Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-022-02639-6

ORIGINAL PAPER

In situ evaluation of soil contaminated by total petroleum

hydrocarbons using membrane interface probe: a case study
from Nanjing, China
Meng Wu1 · Zening Zhao1 · Guojun Cai1,2   · Wei Duan1,3 · Caijin Wang1 · Gongbi Cheng4 · Xiaokang Wang4

Received: 24 August 2021 / Accepted: 1 March 2022 / Published online: 10 March 2022
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
Delineation of contaminated soils is important for their remediation; however, reliable and efficient methods remain lack-
ing. In this study, a contaminated site around an abandoned refuelling station in Southeastern China was investigated using
resistivity piezocone penetration (RCPTU) and membrane interface probe (MIP) tests to evaluate the spatial distribution of
organic contaminants. Various influences on the MIP results were analyzed, such as contaminant concentrations, the soil–
groundwater interface and soil properties. Based on RCPTU and sampling results, MIP data were quantitatively evaluated in
terms of relative percentage differences. Results from a photoionization detector (PID) and flame ionization detector (FID)
were found to overestimate and underestimate the total petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations, respectively. In general, the
PID was slightly more accurate than FID. Maps of regional contaminant concentrations were derived from geostatistical
analysis of MIP data and were compared with contaminant concentrations measured in soil samples in the laboratory. This
paper provides a method for interpreting MIP data with consideration of the influence of soil properties. It demonstrates the
effectiveness of using MIP to determine contaminant distributions and increase the efficiency of site remediation programs.

Keywords  Site investigation · Membrane interface probe · Geostatistics · Resistivity cone penetration test · Volatile organic
contaminants

Introduction the data reliability of traditional sampling and analysis meth-

Contaminated sites are a critical consideration in urban
expansion, as they may affect human health and the way
that land can be used (Rajabi and Sharifipour 2019). In the
investigation of contaminated sites, uncertainty arises due to
sample processing and analysis, as well as sampling represent-
ativeness (Ringwald et al. 2021). There is a need to improve
ods by (1) analyzing samples using strict procedures in certi-
fied laboratories (Crumbling et al. 2001) and (2) increasing the
number of samples. However, budget limitations often result in
low sample numbers (Cai et al. 2017). One potential solution
is the use of membrane interface probes (MIPs). This novel
in situ testing technique has received increasing attention
for its rapid and economical characteristics.

* Guojun Cai Xiaokang Wang

focuscai@163.com 1069969026@qq.com
Meng Wu 1
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Southeast University,
230208335@seu.edu.cn
Nanjing, Jiangsu 211189, China
Zening Zhao 2
School of Civil Engineering, Anhui Jianzhu University,
zeningzhao@seu.edu.cn
Anhui, Hefei 230601, China
Wei Duan 3
College of Civil Engineering, Taiyuan University
zbdxdw@163.com
of Technology, Shanxi, Taiyuan 030024, China
Caijin Wang 4
Jiangsu Gaiya Environmental Science
wangcaijin@seu.edu.cn
and Technology Co. Ltd. Weizheng Road,
Gongbi Cheng Suzhou industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215122, China
2826852468@qq.com

13
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140 Page 2 of 20
Regions contaminated by volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) can be effectively detected using in  situ MIP.
Although MIP have proven to be a useful testing technique,
experience and research indicate that its applications and
results are influenced by multiple factors, such as detection
limits (Bronders et al. 2009), the temperature and pressure
conditions during the test (Costanza et al. 2002), carry-
over effects (Bumberger et al. 2012), and soil permeability
(Adamson et al. 2014). Therefore, the signal intensity of
MIP tests is not always consistent with soil sampling results.
Misinterpretation of MIP results may lead to the inaccurate
delineation of contaminated zones, resulting in suboptimal
remediation outcomes.
Previous studies have used MIP for the qualitative inves-
tigation of contaminated sites (Griffin and Watson 2002;
McAndrews et  al. 2003; Kurup et  al. 2006; Bumberger
et al. 2012; McCall et al. 2014). All reached the conclu-
sion that MIP can delineate the subsurface distribution of
organic contaminants in a semi-quantitative manner. This is
because various factors, such as soil water content, soil type,
and operating procedures, influence the accuracy of MIP
data (Christy 1998; Coztanza and Davis 2000; Myers et al.
2002; Bronders et al. 2009). Although field survey experience
has exposed the potential limitations of MIP in engineer-
ing applications, the influence of soil mass heterogeneity
has been neglected, since it is costly to determine such soil
properties. Therefore, there is a need to better understand the
influences on MIP tests and to better interpret their results.
The resistivity piezocone (RCPTU) is an economical and
rapid in situ geotechnical investigation method (Lunne et al.
2009; Robertson 2009; Cai et al. 2012; Duan et al. 2021a).
Various soil properties, such as soil type and horizontal per-
meability, can be directly interpreted based on the acquired
data, such as cone tip resistance (qt), sleeve friction (fs), and
pore water pressure (u2; Cai et al. 2012; Liu et al. 2013).
Therefore, a geological model of a site based on RCPTU
data can provide a basis for analyzing the influences on MIP
tests.
Visualization of the distribution of contaminants at a
given site can provide useful information to guide site reme-
diation. Therefore, the development of contaminant distribu-
tion maps is desirable for geo-environmental engineering.
Geostatistics is an effective method for obtaining a three-
dimensional map of the contaminant distribution at a site
(Zou et al. 2020) and, thus, was used in the present study.
The purpose of this work was to evaluate the applicability
of MIP tests to the identification of organic contaminated
zones with consideration of the influence of soil variation.
An experiment was carried out at an abandoned gas station
located in Nanjing, southeastern China. An extensive site
investigation program was conducted using different in situ
and laboratory tests, including RCPTU and MIP tests. Data
on field stratigraphy, soil behavior type (Ic), and horizontal
13
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140
hydraulic conductivity (kh) were obtained using RCPTU
tests. The influences of Ic and kh on MIP data were evalu-
ated. Geostatistics was used to obtain contaminant distribu-
tion maps based on MIP data with consideration of these
influences. The analysis of the influencing factors is valuable
for conducting field identification tests at contaminated sites
while avoiding data misinterpretation.
Site condition
Nanjing is the capital of Jiangsu Province, located in south-
east China. The study area was an abandoned gasoline sta-
tion located at a machinery plant that had been used for
refuelling and for storing gasoline for over 60 years. Due
to the ageing of gasoline tanks caused by long-term stor-
age and improper operation, gasoline leakage occurred and
contaminated the surrounding soil. The site was planned to
be remediated by demolishing the existing buildings then
used as residential and commercial land.
The site was roughly square in shape with a length of
about 100 m in the east–west direction and 85 m in the
north–south direction. The maximum elevation difference
around the site was approximately 8 m. The geomorphol-
ogy of the site was characterized as a Yangtze River terrace
and gully area. According to field drilling and laboratory
geotechnical tests (ASTM D1140-17 2017), the stratum
being investigated in this study was deposited during the
Quaternary period and is classified as silty clay. The stable
groundwater level was located at a depth of 1.7–4.5 m from
the ground surface with a seasonal variation of about 1.0 m.
Detailed soil coring, groundwater sampling, and labora-
tory testing of contaminants were carried out at the site,
followed by MIP tests and, finally, RCPTU tests. Sampling
and in situ testing were completed within 20 days, so the
influence of environmental change was not considered.
Figure 1 presents an aerial map of the contaminated site and
the MIP (M) and RCPTU (R) testing locations. According
to the soil sampling results, test locations with excessive
contaminants were distinguished and are marked as M4, M5,
M9, M10, M11, M12, M18, and M34 in Fig. 1. Due to the
limitation in the extent of the area that could be investigated,
the RCPTU testing locations were limited to the gasoline
tank storage zone.
Testing program
Sampling and testing program
A total of 39 soil cores were obtained from the same loca-
tions as MIP tests were conducted in Fig. 1 using a direct-
push drill rig with a sealed plastic tube inside a 2.25-in
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140
Fig. 1  The layout of MIP and
RCPTU soundings
rod. The average maximum coring depth was 7.5 m. The
direct-push drill rig was also used to sample groundwater
at points M4, M9, M11, and M12. After the hollow drill
rod was pushed to the groundwater surface, a pumping tube
was inserted into the groundwater through the hollow rod
and samples were extracted by a water pump (Fig. 2). The
groundwater sampling locations were selected based on soil
cores exhibiting obvious contamination. The collected plas-
tic tube (soil cores) and groundwater were packed in airtight
polyethylene bags and refrigerated in a laboratory at 3–4 °C.
The geotechnical testing program included wash sieving
tests and flexible-wall permeation tests (ASTM D5084 2016).
Parts of the soil cores from locations M6, M13, M5, M10,
Fig. 2  Groundwater sampling
Direct push drill rig
Page 3 of 20 140
and M12 (corresponding to R4, R5, R7, R9, and R11, respec-
tively) were used for wash-sieving tests (ASTM D1140-17
2017) to determine the soil type and corresponding fines con-
tent (FC). The depths of the soil cores used for wash-sieving
tests at the five points were 1 m, 2 m, 3 m, 4 m, 5 m, 6 m,
and 7 m. The mass percentage of soil particles < 0.075 mm
in diameter and its corresponding depth were recorded for
further analysis with RCPTU data.
Soil cores from depths of 1 m, 6 m, and 9 m at eight sam-
pling points (M7, M15, M20, M25, M30, M31, M36, and
M39) were used for flexible-wall permeation tests to evaluate
the field permeability. Soil specimens were fully saturated
for 24 h under 80 kPa of vacuum pressure before conducting
Hollow rod
Pumping tube
Collecting groundwater
13
140 Page 4 of 20
permeation tests. During permeation, tap water was applied
from the lower base to the upper side of the specimens under
seepage pressure to avoid air entrapment. The cell pressure
and constant flow pressure were set to 200 kPa, which is
lower than the yield stress of the specimens.
Soil and groundwater samples below 1 m depth were used
to analyze the types and concentrations of contaminants. The
portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) technique was applied
to detect metal contaminants and gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry (GC–MS) was used to assess organic contami-
nants. In view of the complexity of the operational proce-
dures, their details can be found in the literature (Turner
et al. 2018; Chen et al. 2020; Leupin et al. 2020).
Field MIP tests
The detection of VOCs in a subsurface soil mass can be con-
ducted using MIP, which are a direct-push technology devel-
oped by Geoprobe Systems (Salina, Kansas, USA; Dietrich
and Leven 2006). An MIP system typically consists of a
set of detectors, including a photoionization detector (PID),
flame-ionization detector (FID), and halogen-specific detec-
tor (XSD). Each of these provides a gross response to the
exposed total contaminant load (ASTM D7352-18 2018).
The MIP system is used to collect depth-continuous data
in soils where the probe can be advanced using static pen-
etration (ASTM D7352-18 2018). As the probe advances,
organic contaminants in adjacent soils and groundwater are
Fig. 3  Membrane interface
probe: a Probe used in this
study; b Schematic diagram of
the diffusion process
13
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140
volatilized and diffused across the semipermeable membrane
of the probe. An inert carrier gas inside the probe system
transmits the vapors in real-time at a constant rate for analy-
sis in a ground-surface detection system.
A total of 39 MIP tests were carried out in this study. The
average test depth was 10.35 m and the layout of test loca-
tions is shown in Fig. 1. The MIP device used in this study
is shown in Fig. 3. Detailed information on the device and
its operating procedures is presented in Section S1. Typical
MIP test results are presented in Fig. S1 in the Supplemen-
tary Material.
For contaminated site investigation, MIP has been used as
an economic and efficient tool for obtaining high-resolution
characterization data (Griffin and Watson 2002; McAndrews
et al. 2003; Gilmore 2010). Three different detectors (FID,
PID, and XSD) were used in the MIP tests, which have dif-
ferent responses to different organic contaminants. A PID
is generally used to detect aromatic hydrocarbons, while an
XSD is used to detect halogenated VOCs and is insensitive
to non-halogenated hydrocarbons. An FID will respond to
any high-concentration VOC; however, its sensitivity is low
according to the manufacturer’s specifications (Geoprobe
2009). Based on the sampling results, total petroleum hydro-
carbons (TPH) were the dominant contaminant present in
the soil. Since the XSD detector is more suitable for detect-
ing potential halogenated hydrocarbons, only FID and PID
signals were processed to analyze the relationship between
TPH concentration and MIP signal intensity.
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140
Field resistivity piezocone (RCPTU) tests
Field resistivity piezocone testing is widely accepted as an
efficient method for continuous high-resolution data acqui-
sition in geotechnical investigations (Lunne et al. 2009;
Robertson 2009; Cai et al. 2012; Liu et al. 2013; Duan
et al. 2021b). The structure of the RCPTU probe used in
this study is shown in Fig. S2, which is in accordance with
the international standard for piezocones (ASTM D5778-
20 2020). Detailed information on the RCPTU device and
its operating procedures is presented in Section S2 in the
Supplementary Material.
Interpretation methods
Interpretation of RCPTU data
RCPTU was a versatile method that can record continuous
profiles of soil mass and identify the variability for site char-
acterization. The RCPTU parameters include qt, fs, and u2,
which depend on the geological differences of the inherent
soil. To determine the soil stratification at the site, I c was
calculated using the method proposed by Robertson (2009;
Eqs. 1, 2, 3) and the corresponding soil classification is
listed in Table 1.
√ 2
Ic = (3.47 − lg(Qtn ))2 + (lg(Fr ) + 1.22)2 (1)
Qtn = [(qt − 𝜎v0 )∕Pa ](Pa ∕𝜎 � v0 )
c
Fr = fs ∕(qt − 𝜎v0 )
where Qtn is the normalized cone tip resistance (dimension-
less) as expressed by Eq. (2), σvo is the vertical total stress
(MPa), Pa is the atmosphere pressure (0.1 MPa), σ'vo is the
vertical effective stress (MPa), c is a stress exponent based
on the soil behavior type, and Fr is the normalized friction
ratio (dimensionless), as expressed by Eq. (3).
The MIP testing results are not directly determined
by the contaminants as inherent soil properties can also
Table 1  Soil behavior type classification using Ic (Robertson 2009)
Range of Ic Soil classification
Ic < 1.31 Gravelly sand to clayey sand
1.31 < Ic < 2.05 Sand: clean, silty sand
2.05 < Ic < 2.60 Sand mixtures: silty sand to sandy silt
2.60 < Ic < 2.95 Silt mixtures: clayey silt to silty clay
2.95 < Ic < 3.6 Clay, silty clay
3.6 < Ic Organic soils, peats
Page 5 of 20 140
influence them, especially the FC, as illustrated by Gilmore
(2010) and Adamson et al. (2014). However, it is difficult
to obtain the FC distribution in the field. For RCPTU tests,
the Ic parameter is considered the important indicator of FC
changes (Davies 1999). Although Davies (1999) proposed
an Ic–FC relationship based on the mining waste in Canada
(Eqs. 4, 5, 6), it is suggested that a site-specific relationship
be established through field sampling.
FC = 0% For Ic < 1.31 (4)
FC = 42.4Ic − 54.9(%) For 1.31 < Ic < 3.6 (5)
FC = 100% For Ic > 3.6 (6)
Another advantage of RCPTU testing is that it provides
a direct way to evaluate continuous flow properties such as
hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal direction (kh), which
may influence MIP results since it concerns gas migration.
Chai et al. (2011) proposed a semi-empirical method for esti-
mating continuous horizontal conductivity based on u2 data,
as presented in Eq. (7). The kh is calculated using Eq. (7) and
the influence of kh variation on MIP tests is further analyzed
and discussed in the subsequent section.
v𝛾w r0 0.044 �
kh = � 4.91
for △ u2 ∕𝜎v0 > 0.45 (7)
2𝜎v0 (△u ∕𝜎 � )
v0
where v = 0.02 m/s is the standard penetration rate, 𝛾w is
the unit weight of water (= 10 kN/m3), r0 = 1.785 cm is the
(2) radius of a standard cone, σ'v0  is the effective overburden
stress (kPa), and Δu2 − u0 is the excess pore water pressure
(kPa), where u2 is the measured pore water pressure behind
(3) the cone (kPa) and u0 is the initial static pore water pressure
(kPa).
Interpretation of MIP data
In this section, a quantitative method was established to
evaluate the accuracy of the MIP test results by statistical
comparison of MIP data and influencing factors. Two meth-
ods were employed for statistical processing: (1) the relative
percentage difference (RPD) between MIP signals and influ-
encing factors at corresponding depths and (2) linear regres-
sion analysis to determine the influence of soil properties on
MIP signals, with the coefficient of determination (R2) used
as the criterion for the goodness of fit. The detailed stepwise
procedure of the RPD calculation is as follows:
1. At each depth, the concentrations of individual petro-
leum hydrocarbons were summed to obtain TPH con-
centrations from the sampling results, which were used
as a benchmark for comparison.
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140 Page 6 of 20 Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140

2. The TPH concentration data were log-transformed to be
more consistent with its expected distribution.
3. At each point, the FID and PID signals recorded the geo-
metric mean values of signals received within 15 cm of
each depth (i.e., the value at 1 m depth is the average of
signals received from depths of 0.85 m to 1.15 m). This
made the dataset more representative and minimized the
influences of single anomalous signals.
4. Each of the FID and PID signals was log-transformed.
Then, the baseline signal (i.e., the minimum signal for
detectors over each test) of each log was determined and
subtracted from log-transformed MIP signals.
5. The MIP signals were normalized using the maximum
and minimum responses at that location. This estab-
lished a set range between zero (no response) to one
(maximum response) across the entire test interval.
Similar normalization of discreet TPH values obtained
from soil data was also conducted and the minimum
value was set to zero.
The RPD between the normalized MIP data and nor-
malized TPH concentration was calculated. This served
as an overall indicator of the accuracy of the MIP detector
across the entire test interval. RPD values less than zero
indicate that the MIP response underestimated the TPH
concentration, while values greater than zero indicate
overestimation.
Geostatistical analysis of MIP data
The FID and PID data were processed using geostatistical
methods to obtain a three-dimensional map of the contami-
nant distribution at the site. Such maps can provide useful
information to guide site remediation. The main procedures
include trend removal, normality checking, Box-Cox data
transformation, semi-variogram analysis, Kriging interpola-
tion, and data back-transformation. A flowchart of the geo-
statistical method is shown in Fig. 4. Geostatistics is widely
used in contaminated site investigation and has proven effec-
tive in evaluating data uncertainty and determining contami-
nant plumes. The geostatistical procedures are introduced
briefly and the results are presented in “Mapping the con-
taminant distribution” For detailed information, interested
readers may refer to Zou et al. (2017, 2020) and Bheemasetti
et al. (2017) or contact the corresponding author.

Fig. 4  Flowchart of the geosta-

tistical analysis
Regional map of
MIP data organization
containmants distribution

Trend removal
Trend superposition

Normality of
residuals ?

No
Back transformation

Yes Box-cox data

transformation

Semi-variogram analysis Kriging interpolation

13
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140 Page 7 of 20 140

Table 2  Detected organic contaminants

Category of organic contaminants Specification of organic contaminants

Total petroleum hydrocarbons C6-C9, C10-C14, C1-C28, C29-C36, C10-C40

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Fumigant
Halogenated aromatic hydrocarbon
Phenol
Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m-xylene and p-xylene, o-xylene, n-propyl benzene, cumene,
n-butylbenzene, sec-butylbenzene, p-isopropyl toluene, 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene
Naphthalene, 2-methylnaphthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene, 3,4-benzofluoranthene, 3,4-Benzypyrene
1,2-dichloropropane
2-chlorotoluene
Phenol

Results and discussion direction of the surface layer, mostly ranging from 15 to

Contaminant analysis based on soil cores
Soil cores helped to evaluate the distribution of contami-
nant concentrations over the site. Metal ions and various
organic contaminants were detected in most samples.
Detected organic contaminants and depths are presented
in Table 2 and Fig. 5. According to the soil core analysis,
the contaminated area was mainly the gasoline tank stor-
age area. The major contaminant at this site was TPH. The
maximum levels of other organic contaminants were less
than the regional screening level for class 1 residential
land specified in Chinese standard GB15618 2008. Thus,
it is not discussed in this study. The following conclusions
can be drawn from Fig. 5.
1. The water content of soil samples was relatively sta-
ble with depth and fluctuated slightly in the horizontal
22%. The pH values ranged between 6 and 8.5, indica-
tive of neutral-to-alkaline conditions.
2. The concentration of C6-C9 petroleum hydrocarbons
was relatively low, with a maximum of 111 mg/kg found
in the surface layer. C6-C9 petroleum hydrocarbons have
strong volatility and low adhesion to soil. Therefore, the
mean concentration decreased slightly with depth with
a range of 25–42 mg/kg.
3. The C10-C40 petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations
were high in most samples, especially at shallow depths,
with a peak of 3680 mg/kg. However, they decreased
sharply below 4 m. Petroleum hydrocarbons with more
than ten carbon atoms are expected to be stationary in
the subsurface (ASTM E1739-95 2015). Due to their low
water solubility and high viscosity, C10-C40 petroleum
hydrocarbons have a strong tendency to get adsorbed
onto soil surfaces. This explains their high concentration
in the surface layer and sharp decrease with depth.

Petroleum Hydrocarbons Petroleum Hydrocarbons

Soil Strata Water Content (%) pH value Pb2+ (mg/kg) Zn2+ (mg/kg) ( C6-C9 ) (mg/kg) ( C10-C40 ) (mg/kg)
5 10 15 20 25 30 0 2 4 6 8 101214 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 30 60 90 120150 0 1300 2600 3900
0

1
Sand Min Max

Mean
3
Depth (m)

Sand mixtures
4

Silt mixtures 6

Fig. 5  Statistics of concentrations of contaminants along the depth

13
140 Page 8 of 20 Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140

Southweast Horizontal (m) Northeast

Sand
Sand Silt 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0
mixtures mixtures
0
qt (MPa)
Sand fs (kPa)
2 2

4 4

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

6
Sand mixture
6
8
8
10
10 Silt mixture
12
1.31 2.05 2.60 2.95 3.60 0 3 0 200 0 3 0 200 0 3 0 200 0 3 0 200 0 3 0 200
A Aÿ
ÿ
Ic R6 R2 R5 R8 R9

Fig. 6  Stratification of A-A’ section based on RCPTU

Relationship between FC and ­Ic based on field
RCPTU data
Based on the Ic values calculated using Eq. (1) and the soil
classification criterion in Table 1, the soil stratum mainly
contained sand and sand mixtures with thicknesses of about
2.5 m and 2 m, respectively, underlain by a silt mixture. The
calculated Ic values and stratification of section A-A’ are
shown in Fig. 6.
To derive the FC–I c relationship and consider the
potential influences of contaminants, the FC values were
determined directly by wash-sieving tests from five drill-
ing samples, including uncontaminated soil samples from
locations R4 and R5 and contaminated soil samples from
R7, R9, and R11. Figure 7 shows the site-specific relation-
ship between the FC and Ic values based on the RCPTU
test results and Eq. (1). The fitted results indicate that the
relationships are almost the same for contaminated and

Fig. 7  Correlation between the 75

FC and the soil behavior index
(Ic) Uncontaminated soils
Contaminated soils
Linear fit of uncontaminated soils
Linear fit of contaminated soils
60
General trend of FC- Ic
For contaminated soils
FC=42.5Ic-51.4 General trend:
FC (%)

FC=42.2Ic-51.7
R2=0.88
45
R2=0.86

30
For uncontaminated soils
FC=42.7Ic-53.9

R2=0.83
15

1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Ic

13
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140 Page 9 of 20 140

0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.8
0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1
1
2
2 2 2 2
2
3
3 3 3 3
3 4
4 4 4 4
Depth (m)

5
4
5 5 5 6 5
5
6 6 6 7 6
6 8
7 7 7 7
9
7
8 8 8 8 Normalized log (FID)
10
8 Normalized log (TPH)
9 9 9 11 9
M4 M5 M9 M10 M11 M12 Mismatch area
10 9 10 10 12 10 Carry-over area

Normalized log (FID and TPH concentration)

Fig. 8  Comparison of soil samples’ TPH concentration and MIP-FID response

non-contaminated soils. Therefore, the effect of contami-
nants can be ignored. Therefore, the site-specific relation-
ship was fitted using both contaminated and uncontami-
nated soil data, with the coefficient of determination R2
being 0.86. This strong correlation confirms the feasibility
of using Ic instead of FC to analyze the impacts on MIP
testing.
Influence of TPH concentration on MIP response
Gas chromatography was used to detect VOCs in the carrier
gas stream at the site. Figures 8 and 9 show the FID and PID
response data and soil analysis results at six locations: M4,
M5, M9, M10, M11, and M12. Due to the limited coring
depth and quantity of soil samples, the analysis results of

0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.8
0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1
1
2
2 2 2 2 2
3
3 3 3 3
3 4
4 4 4 4
Depth (m)

5
4
5 5 5 6 5
5
6 6 6 7 6
6 8
7 7 7 7
9
7
8 8 8 8 Normalized log (PID)
10
8 Normalized log (TPH)
9 9 9 11 9
M4 M5 M9 M10 M11 M12 Mismatch area
Carry-over area
10 9 10 10 12 10
Normalized log (PID and TPH concentration)

Fig. 9  Comparison of soil samples’ TPH concentration and MIP-PID response

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140 Page 10 of 20 Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140

soil sample cannot completely correspond to MIP data. In Table 3  Evaluation of MIP response accuracy
general, the responses of the MIP tests matched the sampling Calculation type RPD of normalized FID RPD of normalized
results. In the field tests, the FID and PID responses did not PID
exceed the upper detection limits. Their peak values were
Median Mean Median Mean
mostly found within depths of 1–5 m, indicating that the
soil contaminants mostly occurred in the shallow layers. The Directional −8.00 −5.63 9.39 8.89
peaks in the FID profiles appeared at 2–3.4 m and 4.3–5.2 m Non-directional 17.68 19.41 15.21 15.87
in log M4, 2.5–2.8 m in log M9, 2.8–3.2 m in log M10, and
3–4.5 m in log M12. This suggests a relatively high contami-
nation in these ranges; however, this was not supported by M11 and the distribution is relatively shallow (i.e., the M10
the sampling data. Similar results were recorded in the PID peak occurred at 2–3 m and the M11 peak was at 3.5–4 m).
profiles, with peaks at 2–3.5 m in log M4 and 2.5–2.8 m in Although points M10 and M11 were close and in a similar
log M9. This discrepancy may have been caused by the loss soil stratum, due to the lower TPH concentration at M10,
or dilution of the contaminant mass before analysis of core there was no carry-over effect similar to that at M11, so the
sub-samples, or by spatial variability (Adamson et al. 2014). MIP results are more consistent with the sampling results.
Another possible explanation is provided by Zhao et al. The above methods for qualitative evaluation of MIP
(2019), who observed faster desorption of contaminants in data focus on checking the visual profile of every data log
the presence of moisture and attributed it to the steam distil- to assess its overall trend and anomalies. Statistical com-
lation of contaminants. Another common problem with MIP parisons of MIP data and total TPH concentrations in soil
tests is the carry-over effect (Bumberger et al. 2012), which require the establishment of a quantitative method for
was also observed in this study. These effects often occur assessing the reliability of the MIP contaminant distribu-
after passing high-concentration zones that contain mobile tions. RPD and linear regression analysis were employed
or residual phases. Disproportionately high MIP signals as quantitative methods. The RPD of the normalized MIP
were obtained in both the FID and PID profiles in 1.5–2 m response is presented statistically in Fig. 10. Directional and
in log M5 and < 4 m in log M11. According to the sampling non-directional mean and median values of normalized MIP
results, the TPH concentration at M10 was lower than that at response RPDs were calculated (Table 3). Non-directional

75
RPD of Normalized FID response
RPD of Normalized PID response

50
RPD of normalized FID/PID (%)

95% Confidence Interval

25

0
0 2 4 6 8 Depth (m)

-25

-50

-75

Fig. 10  Directional RPD of normalized MIP signals

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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140
RPDs were obtained from the absolute values of each RPD.
The directional RPD, obtained from the raw values, is an
indicator of the sensitivity of MIP detectors to TPH. The
non-directional RPD was calculated to measure the vari-
ability associated with the dataset.
Table 3 shows that the RPD of the mean and median val-
ues of the directional normalized FID are negative and the
normalized PID values are positive. This indicates that the
detection results of the FID underestimate the real TPH val-
ues, whereas the PID results overestimate them. The same
trend can also be seen in Fig. 10, where the 95% CI of the
normalized PID RPD is higher than that of the normalized
FID RPD. This may be because the PID detector is more
sensitive than the FID detector. The median non-directional
MIP response RPD indicates that the TPH detection error
by the FID is slightly higher than that of the PID. The mean
values reflect that the errors of the two detectors are almost
the same. However, Fig. 10 shows that the 95% CI of the FID
is much wider than that of the PID, indicating that the PID
has better performance.
The correlations between TPH concentration and the FID
and PID response signals were also investigated by plotting
them logarithmically, as shown in Fig. 11a and b, respec-
tively. The TPH concentration is positively correlated with
the MIP signal but the data points are rather scattered around
the fitted trendline. The coefficients of determination for the
FID and PID models are 0.23 and 0.24, respectively. This
indicates that many other factors affected the accuracy of
the MIP tests in the determination of TPH concentration in
the subsoil.
The poor fit of the regression equation may be because (1)
MIP data are the values of the total electrical signal caused
6.2
Log FID=0.085 Log TPH +5.25
6.0 R2=0.23
Log FID response (μV)
5.8
5.6
5.4
5.2
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Log TPH (mg/kg)
(a)
Fig. 11  Plot between Log TPH and Log MIP response: a for FID; b for PID
Page 11 of 20 140
by TPH. In reality, TPH contains different proportions of
organic contaminants that cause various responses in detec-
tors. (2) Organic contaminants other than TPH were not
considered due to their low contents. However, they may
still have affected the MIP response signals. (3) The MIP
penetrates to a specific depth and the surrounding contami-
nants undergo desorption due to the heated probe. Organic
contaminants diffuse as vapor through the thin film and are
transmitted by the carrier gas and are then analyzed by the
detectors at the surface. The thermal desorption of contami-
nants is often controlled by many factors, such as soil type
and water content, which often have obvious spatial differ-
ences at a site. (4) The portable gas chromatograph used
in the MIP field system is less accurate than an equivalent
laboratory instrument.
Soil‑groundwater interface
An MIP can detect organic contaminants below groundwater
level due to the presence of a semi-permeable membrane
that keeps water from entering the probe. The MIP probe
used in this field test was equipped with a temperature sensor
to record real-time changes in probe temperature. When the
probe penetrates to the depth of the soil-groundwater inter-
face (i.e., in partially saturated soils), intensive temperature
fluctuations are recorded. McAndrews et al. (2003) attrib-
uted this to the noticeably greater specific heat of saturated
soils compared to unsaturated soils. After passing through
the unsaturated zones and entering saturated soil, the tem-
perature fluctuations steadied. As the probe penetrated to the
desired depth, it was reheated to the standard temperature
and then driven to the next test depth.
7.0
Log PID = 0.355 Log TPH + 5.04
R2 = 0.24
6.5
Log PID response (μV)
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Log TPH (mg/kg)
(b)
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140 Page 12 of 20 Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140

MIP temperature (°C )

100 110 120 130 100 110 120 130 100 110 120 130 100110120130 100 110 120 130 100110120130
0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1
1
2
2 2 2 2
2
3
3 3 3 3
3 4
4 4 4 5 4
4
Depth (m)

5 5 5 6 5
5
6 6 6 7 6
6 8
7 7 7 7
9
7
8 8 8 8
10
9 8 9 9 9
11
M4 M5 M9 M10 M11 M12
10 9 10 10 12 10
Real-time temperature Soil-water junction zone

Fig. 12  MIP real-time temperature logs

The real-time temperatures of MIP tests conducted at
high-concentration sites M4, M5, M9, M10, M11, and M12
are presented in Fig. 12. From the temperature anomaly loop
in Fig. 12 (i.e., repeated fluctuation loop), the depth of the
water-soil interface at each test site location can be roughly
estimated. After passing through the soil-groundwater inter-
face, the temperature loop became more regular. The approx-
imate depths of the soil-groundwater interfaces at locations
M4, M5, M9, M10, M1,1 and M12 were primarily deter-
mined as having ranges of 1.2–1.5 m, 2.2–2.4 m, 2.5–2.7 m,
3.6–3.8 m, 3.8–4.4 m, and 2.8–3.2 m, respectively. In Figs. 8
and 9, the positions of mismatch between the MIP response
and soil sampling results are approximately the same as
those of the soil-groundwater interface or are below the
groundwater level. This indicates that the soil-groundwater
interface and groundwater levels are key influences on the
MIP response.
Table 4 shows the groundwater sampling and analysis
results, specifically, the maximum contaminant concentra-
tions at different locations. According to the contaminant

Table 4  Maximum Contaminants M4 (μg/L) M9 (μg/L) M11 (μg/L) M12 (μg/L)

concentration of contaminants
in groundwater samples at TPH 13,100 485 490 260
different test locations
Benzene 12,500 25 NA
Toluene 257 56.2 NA 0.9
O-xylene 77.7 0.7 NA NA
m-xylene 74.1 NA NA NA
p-xylene
1,3,5-tritoluene 45.8 1.2 NA NA
1,2,4-tritoluene 84.9 1.3 NA NA
1,2-dichloropropane 36,500 1.1 1.1 NA
1,2,3-trichloropropane 414 NA NA NA
Phenol 145 2.2 NA NA
Bis(2-chloroisopropyl) ether 1520 NA NA NA

NA represents that the contaminant was not detected in the sample

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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140
concentrations, both light non-aqueous phase liquids (LNA-
PLS) and DNAPLS were found. The LNAPLS floated on
the surface of groundwater due to being less dense. There-
fore, when using an MIP to detect NAPLS, LNAPLS mostly
exist at the soil-groundwater interface but DNAPLS diffuse
downward due to gravity. Therefore, compared to LNA-
PLS, DNAPLS may have a lesser influence on MIP tests
at the soil-groundwater interface. Both TPH and LNAPLS
were detected in shallow groundwater at test locations M4,
M9, M11, and M12. This may be the cause of the mis-
match between Figs. 8 and 9, where a higher MIP signal
was obtained at the soil-groundwater interface than in the
sample analysis.
Unlike the results of sample analysis, BTEX and halo-
genated VOCs were detected in groundwater samples from
locations M4 and M9. Their concentrations were higher
at M4 than M9. Although its sensitivity to BTEX is low,
the XSD detector is highly sensitive to halogenated VOCs.
The XSD test results at locations M4 and M9 are shown in
Fig. 13. The baseline XSD responses at M4 and M9 were
identified as 2.1 × 105 μV and 2.2 × 105 μV, respectively.
Although high contents of BTEX and TPH were detected in
the laboratory analysis of groundwater samples from loca-
tion M9, the halogenated VOC content was low. This is also
reflected in the XSD response curve derived from the field
MIP tests (Fig. 13), which is fairly smooth and has no peak.
Compared with location M9, the groundwater samples from
M4 contained more halogenated VOCs. The XSD response
curve of M4 (Fig. 13) has markedly high signal intervals.
Considering that the groundwater depth began at 1.2–1.5 m
at location M4, it can be preliminarily determined from the
MIP XSD Response (× 105 μV)
2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4
0 cates that the FID-measured values are greater than the true
1 sand–silt layers, whereas the PID-measured values are greater
2
3 readings increase with increases in Ic-values. No significant
4
Depth (m)
5 tent in the soil mixture), there is high deviation in the MIP test
6
7 Soil permeability affects the gasification of contaminants
8 has low permeability, which makes it more difficult to detect
9 M4 XSD Response
M9 XSD Response
10
Fig. 13  MIP XSD responses at M4 and M9 locations
Page 13 of 20 140
XSD data that the halogenated VOCs were concentrated in
groundwater at depths 2.2–3.2 m, 4–4.5 m, and 4.9–5.7 m.
Influence of inherent soil properties on MIP
response
The principle of the MIP testing mechanism is to extract
contaminants from soil particle surfaces or pores by vola-
tilizing them into gases using heat. The detection of con-
taminants by MIP is influenced by many inherent soil prop-
erties. During a demonstration of the site characterization
and analysis penetrometer system (SCAPS), the presence
of fine-grained soils was found to reduce the correlation
between soil trichloroethylene (TCE) data and MIP data.
Furthermore, while the MIP performed best in sand, data
collected in clayey soils were generally better than those
from silt or sand mixed with silt/clay. No further explanation
of the influence of soil type on test results is provided in the
literature. Therefore, there is a need to better understand
the basic physical and chemical processes that occur during
the desorption of organic contaminants from soil particles
during heating.
The RCPTU tests performed at the study site enabled the
classification of the continuous soil profile using Eqs. (1, 2, 3),
and the influence of soil type on the accuracy of MIP tests can
be reflected by the relationship between Ic and RPD. Follow-
ing the calculation method discussed in the previous section,
the Ic-values at this site were found to range between 1.35
and 2.90. According to the soil behavior types determined
from the Ic-values defined by Robertson (2009; Table 1), the
site’s soil contains sand, sand mixtures, and silt mixtures. The
mean and median RPDs of the FID and PID were calculated
(Table 5). For the FID detector, the average value was positive
for 2.05 < Ic < 2.60 and negative for other intervals. This indi-
values for sandy layers and less than the true values for mixed
than the true values for all Ic intervals. By using the absolute
mean, it can be found that the deviations in FID and PID
correlations between Ic and MIP RPDs were found; however,
it is obvious that when Ic increases (i.e., increasing fines con-
results. This trend is similar to the effect of fine-grained soils
on MIP TCE data that was demonstrated in SCAPS.
from soil media. Soil with high FC or a compact structure
contaminants. Soil layers with a low permeability coefficient
have a high water retention capacity (Otalvaro et al. 2016).
Therefore, a considerable amount of the organic contaminants
retained in the soil was covered by groundwater and could not
be directly volatilized and absorbed by the carrier gas. The kh
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140 Page 14 of 20 Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140

Table 5  Statistical data of RPD Soil behavior index Detector Mean Absolute Median Absolute
of normalized Mip signals in mean median
different soil types
1.31 < Ic < 2.05 RPD of normalized FID −6.59 18.17 −3.44 13.82
RPD of normalized PID 12.11 12.32 7.13 13.23
2.05 < Ic < 2.60 RPD of normalized FID 8.83 16.02 −6.12 19.71
RPD of normalized PID 14.33 16.63 9.88 13.88
2.60 < Ic < 2.95 RPD of normalized FID −16.02 20.42 −13.88 11.71
RPD of normalized PID 16.90 18.83 14.11 25.11

of the soil, as determined by flexible-wall permeation tests,
varied from 1.04 × ­10−3 to 1.68 × ­10−7 cm/s. The kh of the site
varies greatly and is relatively high in shallow sand layers. To
compare and analyze MIP data and kh data at the same depth
position, kh were calculated using Eq. (7) to investigate its
influence on the MIP test results.
It should be noted that the parameters applied for cal-
culating k h in Eq. (7) are affected by testing practices.
During RCPTU operation, the discontinuity caused by the
process of connecting rods to increase penetration depth
causes an uneven penetration rate and transient dissipa-
tion of pore water pressure, resulting in errors in kh esti-
mates at those depths. The relationship between normal-
ized MIP signal RPD with log(kh) is presented in Fig. 14.
The correlation coefficient of the fitted FID signal is
R2 = 0.41 and the PID signal is higher at 0.44. Based on
the flexible-wall permeation tests, the horizontal perme-
ability coefficient at the site was calculated to be between
approximately 1.2 × ­10−3 and 1 × ­10−7 m/s, so kh estimates
that differed significantly from this range were excluded.
Besides, high RPD deviations may be caused by other
influences that may greatly affect the k h-RPD relation-
ship; hence, it was also excluded from the model. In this
section, the range of RPD values studied was between −30
and 30%. Figure 14 shows that the FID RPD is positive
when k h < ­1 0 −5 m/s, as is the PID RPD when kh < ­1 0 −4.
With increases in kh, the RPD value gradually decreased
and became negative. This indicates that soil with low
permeability leads to MIP results that are greater than the
true values, and vice-versa. This may be due to larger soil
particles having a lower contact area with the MIP heating
block. Another explanation may be that soil with a large
particle size can quickly dissipate excess pore water pres-
sure, which absorbs part of the heat and affects the ther-
mal desorption of organic contaminants during testing.
Mapping the contaminant distribution
The MIP data was modified using the average coefficient
from Table 5 and corresponding Ic values. Geostatistics was
then used to determine the contaminant distribution. The
trend function was estimated using ordinary least-squares
regression of the FID and PID signals. Since FID and PID
signals directly reflect the presence of contaminants, theoret-
ically, a signal from uncontaminated soil should be constant
and there will be no need to fit separate models to data from
contaminated and uncontaminated soil. Zou et al. (2020)
reported that a quadratic function performs well in capturing

Normalized PID RPD data

Normalized FID RPD data
50 Excluded FID RPD data 50 Excluded PID RPD data
Trend of FID PRD and Log(kh) Trend of PID PRD and Log(kh)
40 40
RPD of normalized PID RPD (%)
RPD of normalized FID RPD (%)

30 30

20 20
Trend: Y = -7.4X - 36.2
10 R2 = 0.41 10

0 0
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
Log(kh) (m/s) Log(kh) (m/s)
-10 -10
-20 -20
Trend: Y = -5.9X - 24.4
-30 -30 R2 = 0.44
-40 -40
-50 -50

(a) (b)

Fig. 14  Correlation between MIP RPD and log(kh): a for FID; b for PID

13
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140
Fig. 15  Semi-variogram func-
tions in the horizontal direction:
a for FID; b for PID
nonlinear contaminant transportation. Quadratic functions
for the FID and PID data were estimated using Eqs. (8) and
(9), respectively. Residual profiles of the FID and PID data
can be obtained through trend removal. After checking the
normality of the residuals using Kolmogorov–Smirnov (KS)
tests, Box-Cox transformation was performed to confirm the
second-order stability assumption of geostatistics (Zhang
et al. 2010; Bheemasetti et al. 2017). The results of KS
tests before and after Box-Cox transformation are shown
in Fig. S3.
FIDt =1994891.64 − 2144.91x − 7798.38y − 43095.55z
+ 5.91xy + 57.87xz + 79.53yz + 0.05x2
+ 7.89y2 − 1545.52z2
(8)
Page 15 of 20 140
(a)
(b)
PIDt =11596191.70 − 12516.01x − 53317.59y
− 172438.05z + 39.13xy + 313.8xz+ (9)
+ 593.42yz − 1.12x2 + 58.06y2 − 16557.89z2
Considering the time cost and efficiency of semi-variogram
analysis, 10 representative testing points were selected
for analysis (M4, M5, M6, M11, M12, M13, M16, M28,
M29, and M34). Zou et al. (2020) illustrated that the spa-
tial distribution of contaminants exhibits obvious differ-
ences in the horizontal and vertical directions; therefore,
the semi-variograms in each direction should be estimated
separately. The semi-variogram clouds in the horizontal and
vertical directions are shown in Figs. 15 and 16, in which
a and b correspond to FID and PID data, respectively. The
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140 Page 16 of 20 Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140

exponential semi-variogram model of Eq. (10) was found ordinary Kriging interpolation and back-transformation, per
to be a good fit to the averaged semi-variogram cloud. The as Eq. (11). The 3D maps based on FID and PID data are
parameters used in the fitted exponential semi-variogram shown in Figs. 17 and 18.
model are shown in Table 6.
T − A + (1 + pRt )1∕p p ≠ 0
{
Ro = (11)
T − A + exp(Rt ) p=0
�
(hx )2 + (hy ax ∕ay )2 ⎟⎪
⎧ ⎛ ⎞⎫
(10)
⎪ ⎜
𝛾(h) = c⎨1 − exp⎜−3
ax ⎟⎬ where R o represents the original residuals after back-
transformation, Rt represents the Box-Cox-transformed
⎪ ⎜ ⎟⎪
⎩ ⎝ ⎠⎭
residuals, and p is a transformation parameter estimated
where c is the sill value; hx and hy are the lag distances, and using the boccox function in Matlab software. The p-values
ax and ay are the autocorrelation distances in the horizontal for the FID and PID residuals are 0.33 and 0.49, respectively.
and vertical directions, respectively. The 3D maps of TPH concentrations based on FID and
After determining the semi-variogram, a three-dimensional PID data exhibited relatively high consistency, although
(3D) map of the MIP data of the site was obtained using with minor discrepancies. The FID results indicate high

Fig. 16  Semi-variogram func-
tions in the vertical direction: a
for FID; b for PID

(a)

(b)

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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140
Table 6  Parameters of fitted c ax
expotential semi-variogram
models FID data 320 200
PID data 500 180
TPH concentrations at locations M4, M13, and M34. The
results of the sample analysis show that the highest TPH
concentration was observed at M11, while that at M13 did
not exceed the screening value. The FID response signals at
point M12 were low; however, the sample analysis shows
that the TPH concentration at this point exceeded the screen-
ing level. Besides, the FID response signals show that TPH
existed in the area between the flowerbed and refuelling area
and may have exceeded the screening level. However, the
sample analysis shows that the TPH concentration in this
area was much lower than the screening level. The results
based on the PID detector show that the TPH concentra-
tion was highest at location M11 and that the area around
M4 also had high TPH concentrations. Similar to the FID
results, the PID results underestimated the TPH concentra-
tion at M12. Comparatively, the response signal intensity
Fig. 17  Distribution of TPH
concentration based on FID
detector: a planar area; b along
A-A’ section distribution
Page 17 of 20 140
ay of the PID at M34 was lower than that of the FID. Also, a
high response signal was not observed in the area between
2.5 the flowerbed and refuelling area, which is consistent with
2.5 the sampling results.
According to the map based on MIP, the high-concentration
TPH area can be determined. The A-A’ section passing
through points M4, M10, and M11 was selected to conduct
contamination distribution analysis in the vertical direction
(Figs. 17b, 18b). Two contaminant sources can be identi-
fied 23 m and 57 m from the south end of A-A’ section
(i.e., points M4 and M11, respectively). The contaminants
were observed to gradually diffuse from these two sources
into the surrounding areas. The TPH was mainly retained
at shallow depths at point M4, especially < 2 m, whereas
at M11, it diffused over a wider vertical range (up to 9 m).
It seems that contaminant migration at point M4 was much
more significant in the horizontal than the vertical direction,
as observed from the wider contour curves. Besides, at point
M11, vertical contaminant migration was more significant
than at M4. However, horizontal migration was still domi-
nant, as reflected in the contour curve of the A-A’ section
(i.e., Figs. 17b, 18b). This can be attributed to soils typically
13
140 Page 18 of 20
exhibiting better horizontal hydraulic properties than verti-
cal ones (Chapuis 2012; Dai et al. 2018).
Figures 17 and 18 show the contamination plumes in the
horizontal and vertical directions that need to be considered
for remediation purposes. For example, it can be concluded
that the key area requiring remediation is near the gasoline
tank storage area near points M4 and M11. Although the
A-A’ section in Figs. 17 and 18 shows high-value signals
below 7 m at point M11, this may be caused by the carry-
over effect, as previously discussed in “Influence of TPH
concentration on MIP response.” Besides, the TPH concen-
tration approaches zero at about 7 m based on soil sample
analysis. Thus, remediation should be focused on the top
7 m of soil.
According to the soil stratum represented in Fig. 6, mixed
sandy soil occurs deeper in the northeast direction; further-
more, Figs. 17 and 18 show that the contamination plume at
M11 in the northeast is deeper than that at M4 in the south-
west. This shows that the soil texture significantly affects the
Fig. 18  Distribution of TPH
concentration based on PID
detector: a planar area; b along
A-A’ section
13
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140
contaminant migration direction. Further sampling should
be carried out near M28 and M16 to determine whether the
contaminant concentrations exceed the screening levels. The
rest of this field can be considered uncontaminated and, thus,
does not require remediation.
In general, except for the misinterpretations at point
M12, all points where the TPH concentration exceeded the
screening level based on sample analysis were examined.
The vertical distribution of TPH concentration was identified
to determine the presence of two contaminant sources. The
TPH was mainly found at shallow depths and horizontal con-
taminant migration was more significant than vertical migra-
tion, which can be attributed to soil having better hydraulic
permeability in the horizontal direction. Field remediation
measures could be planned based on the contaminant dis-
tribution maps provided in this study. The MIP test results
were highly consistent with the sampling results, which fur-
ther verifies the accuracy and reliability of the MIP-assisted
rapid field screening technique.
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2022) 81: 140
Conclusions
This study conducted a comprehensive investigation of an
abandoned gas station comprising a sampling and testing
program (laboratory geotechnical testing and groundwa-
ter sample analysis) and in situ tests (RCPTU and MIP).
RCPTU data was analyzed and used as auxiliary informa-
tion to derive in situ geotechnical parameters for MIP data
interpretation.
Although there were some small mismatches, the
MIP results generally matched the sampling results well,
which indicates that MIP can effectively delineate rela-
tive contaminant concentrations. Several MIP data logs
did not match the sampling results at the soil-groundwater
interface. This may be explained by the fact that LNAPL
accumulated and floated on the groundwater surface.
Also, the loss of groundwater during soil sampling at the
soil-groundwater interface resulted in low contaminant
detections. This indicates that, in the investigation of con-
taminated sites, the types and concentrations of organic
contaminants of surface groundwater should be fully
considered when analyzing soil at the soil-groundwater
interface. This also highlights the advantages of conduct-
ing in situ investigations at contaminated sites. Soil het-
erogeneity can also influence the accuracy of MIP results.
The presence of fine-grained soils reduced the correla-
tions between TPH and MIP data. The RPD values from
MIP tests were significantly lower in sandy soil than in
mixed silty soil. Although no significant linear relationship
between fine content and MIP RPD was found, the accu-
racy of the data decreases with increases in fine content.
It would be interesting to consider the influence of fine
content on MIP testing accuracy to improve contaminant
identification. However, this may be impractical as it is
laborious to determine the spatial distribution of fine con-
tent. One solution is to apply the Ic-values obtained from
CPTU data as an index of fine content and then correct
the test results using RPD. A similar trend could also be
observed based on the kh-values derived from RCPTU pore
water pressure data. With increases in k h, both PID and
FID detectors tended to underestimate TPH concentrations.
Contaminant concentration maps based on MIP data were
developed using geostatistics to verify the efficiency and
feasibility of conducting in situ testing as part of contami-
nated site investigation. Based on contaminant distribution
maps derived from FID and PID data, the contaminated area
and depth of the study site were identified, providing use-
ful information for site remediation. It should be noted that
these conclusions are based on limited observational data
from a single study site, and the approach needs to be further
validated and supported by additional studies.
Page 19 of 20 140
Supplementary information  The online version contains supplemen-
tary material available at https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/s​ 10064-0​ 22-0​ 2639-6.
Acknowledgements  The financial supports are greatly acknowledged.
The authors would also like to express appreciations to the editor and
anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions.
Funding  The majority of the work was funded by the National Key
R&D Program of China (Grant No. 2020YFC1807200), the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41877231, No.
42072299, No. 52108332), and Project funded by China Postdoctoral
Science Foundation (No. 2021M702421).
Data availability statement  Some or all data, models, or code that sup-
port the findings of this study are available from the corresponding
author upon reasonable request.
Declarations 
Conflict of interest  The authors declare no competing interests.
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