “aCRbEDT Seo Te i) ar (it) @ + lly az sig cos x “© cramp" Methods of Integration 23 sect x =a © (ay » wy 5. (i) 4x cosect (x4), (fi) x* sect (x), (aie ua ot, (i) cos Vx/vx, cos (log x) 6 () e* sect (2). (iy CoB) x (iil) oie (iv) e* tan (e*) sec (e*). 1 OSes m5 @ nos ’ sect x @) a= THT ©) Ta= tanta” tan} x 8 0 “7a tan vx sect yx. (ii) > 1 @sin &* (ivy oft (ii) inkx 2. @ 4 sin’ x (iv) sect x 3. @ tan} (sin x) (ii) 2 tan (log x) ) tant x3 (vil) tan-He*) 4. @ —UG+sin x) (iit) —4(1—log x) 5. () —cot x# (iv) 2 sin Vx 6. (i) sin (log x) (in) sec e® 7. (i) sit (iv) sin? (tan x) 8. () ¢(tan-? x 2x sin-? x? (ii) “Va=x)’ Answers Wt) Wi te” Ox (vp ett (viii) 4N* (ix) tan (xe* ) (i teint x Gi) -t e082 (ii) + tan (ant x) () $ tart () (tant x (if) tant 4 +tan x)* (i) Ftanx8 (ttt) —t cos xt ©) tan e* GW) tan (log.x) (ii) —4 608 (243 log x) (ii) Esin“A x8 (iii) sin-? [(2x+3)/-V2) (i) (Gin 2)" (ii) (tan YX)? 24 Integral Calculus 2.3. ‘Three important forms of integrals ax = log f(x). taf’ (x) dx = dt. dt tG = \F = log t = log f(x). Thus we see, that the integral of a fraction whose numerator is the derivative of its denominator is equal to the logarithm of the denominator. Illustrations ry (eee = log (14-23), for the numerator 3x* is the derivative of the denominator 1.+2%. © Jafar dr — bog +e. 2-311, Integrals of tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x. The result given above enables us to obtain the integrals of tan x, cof x, sec x and cosec x as shown below :— 1 [tnx ax = | dx = log sec x. J tan x dx = log sec x. cos 1. J cotx dx = [SP de = tog sin x. J cot x dx = log sin x. m, [sox d= (See a = log (see x-+tan x), for the numerator, sec? x-+sec x tan x, is the derivative of the deno- minator sec x-++ tan x. To put the result in another form, we write sec x4tanx = 180% and employ the results sn x = 2 tan (3/2) 2) sin x= an Copy 8 = Se so that we obtain tan (2/2) ae seo xttan x= TEE = tan F4+t) Thus [eee s) Vv. { cosee x dx = ose x (cosec x—cot x) coseg x—cot x Methods of Integration 25 = log (cosec x—cot x). As in III above, we have L- tan* (x/2) cos x ~ Tian? (x)? x o — = eK = tan. sec x—cot x = — Oe SSE tan > T+ tan® (x/ Thus J cosecx dx = log tan 5. Exercises 1. Integrate the following : iat iy) 2841 © its @ BeaeT” (i) Sas = amy ®) Ta ws () tanh x, a cot x (i) coth x, oi) SRS (iit) yeas? i sec? x cosec® x | 1 () ana? @) Preor Gi) og x” xetpert (xit) whe “Gi SO, noe etre : sin 2x @) ‘Flee ¥ i Wogny? ©) Teostexab ? Geo) FE, (wit) 282% __, “ptan x” (in x-F 00s x} yp, 500 #00800 ¥, (ix) “Tog (tan x) 2. Integrate the following functions by changing the indepen- dent variable : () @ tan(e), (i) stan x8, (fii) cos x cot (sin x), cot (log x in? coy SEED, gy SGOT, oy) EVE, (vit) cot (2x43), (vill) tan (3x44), (x) or (e). 3. Integrate . (i) sec (tan x) sect x, (ii) x" cosee x", (iif) sec (ax-+b), (iv) cosec (ax+b), : a (0) cosec (cosec x) cot x cosec x, (vi) cose Cage) 4. Evaluate j dx sin (ay sin = By 26 Integral Calculus Answers 1. @ tlog (1+2%) (il) log (x9 +-x41) (iii) log sin-* x (i) log tan! x () log cosh x (vi) log sich x (il) (116) log (a+b sin x) (vill) log tog (sin x) (éx) log (1-+tan x) (x) —log (1+ cot x) (xi) log log x (xi) (Ie) log (+62) (xiii) (a/nb) log (6x" +e) (xiv) 2 log (1+-Vx) (20) og flog (log x)} (vl) [[(6—a)] log (a cos? x-+6 sin? x) xvii) log (in x +-c0s x) (xviii) log (sin x +cos x) (xix) log {log (tan x)} 2. @ log (sec e*) (ii) log (ee x8) tit) Nog [sin (sin x] @) log [sin (log x9} (@) log sec (sin- x) (wi) 2 log (sin Vx) (vii) £ log [sin (2x+3)] (viii) ¢ log [sec 3x44) (ix) # log (sin e*) 3. O02 [ tan (44tan ‘| w (4) log [ tan (+")] (ty (1a) tog tan (4 = + F4ax+8) ) Go) (1a) tog (=F ) %) —log tan (f cosec x) (vi) log tan @ tan-1x) 1 1 sin (x—a) ain e=by '* si 232. We put f (x) = 1 2 f(a) dx = dt. mt 2 [UCR @ dem [nde A, for net _ Ley mel It should be noticed that the integrand consists of the product of a power of a function f(x) and the decivative f’ (x) of f(x). The integral then is obtained on increasing the index by unity and divid- ing by the increased index. The case of n = —1 corresponds to that of the preceding sub- section 2:31. : Illustration. Evaluate f sint x cos x dx Taking f (x) = sin x, we see that the given integral is of the form SUAS 0) de sintt! x 1 A sigs Aes ee so that j sin' x cos x dx = Methods of Integration 27 Exercises 1. Integrate the following :— (i) V5in x cos x, (ii) tan* x sec? x, 1 yp (iii) cosectx V/ cot x, (i) COR 3d © arryrarsy (fan Py (ii) : visin?® yy @) xvor4)), ; : ©) verry” Gi) erv(1 +e), (xii) sin® x cos x, in 2x43 4. 1Y(e + log x) (ail) Writes” (i) + Me log x) (wo) 1 log x. x(1+-logx)? ” (vii) /(2+-sec? x) sect x tan x, (vill) (e +e-*)\(e*—e'), (xix) sec x log (see x+-tan x). Answers 1. @ E Gina??? (i) t tandx Wy =4 cot? 5, 6) 4 Gant 8 © =H x (i) iar! NF Gt) 2VGin93) Go) Va) ay) 2g a @ 404389? Gi) F407? (xt) A sint x (Gili) 2V GP +3x—4) (air) 4 Ge+-log x)® (Qy) —4 (1+log x)? (xvi) 4 (log x)? (avi) 12-4802 x9? vii) Yee)? (xix) § [log (sec x+1an 2)} 2:33. fr (@x-+-b) dx = coon ; We put ax+b = 14 adx = dt > dx 2 dia. es froxsmac= frm Lp all Od = 4. so= 1 saxte) 28 Integral Calculus Thus the integral of a function of (ax+-5) is of the same form as the integral of the same function of x divided by a, which is the coefficient of x. Examples () The integral of cos. x is sin x > the integral of cos (ax-4b) is BY sin(ax-+5). 1 (ii) The integral of 23 is * = the integral df (2x-+3)° is Qx+3)t _ Qx+3) 42 s 2. Integrate (i) sin? x, (ji) sin® x, (fii) cos x cos 2x. @ We know that cos 2x = 1—2 sin? x sin? x = 3 (1—cos 2x) J sin® x dx = } J (1 cos 2x) de + = EL JL dx— feos 2x dx] 1 sin 2x = =( i) = 4 (sin x cos x) (i) We know that sin 3x = 3 sin x—4 sin? x : sin? x = } (3 sin x—sin® x) * J sin? x dx = 4[f3sin x dx— § sin 3x dx] = z[3 cos ae] = 1/12 [eos 3x —9 cos x] (iii) We know that cos x cos 2x = } [cos 3x-+cos x] ws J.c08 x cos 2x dx = $[f cos 3x dx-+J cos x dx] 1a sax ] sin 3x43 sin x SO See 1 3. Integrate Tb cos x * We find two numbers r and « such that a=rcosab=rsina, Methods of Integration 29 From these, squaring and adding, we obtain r= v(a+5), and on dividing one by the other, we obtain tana = b/a or «= tan-} (b/a) s. asin xb cos x = r (sin x cos a-+cos x sin a) = resin (x+2), : { dx 1 dx * Jasinx-+b cosx 7 Jsin (x-+a) ee rl cosee (x--a)dx = © tog tan2te , where r= y(at+b'), a = fant (ba). Exercises 1. Integrate : @ cost x, (ii) c0s* x, (iii) sin 4x cos 2x, (bv) sin 5x sin 3x, (9) cos x cos 2x cos 3x, 2. Integrate : (i) sint x, (il) cost x. 3. Integrate : @ 14(ax+5), (ii) sect (2x43), (ili) cot (4x-+5), > ©) sect 5 coset 5, (ii) VA—cos x), (viii) V(L+sin x), @) v(i—sin A (xi) sec (ax-+6), (i) cos i) pees x (&) (1400s x), (xii) cosec (ax +5). (xii?) =e ) saexc irae Answers 1. @ Hx+sin x cos x) Gi)-1/12 @ sin x-+sin 3x) Gil) (112) (Cos 6x-+3 cos 2x) (iv) (1/16) (4 sin 2x—sin Bx) () (1/48) (12x46 sin 2x43 sin 4x-+2 sin 6x) 4) (1/32) (12x—8 sin 2x-+sin 4x) (ii) (1/32) (12x48 sin 2x+sin 4x) 3 OD bog (arto. Gi) ban (2e+3), (i) t log sin (4x-+5) (iv) 2 sin bx 0) —4cot.x (i) tan dx (oil) —2/2 cos x/2 (iti) 2 (in 4 x—cos ¢ x) () 2v2 sind x () 2 (sin #x-+c08 # 2) (af) (Ufa) log tan {k (ax+5) +4] (xiH) (Ifa) log tan “> “b Se (1/5) log tan (/x-+tan“? 4/3)) Gxlv) fy log tan [4 (x-+tan-? 12/5) +47) 30 Integral Calculus 2:4. Six important integrals. . We now obtain the integrals of 1 © za O sana WO TE: ven Tere OO TeaRa @) V@—%, &) VHX) Vea, : 1 (i) To evaluate \yeo5 ax Put x sasin @ > dx = a.cos 0 a0. Also. at—x? = at (1—sint 6) = at cos? @. y 1 1 i aos ®- heats 008 6.d0 sint =, a = fia= a 1 (ii) To evaluate \aers dx. Put x =a sinh 6 > dx = a cosh 0 d0, Also a?--x? = a*(1-+sinh® 6) = a? cosh® 8. 1 1 ce \rarny ax = a coun #2 cosh 8 d0 = pide sinh) a = log TEV) ii) To evaluate | 15. dx. (iit) To evaluate | re — aay Put x = acosh 8 = dx = asin 0 d0. Also xt—at = a? (cosh? @— 1) = a? sinh? 8. 1 1 ; . \ve5 ax = fa sing 4 sinh @ 9 = fla = 6 = cosh? ~ : a tyr = log ELON, (iv) To evaluate § /(a*—x?)dx. Putting x = asin 8, we get J ¥(@!—xtdx = at cost 9 dd ‘ = $| (cos 2041) dé @ /sin 20 =F 7 +0) Methods of Integration 31 a = $( sin 8 cos 0-40 ) -# [sin ey(1—sin® +8] apex ey a Pe I(t) sins 2] =e) sie (v) To evaluate § / (a*+-x*) dx. Put x = asinh 0 > dx =a cosh 0 dé. & J V(@-+a8)dx = f a cosh* 6 do We know that cosh 26 = cosh? ¢+sinh? 4 and { cosh? @—sinht 6, > sh 26 cosh? 0 [ ver+xnax =. j (cosh20+1)d9 - $( m2 s0) a x + sinh 4.cosh 040) z = $1 sinh 8/(1-+sinh? o+8 | er x xt nee = liv ( eee 2] ae sviess) a z +3, tt 7 seta Glog EYE et) (vi) To evaluate f V(x*—a")dx. Putx = acoshd > dx =a sinhé dd fe J vVGt—at)dx = fa? sinh 6 do, We know that ont {e« 20 = cosh? 04-sinh* @ 1 = cosh? 6 —sinh® 8. foth 20 ba = sinh? 6. j V0t—ahdx = 34 (cosh 29—1) dé 32> Integrai Calculus = sink 24 8 ] i = sinh @ cosh oe} $[ -V (cosh? @—1) cosh 6-0] ~$ifS-1 Ee] 7 xis) _ cosh? & at 2 — 2G 2) og arvcr a) We have thus obtained the following six results :— 1 ox |vatsay & = sie j v(at—x!) dx = ave-%) + Fin 1%, ‘ 1 \vene ty ox = sink Z J vars ax = eH) 5. S sion = | 1 7 [very eos i j vGt- at) dx = se =H coms X ‘The minus sign in the aa, case should be specially noted. Examples 1. Integrate Zo 1 an 1 © Jaxer Tere (it 1 viGx+ey—ay We have, (Refer § 2:23), dx, 1, bxte \v eter —— : dx Liye bebe | aaeirsen = 3 Sa bet | rietiycay — poo SE Methods of Integration 33 2. Integrate 1 v1 ) —— O Terme’ © TererD (8) sates vee Vv (—2x843x44) @ We have GA+2x42) = (EI ya 1 J Vee lrecierr = sinh? (x41) @) (44x42) = (x +2)'—-(72)" 1 dx na J Vv Gran) , \eapcom = cosh"? 2 2 (iti) We have 28 43x44 = 2x $x—2] 1 : dx 2 \aeomperay * = or) vary 3 Arcam eyes) oo x-—#4 oe 4x—3 = petit Sat = syst SB. _ Exercises 1, Integrate : Osi oO wy) V (243x447 VGxt+4x+1) VGA+x41) 2. Integrate : @ vd-*). — @) V4, (it) VOR). 3. Integrate : @ v(2x843x+4), (i) FQ8+4x+1), (lil) (284.3244), 4, Integrate : Pea 2x i) 243 Overy © yaERp Gi) Fapy 34 Integral Calculus (iv) (H2VEPRAL, (”) (2x44) Vv (2x943x4- 1), © Ver 2+ 2y 5. Integrate : Oy ne Veerae pay “) Wesqiy 0), sp ES ee v(2 sin? x43 sin x44) Answers 1. @ CIV2) sinh? ae (ii) (113) cosh (3x42) Gii) sink [2x4 1)/V3) 2) be VU 2) 44 sind (i) be VO") sinh te ii) 4x VG@I-1)—-4 cosh"tx 3.) 4 Gx+3) V2x' 43x44) 434 V2 sinh"? (4x4 3/V23] (il) ¢ Gx+2) VGx8+-4x41)—1/18 V3 cosh 3x42) (iii) & x3) V(— 229+ 3x44) 441/32 2 sin [Gx—DIV4] 4. ¥eV@841)—bsinh-tx (i) xV@2=1)+ cosh tx Gi) 2VGA+1) +3 sinh tx i) VCP +GE+3x 41) tinh“ () Pe V(2x24+3x-+1) G24? + 108x461) — 3 cosh"? (4x-+3) (vi) 2V 8-242) 47 sinh (x—1) 5. () ¢sinb' @+1) Gi) t sinh? x4 Gif) (IV2) sinh a 2-5. Integration by parts If u, v be two functions of x, we have du) _ dv, du my) aut ve. Integrating both sides, we get = (uta. du. w -| wh det { vttas a au ” j ugg =w-{ vas wall) Let us feyand & @ 4 (x) dx = 80) ‘Therefore . MH op (wand y = 5 $ (9) dx, Methods of Integration 35 The statement (1) may now be rewritten as SFG) o (0) dx =f (%) J 6) de-f Lb) ELS’ @) de. In words, this formula states that ‘The integral of the product of two functions = first function x integral of second —integral of (diff. coefficient of first x integral of second) Examples 1. Evaluate § xe* dx. Let xaf (xe = $@)- xe? dem x.er—fer, | dxaxer—e* Note. Suppose we take £&) = $O) =* a fxetdx = }bxter—tf tet dx, so that the given integral { x e*dy’is reduced to a ccmparatively more complicated integral f x* e* dx ; the index of x having increased. Thus a proper choice of the order of factors is sometimes necessary. 2. Evaluate § x* cos x dx. We take f (x) = x%, $ (x) = cos x. Jxtoos x dx = x. sin x—f 2x sin x dx. [To evaluate fx sin x dx, we have again to apply the rule of integration by parts.] = x sin x—2[ x(—cos'x)—J (—cos x) dx] = xt sin x+2x cos x—2 sin x = (x82) sin x-+2x cos x. We thus see that the rule of integration by parts may have to be repeated several times. 3. Evaluate { cos x dx Here we take unity as one factor. We have Joost x dx = fost x. 1 dx moos te. x |r -v (1-34) = xcost xg f(i-e) (2 )es mc —xy t+! =t+ = xcostx —t 36 dmregra: valculus = x cost x—v (1—x!) wf. feostx dx = xcos-?x—v(I—a¥) Exercises Integrate the following functions : 1. xe, (ii) xe, (iii) x sinh x. 2 (i) log x, (ii) x log x, (iti) x*log x, (iv) 2 log x. 3. @ x(log x), (ii) (x log x) (ili) ¥x (log x). 4. () tan x, (ii) xtan™™x, (fii) cot? x. (iv) x cot? x, (») x8 tan-1 x, 5. (i) sin-4 x, (ji) x sin-1 x, (iii) sec"t x, (iv) x sec™* x. 6. @ xcos x, (ii) x* sin x, (iii) x8 cos x, (iv) x* sin® x, (0) x2 sin x cos x, (vi) x cos x cos 2x, (vii) x sin x sec? x, * (viii) x cos® x sin x. 1 @ we (i) eat 9? (ili) x log (1+). Answers 1) @ GA—2e42)€%. (i) (8322-667. (ii) x cosh x—sinh x. 2. (i) x log (le). (i) 4 4 log (Je). Gid) 4 8 log Ge). (i) (2™/(041)4] log (e+e), 3. () 82412 (log x)?—2 log +1]. GD) 7 4q #4 B2Mlog x)8—24(log x)*-+12 log x—3], id) By (18(l0g x)°—24 log x+16}09%, 4. @ xtant x—log VeA+1). ii) 4441) tant x—dx. Gif) x cor x+log VGA+1), (iv) HGA+1) cot”? x-+bx. (9) 4G4—1) tar? x—1/12G3—3x), 5. (@) xsin? x+-V(1-x). (ii) ¢ (28-1) sin? x+4xV (I-29), (iit) x see" x—cosh"? x. ()) 462 sect x—V@t—1)). 6 @ xsin x-+c08 x. Gi) —x9 cos x+2 (x sin x-+008 x). (Ui) G—6x)sin x+3 (@2—2) cos x. (i) 29+ 41—224) sin 2x—4x cos 2x, (%) £U—222) cos 2x-+4x sin 2x, (i) gyQx sir 3x-+008 3x-+4x sin x-+608 x). (oil) 4 sec? x--tan x). (Wilt) —bx cost +5, (12x48 sin 2x-Fsin 42). 1. QD) =x cot x+log sin x, (i) x tan x —log sec x. il) 481) log (1+) -2(28—22). Methods of Integra:ion' 37 2-51. To evaluate the integral Se [f(x) +1'Q0] dx. Integrating by parts, we have Sef dx = e f(x)—J ef (x) dx ~ Lels@)+f'@)] dx = ef). This form of integral is quite important. Examples 1. Evaluate the following integrals : ‘sin x © \ ea dx, (i) je joan de. We have 1-1 q - fare “\Ler-erw ke is 1 Taking fe = =r so that f"(*) = Tay we see that the function to be integrated is of the form elf @+/'@) and accordingly, the integral is fix =ef@= oy We may also, however, proceed independently as follows : xe® j erp a Integrating = =e dx by parts, we get 1 1 [ar ®eagr | ear brakes 1—2 sin % cos= 1-sinx 5 OF i Now, ¢ (Gate) = xsirsre 2 me 2 (i) No T= cos x 2 aint = efi coseot > ~cot5} so that f(z) = cots. We sce that the integrand is of the form & (f+) 18 titegeal Calcilus Integrating e* cot zy parts we obtain j er cot 5 dx = er cot -[- } cosect x dx 2 Je “(00 t Ft coset ¥ aan fe +( 4 eoseet 5. — cot F: = =e cot z Exercises 1. Integrate the following functions : @ gio w thsi 35 T-Feos x ii) 1+* log x iy) 2etsin 2x (iii) Ate e, () [eos 3a Ifsin 2x pee » z i) Tos Bx“ 1—si —t, eS (x84-1 cin VOSA eit) De, (ix) e* (tan x—log cos x). Answers 1. @ e+). (ie tan 5 (itl) & log x. () ef tan x. | () ~e cot x. (wi te tan x. (in oF seo $x. (it) =D ex +D. (ix) ef log see x. 2-52. Integrals of (i) e8* cos (bx+¢) (i) ew (bx-+0) Applying the rule of integration by parts, we obtain J et? cos (bx-+c) dx «- en = cos (oxt0)~ \-+ b sin (bx-+) de b = Zcos br+e+ j em sin (bx-te) dx, (i) Similarly we have Jem sin (bx-+e) dx 7 = sin (bx-+c)— {=- b cos (bx-+e) dx = Fsinbrto- Ff ercos rte) de . Methods of integrations 39 If the value of J e** cos (bx+-c)dx- be required, we substitute the R.HLS. of (if) for the last term of (i) and if the value of Je sin (bx4-c) dx be required, we substitute the R.HLS. of (i) for the last term of (ii). In the former case we gct J e** cos (bx-4-c) dx + e* sin (bx4-c)— ea (14 =f e** cos (bx-+-0) dx = ger 2.008 (bx4-c) +b sin (bx-+e) = 7008 (bx-+0)+ 7 spar 4 008 (bx-+-c)-+b sin (bx-+0) cle j e* cos (bx-++c) dx = e' = oe Similarly we have in gar 4 Sin (bx-+c)—b cos (bx+¢) j e* sin (bx4-c) dx = et” — eae To put the results in another form, we determine two numbers rand a-such that a =rcosaandb=rsina. These give r= ¥ (at+b), a = tan (b/a). a jer cos (bx+-¢) dx = e** ree Orbe) cos (bx+-e—t =e ey Similarly sin ( bxpe—tan-2> 5 e+ sin (bx-+0) dx =e ‘Examples 1. Evaluate (i) fe sin 4x dx, (ii) J et# cos 2x cos 4x dx, (iii) J xe cos x dx. : (i) From the formula proved above in § 2°52, we get . ee ad j a sin Ax de = FaraR) a aan +) oe : = Hsin ( 4xtant F). 40 Integral Calculus (ii) Now, cos 2x cos 4x = } [2 cos 2x cos 4x] = {cos 6x+-cos 2x) se J.et# cos 2x cos 4x de = Ef et cos 6x de+4 f et cos 2x de yer 5 e05( 6x—tans$) ; +2 -yarpay: (2-10 7) Sly cos ( 6x—tan1 3 $)+sy cos( axtant $-) (iii) To evaluate § xe cos x dx, we apply the rule of integra- tion by parts. Taking x and et cos x as two factors, we have eo cae f set 00s x dx = x. -Z cos ( x—tan+z-) -f Syo0s ( tant} Jae 1 Again, Je cos em Dax aoe = Seo0s ( x—2 tan y) o j xet* cos x dx = et Lvs cos ( x—tan-t #) " Ye ( 2-2tuesL Exercises 1. Evaluate the following integrals : (i) § ef cos 5x dx, (i) f e cos? x dx. (iii) f et cost x dx, _ (io) fe sin x sin 2x sin 3x de, () f xte% sin x dx, (vi) § sinh 2x sin 2x dx, 2. Integrate @ cos (log x), (ii) x sin (2 log x), (ii) x* sin (a log x). Answers LO Vity cos (Sx—tan"ts). 0) de Hiv § 6? cos (2x tan 2), i) 4. ot [Fy cos ( x-tant 2), sy (ur BI) _ Methods of Integration 41 (@&) de*fyg sin (2x—tant 2)—V yy, sin (6x—tan"? 6) +V gy sin @x—tan 4)), () Vite® [x sin (En) +8in (x—gn)]-+xe# cos x. (i) & cosh 2x sin 2x—sinh 2x cos 2x). 2 @ V4. ¥ 00s [log xt]. @) Vit x9 sin (2 log x—tr). wy ae sin [tog x—tan? <]- 2-6. Sometimes both the methods of integration have to be applied in one and the same question. We will illustrate the proce- dure by two examples. Examples 1. Evaluate . x sin? x dx. ; aos We put x= sin > dx = cos 0 d0 tsi = ae cos 0 a? = f sino ad, To evaluate J @ sin @d?, we apply the rule of integration by parts and obtain J @sin 6 dd = (—0 cos 6)— f —cos 6.1 do. = =0-008 0+ f 00s # d9 = —0 cos 64-sin 8. Res dx = —0 cos 0-+sin 9 = —¥(1=x4) sin! xx. 2. Integrate tan? vl (8) i We put x = cos 0 > dx = —sin 6 dd. tan 9/(TeE) = es/ (Fars) | t/a, = tan tan =) = - . 42 Integral Calculus foo (tas dx =| (Csin 0) do = =f 0sin 0 do = —$[-6 cos 6+sin 6] =} [-x cost x4+-/(1—2¥)). Exercises, Integrate the following : 1, tan? x 2. x tan x/(1+3)? 3. x cos x8. 4. tan-1 [2x/(1—x4)). e™ tan"? x. e tan? x ca 6 Var 7 xe™ sin xte™ sin? x v=)" v=)" Answers 1 YG*+) tan? B23), 2. (x—tan-1x)/-V(1-4-x4). 3. 4(x4—2) sin x8+-22 cos x2. 4. 2x tan? x—log (1423). me 5. Pqmxpiy 0S @—cot"t m), where @ = tan-2 x. 6 = [+ye8 =nr( 20—tan? 2)} where @ = tan x, 7 Vary ‘sin (6@—cot m), where @ = sin x, m6, 8 OL A satay co (20-ta0t 2 eee = et 2-7, Definite Integrals. The application of the methods of integrating by substitution and of integrating by parts for evaluating definite integrals shall be illustrated by means of examples. The validity of the procedure will be seen to be quite apparent. When the variable x in a definite integral \, Six) de is changed, we usually change the limits also ; the new limits being the values of the new variable which correspond to the values aand bof x. Methods of Integration 43 Examples 4 cos x 1. Evaluate f(t rey We wut sin x = ¢ = cos xdx = dt a(t) From (1), we see that *=0o1=Oandx=F otal Thus 0 and I are the limits for the new variable t. We have fecosxde _ (1 dt 1 j aa j = jane 0 i rants — Jo ie Stanti—tnto= F. 2. Evaluate fo x? et de, Integrating by parts, we have fuean te [Re ae = S| nee ae 3. Prove that i wide = tog 0 (xy We put x = sin 0 > dx = cos 6d, sa(l) From (1), we see that @ = Owhen x = O'and 0 = mn when x = V/}. 14° Integral Calculus ‘Thus the given integral = [PP 9 seer ao, Integrating by parts, we obtain J 8 sect 6 do = 6 tan 6—f 1. tan 6 d8 = 0 tan 6—log sec 0 tn jae [Fr 2 seo 0 do = |e tan e—togsec of z.. I 1-tog 2 =F — joe 2. eS 4° Exercises 1. Evaluate the following integrals : a (it 1 (tan-4x)* @ fo aes @ i costt dt, (iti) i oo es @) ie sin* 1 cos t dt, (») i sin’ t dt, (vi) (} van as, (vii) 3 x cos x dx, " (vili) ‘c x sin x dx, ® fo xtantx dx?) iM wos: 2. Prove that 1 x/x 1 fs x(tan-1 xf de = +(F = jeg log 2. Answers 1. @ log 2. Gi m4. ii) 78/192. @) 1/4, ©) 23. @) FAN. (if) —2. (iii) 7/8. () DIA.) #16. 2-71, improper definite Integrals. *While calculating improper definite integrals, we often need the following limits : 7 Sa i). lim == 0, Ose log x EF (ili) lim_ (xe Jog x) = 0, x90 (i) lim x+e 1 being a positive number. *These ts hay ii ° entlal Coleg, Fesvlts have been proved in Chapter XIII of the Author's Difer- Methods of Integration 45 = Examples 1. Evaluate 1 i; log x dx ‘We know that log x + —co as x -> 0 so that here we are con- cerned with an improper integral We firstly evaluate fi, log x de We have 1 1 f, log x deo i 1. log x dx i | 108 | a =|xlogx|' — |x lh = —h log h—(1—A), for log 1=0. As h-> 0, h log h» 0 and, therefore, the right hand side »—1. 1 Thus fo log x dx exists finitely and is equal to —1. 2. Show that, a being positive, (i e-8* cos bx dx = 0 02 ii b — fi ever sin Be de = yo oy We write T= [° e-** cos bx dx, J = i eve sin bx dx, Let x be a positive number. 8 _jessinoxe as fs e-a cos bx de = |= OEP +o e-* sin bx dx ...(1) Now Integrating by parts, we have. Jenne sind _ si br __ sin bx eb = ber —9= hee? which ‘tends to 0 as x -> 00, for I/e** + 0 and sin bx remains num- erically less than 1. Thus letting x - oo, we obtain, from (1) -Q) $f e-** cos bx dx ,..(3) 46 Integral Calculus Now wae 008 bxX cos bx Tere hb BEG which tends to 1/b as x -» 00. Therefore, letting x -+ oo, we obtain, from (3) La eae (4) J= 55h (4) Solving (2) and (4) for and J, we obtain aoy al, T= age! = ape Exercises Evaluate the following improper integrals : w fo wis dx, (i) \R ate” + dx, ci) [> ert dx (vy fo x log x dx, fy 8 Hoe x ae, “ if i oe wid i Te (viii) fs ¥( V(= ) de, [a se x, & e ere sin nx dx, (a > 0), (x) i e-¥ sin x sin 3x dx, (xil) (ie e sin x dr, Answers » @ m8. (i) 2. (it)'6. (i) -4. m1 (vi) 1/4. (vii) x. (ili) an/2. (i) 7/2. (X) natn). (xi) 3/40. (xii) —1/2. 2-8. Reduction Formalae. In the general sense of the term, any formula which expresses an integral in terms of another which is simpler, is a reduction formula for the first integral. The common practice is, however, to confine the use of the term to cases in which the integral is a member of a class of functions and the formula expresses the integral of the general member of class in terms of one or two integrals of the same class. The successive application of the reduction formula enables us to express the integral of the general member of the class of functions in terms of that of simplest member of the class. Methods of Integration 47 ‘The reduction formulae are generally obtained by applying the rule of integration by parts. A large number of reduction formulae will be obtairied in the following chapters, Here we will congider some illustrative cases only. Examples - 1, Establish a reduction formula for § x" e% dx and apply it to evaluate J x e** dx. Integrating by parts, we have j Xe Gee act. a al xm ear dx, aa which is the required reduction formula. \Putting = 3, 2, 1 successively in it, we obtain j Berdx— PO 3 verde i) ae j sew dx a MS xe? dx wait) aa From (ii) and (iii), we get ates 2x ett | Devt 5 ede = ESE el) Again from (#) and (iv), we obtain vee. HOt owe bre 6, {reas Se oe ae a = (@x3= 38x! 4-6ax —6). 2. Obtain a reduction formula for § x” sin nx dx. We have, integrating by parts, j xm sin nx dic = — SOS ze cos nx dx ...(i) Again, 2-2 gi ee et j x4 sin nx de n n Substituting this value in (i), we get . al [rr sina de = F708 fxr cos x ae = maa) j xm? sin mx de, m which is the required reduction formula, 48° Integral Calculus 3. Obtain a reduction formula for § x» e-* dx and hence show that the improper integral Jo metdemnt, where n is any positive integer. Integrating by parts, we have fo axes dx -| -werl +nf x leedx = —Mmetin {i wales dx Now lim (—me-!) = lim (3) =0 tro tao\e a 3 wrens dx = fy wrte* de Denoting i xn e-® dx by In, we write In = ah, Changing n to n—1, n—2,..0..2, 1, we get ha=-)h, In = (1-2) In helh=I. From these we obtain leant ly Now, . ma ffi => nal ero ies (f, . «) = lim -et4| =1 tao s leant. 4. Obtain a reduction formula for { x" (log x)" dx and apply it to evaluate is 2 (log x) de, Integrating by parts, we have Meihods of Integration 49 Sam (tos "dx xa 1 == ml (log x)*— ail x04 (log a). dx “5 _ 27" (log) a al x™ (log x)*"1 dx, ss the equied reductioa formule. F Putting m = 4, we get j 4 (log x)* dx = © (log a)" § xf (log x)"-} de. Putting n = 3, 2, 1 successively, we get J #4 (log x) de = % (log x))— | (log xytdx ° ...() j 2° (log x)! dx = ¥ (log x)"— 5] xtlogxdx —...{il) j a log x dem tog x3 ade x x =F togxZ From these, we obtain J #4 (Jog x} de = % (log ye (log x 6x 6 cnr log x25 at 2 (i; #4 (log x de = [5 (log x¢— F (os x ay log x— ape x[ When x -+ 0, x5 (log x), x8 (log x)}, x! log x all — 0. ‘1 o { # (log 2) de =m 5 Exercises 1, Obtain a reduction formula for { x™ cos nxdx and at itto evaluate f x* cos 3x dx. 2 If : tm [Po sin x dx and'n > 1, tat n(t—1)ug-g 1 (4)": $0 Integral Calculus 3. Show that | et de ox Sat gL (pm gyn je (Large dx = SCO 5 SE fend a de Hence deduce that 1 (2—1)1m! tant ak ’ fo xm(Laxyet de ate m, n, being positive integers. 4. If mand n are positive integers, prove that 4 xmloxye) de = i setae} de O28 = FO?) (eR) Answers mx sin nx-+m cos nx 1, fx cos mx de = x" ™ — PED 5 a8 cos nx de. J 33 008 3x dx = gy (9x*—2) cos 3x+5 Gx*—2x) sin 3x. EXERCISES ON CHAPTER II 1. Prove that if m and n are unequal integers i sin mx sin nx dx = 0, {5 sint mx de = 5. Evaluate f e* (x—2) 2x+3) dx. Evaluate { 2° log (1+-3) dx. 4. Prove that if mis an integer > 1, ° dx fo Bevdtayy a (Put x = sinh 6) cos"! x 5, Evaluate jet Evaluate (Boe dx, Show aa Oo |e pase dx = x tan } x-++2 log cos $x. =e 2s qi) frsas* = — x cot }.x42 log sin 4 x. Methods of Integration 51 (iti) \riex®™ = —x tan } (x—x)+2 log cos 4 n—2). (i & Show that i 108% dx =} toe( +). log (ab). 6 1 . de, 9. Evaluate ft [8 log x+ ws] 10. Evaluate im following integrals -— @ js SS 2X4. (i) iS eal Sax, (il) j sec? x dx. 11. Evaluate (i fx¥tant x dx, (i) fx tan? x8 dx, x gat = x cot} (bn—x)+2 log sin Hdn—2). Gi) ee @) J (sin x+008 xe dx, a? sin? © x (tanta? 9 li 7a ya) fo re . (vii) i xe sin x dx, (viii) fi xt ef sin nx dx. 12. Integrate 1 “ens © carmen EE, (i) log [x+¥G+0%)), (i) x og x+-¥@8+a%). 13. Integrate ; x sin x © (as) Sa e—ay? 7) J (#4). (iv) tan-2 3% Answers 2. (Qx8—Sx—I)e*, 3. 44-1) log (x12. 5. eV(l—x*)—cos-tx]/2x4. 6. —[2sin (log 2) +c0s (log x)N/Sx*. 9. Blog (log 8) —« log (log a)—[P (log B)"*—aflog #)-1), 10, 2 sin x—log tan (Ax +4n). (i) —x cot (x). (if) 4 tan @ sec x-+4 log tan (bx + $n). 52 Integral Calculus AL () $28 tant x-+4 [log (4+ 1)—A4)- Gd) p28 tant 23+, [log Gf4+1)--4). (il) —e*/x. (iv) e* sin x. @) } (i) (#2). (it) Ya Gr—4e""— 54). (ili) nfe(nt—4n2 43) —2n8 + 6 (1+ 0998 2 . 2 © vey lerot-orot]- (i) V@-x) +40 log sovie-) : (ity xlog + V+) -VE+). () be log Ct Vat +x] Ee (2 +-2#)— 2? sinh? (/a)]- 13. (@+) tan? Vela)—V(@). Gi) sin a log sin (x—a)+(x—a) cos a. (ili) atan @ sec @+a log tan (¢9+4n), where x = a tan? 6. (i) 3xtan-t x—$ log (I+. 3 Integration of Algebraic Rational Functions 3-1. In this chapter we shall be concerned with the integra- tion of rational functions f(x)/9(x), where f(x) and ¢(x) are polyno- mials, say SR) = XP ANE cee bm AX Gens A(R) = By EDX" EL cornet Bn aX t Om We can‘ assume that the degree m of the numerator f(x) is smaller than the degree n of the denominator. For, otherwise, we may divide the numerator by the denominator, till we get a remain- der whose degree is smaller than that of the denominator. Thus we have fe) R(x) a) = 2 Feta * where the polynomial Q(x) is the quotient and the polynomial R(x) is the remainder obtained on dividing f(x) by @(x), the degree of R(x) being smaller than that of ¢(x). The part Q(x) which is a polynomial can be at once integrated term by term. ‘We will now see how .the integration of R(x)/@(x) can be effected, the degree of R(x) being smaller than that of (x). From Algebra, we know that every polynomial 9(x) can be resolved into real factors of the first and second degree so that we may write 9%) = A (1x1) Pt (ax +b) PBs X (4x8 +-2B,x C1) (Agr + 2B yx +-Cy) Here py; Pay Pay--+-++ 3 Gtr Tas Gay--+s-L€ positive integers denoting the number of times each factor is repeated. 53 F 54 Imegral Calculus Also, some or all of pi, Pas Paves... Of Gi, Gay----may be unity. Thus, we have four types of factors of the denominator 9%) — (i) Linear non-repeated. (i) Linear repeated. (iii) Quadratic non-repeated. (i) Quadratic repeated. From the theory of partial fractions, we know that R(x)/9(x) can be decomposed into the sum of a.number of fractions such that (i to a linear non-repeated factor, (ax-+5), corresponds a partial fraction of the form ax+b? (ii) to a linear repeated factor, (ax4-b)?, corresponds a sum of P, fractions of the form ay 4b Ly, ax+b xy opt (ax+by ’ (iii) to a quadratic non-repeated factor, Ax*4-2Bx+C, which cannot, be further resolved into real linear factors, corresponds a fraction of the form Lx4+-M AvP 2BXEC * (jv) to a quadratic repeated factor (4x*-+2Bx+-C)*, corresponds a sum of q fractions of the form Lxt+ My LqX+Me Ax E2Bx4+-C* (AX (Ax4-2Bx4- Cy The method of determining the constants L and M etc. is ex- plained in books on elementary Algebra which give an account of partial fractions. Thus tv be able to complete the integration of an algebraic rational function, we have to Icarn to integrate fractions of the types . L, 7 4 © ape ® weer (iit) Ix+M_, ' i Lx4+M . PP DREC © (@ryzBetcy We consider these types one by one : L @ \aceoe tog (ax+b). er for él. L 0 ey = Integration of Algebraic Rational Functions 55 (iil) To integrate (Lx+ M)/(Ax*-+2Bx+C), we determine two constants 4, 4 such that Lx-+- Mes (24x+-2B)--4, wall) the co-factor, 24x+428, of A being the derivative of the denominator A8+2Bx+C. From (1), we have L=2d\, M = 2BAta. aw _4M—BL mw t= : 2 : Lx M “YA DAE IBREC™ _ yf 24-28 4 in Mastapeee are \aerteere dx = A log (44+ 28x40) 4 \ aera.

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