Green Economy in The Transport Sector

John Ogony Odiyo · Peter Bitta Bikam ·
James Chakwizira Editors
Green
Economy in
the Transport
Sector
A Case Study of Limpopo Province,
South Africa
Green Economy in the Transport Sector
John Ogony Odiyo · Peter Bitta Bikam ·
James Chakwizira
Editors
Green Economy
in the Transport Sector
A Case Study of Limpopo Province, South
Africa
Editors
John Ogony Odiyo Peter Bitta Bikam
Deceased (Wednesday 23-June-2021) Department of Urban and Regional
Vaal University of Technology Planning
Vanderbijlpark, Gauteng, South Africa University of Venda
Thohoyandou, Limpopo, South Africa
James Chakwizira
Department of Urban and Regional
Planning
North-West University
Potchefstroom, North-West, South Africa
ISBN 978-3-030-86177-3 ISBN 978-3-030-86178-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86178-0
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To all those involved in the everyday
struggles, challenges, and joys of working
tirelessly in the trenches of the green
economy and transport sectors
Preface I
Like other developing countries, South Africa is characterized by high energy inten-
sity, low efficiency, and dependence on imported fuel. The motivation for a green
economy in the transport sector project in South Africa is related to both local and
global mandates. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), The National Trans-
port Master Plan (NATMAP) (2050) and the National Development Plan Vision
2030 for example spur on the country, sectors of the economy, spheres of govern-
ment, industrial and non-industrial stakeholders in the country to conduct and assess
potential opportunities and options to promote a green economy in the transport and
non-transport sectors. The foundations that motivated the multi-year research project
work on transport and the green economy in Limpopo province was sparked by the
need to oversee the green economy in terms of low carbon, resource efficient and
socially, inclusive growth and development. A tripartite approach was envisaged as
an innovative approach and steering mechanism for a green development agenda via
the following:
• Exploring the green transport scape: i.e., fuel efficiency for public transport and
private vehicles is a critical part of both the energy and transport policies.
• Critically reviewing South Africa’s transport sector energy options.
• Assessing South Africa’s progress in the transportation sector towards a green
economy making use of Limpopo province as a case study.
Such investigation should assist in the development of clear evidence-based objec-

tives on information and transition to transportation investment decision-making
processes, innovation, and priorities. Decisions resulting from a study of a green
economy in the transport sector may lead directly to a project definition and design
process for sustainable transport infrastructure and services that may be absent from
a broader planning process. For this reason, green economy in the transport sector
may occur after a long-range plan and analysis to identify appropriate scenarios,
towards a green economy in the transport sector. A green economy in the transport
sector plan begins with understanding topical and current discourses by incorpo-
rating the dynamic complexity of the transport sector economy in a province and
their relationship with other sectors of the economy in general.
vii
viii Preface I
During the research findings workshops held in Johannesburg (Gauteng province),

eThekwini (formerly Durban), (KwaZulu-Natal Province), Cape Town (Western
Province), Free State, Mpumalanga, Eastern Cape and Northern Cape (on-line Work-
shops) during the period 2016–2021, broad issues linked to the advancement of green
economy in the transport sector, new trends and innovation in green transport and
the green economy, smart land use planning and policy directions were raised. It is
these topics which are presented in this book to assist in a better understanding of the
role of green transport and economy in ensuring environmentally sustainable growth
and development.
We wish to thank: Ms. Maphefo Anno-Frempong, Mr. Avukile Dlanga, Ms. Liza
Monthsiwa, Ms. Ouma Mashabane Ledwaba, Mr. Vusimuzi Lushaba, Mr. Nkosinathi
Gumbi and Mr. Matsemela Moloi and Prof. Peter Mbati for their inspiration and
respective endeavors to ensure the success of the transport and the green economy
in Limpopo province project, workshops, and subsequent publication of this book.
Vanderbijlpark, Gauteng, John Ogony Odiyo

South Africa Peter Bitta Bikam
Thohoyandou, Limpopo, James Chakwizira
South Africa
Potchefstroom, North-West,
South Africa
May 2021
Preface II
Towards a Green Economy in the Transport Sector: A case study of Limpopo Province
is written for all those who seek to gain deeper insights and perspectives into the green
economy in the transport sector governance and planning practice in South Africa,
making use of Limpopo province as a case study. Throughout this book, our focus
is providing insights on the green economy through a transport sector lens, focusing
on how the transition to green economy and transport is crucial to reduce environ-
mental problems such as greenhouse gas emissions and climate change impacts in
South Africa. To better understand these realities, the challenges associated with
the transition to the green economy are explored in respect of presented opportu-
nities for innovation and mitigation within the green economy and transport sector.
To understand these realities of the green economy complexities, the book covers
various themes and topics which are relevant in contextualising the green economy
in the wider transport sector growth and development realms of places and regions.
The substantive issues that are covered in the book also confirm the growing real-
isation that transport and the green economy are complex systems that require an
integrated, holistic, multi and interdisciplinary approach and insights into the socio-
economic realities. In this way, the focus of the themes and topics discussed and
presented in the book has been on the environment and climate change, transport
modes, pollution and emissions control, innovation, transport law and policy, skills
and capacity building, all of which are critical in understanding the complexities and
transition realities linked to implementing the green economy. Acknowledging that
there is no “one-size-fits-all” prescription for implementing strategies and interven-
tions for green economy and transport sector growth, we focus through the thematic
chapters of the book on the main levers that act as a fulcrum in steering green
economy and transport transitions further. We argue that greening the growth path of
an economy and the transport sector depends on the policy and institutional settings,
transportation modes and technologies, level of development, skills and knowledge
transfer, technology innovation and management, resource endowments and environ-
mental pressure points. Given the unique and differentiated South African apartheid-
driven historical legacy, we portray how the emerging green economy and transport
sector faces different challenges and opportunities, with implications for livelihoods,
ix
x Preface II
climate change, environmental sustainability and economic diversification opportu-

nities. While acknowledging the numerous changes and the wide range of influences,
this book provides a sectoral and case study-based approach that identifies the chal-
lenges, opportunities and prospects for climate change, sustainable development and
transportation which may enable South Africa to advance and develop in a sustain-
able, inclusive and resilient manner. This is so because no other book has the same
geographical and green economy in the transport sector planning focus. While other
books have a specific topic such as governance and climate change pollution, this
book examines a range of green economy issues related to the transport sector.
We adopted a spatial (geographic) “lens” for re-examining the current economic
growth paradigm while at the same time offering an actionable policy framework for
policy- and decision-makers, practitioners, researchers and academics in developed,
emerging and developing economies. This coupled with social, ecological, techno-
logical and governance perspectives to multiple issues facing the green economy
agenda in South Africa created a critical narrative in green economy policy analysis
that gives insights into the green economy in the transport sector.
Vanderbijlpark, Gauteng, John Ogony Odiyo

South Africa Peter Bitta Bikam
Thohoyandou, Limpopo, James Chakwizira
South Africa
Potchefstroom, North-West,
South Africa
May 2021
Acknowledgements
We would like to extend our appreciation to the various independent and anony-
mous book chapter peer reviewers who provided critical comments and suggestions
that have been thought-provoking and contributed immensely to the final quality of
manuscripts that constitute this book. The funding and assistance from the following
Transport, Education and Training Authority (TETA) in support of the University of
Venda TETA Research Chair on the project has been overwhelming: Ms. Maphefo
Anno-Frempong, Mr. Avukile Dlanga, Ms. Liza Monthsiwa, Ms. Ouma Mashabane
Ledwaba, Mr. Vusimuzi Lushaba, Mr. Nkosinathi Gumbi and Mr. Matsemela Moloi
and Prof. Peter Mbati.
The responses from the various key informants working in the public and private
sector are greatly appreciated, together with the residents from various cities and
towns who took their time to share their daily lived experiences with the authors have
been of much assistance in putting together this book. The assistance from Fermine
Shaly (Mrs.), Ram Prasad and Margaret Deignan concerning book publication,
language editing and technical formatting of the manuscript is greatly appreciated.
xi
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
John Ogony Odiyo, Peter Bitta Bikam, and Rachel Makungo
2 Environment, Climate Change and the Green Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Jason Samuel Ogola
3 Transport Modes and the Green Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Nthaduleni Sam Nethengwe
4 Technology Innovations in Green Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Peter Bitta Bikam
5 Vehicle Management and Emission Control and Maintenance . . . . . . 51
Peter Bitta Bikam
6 Skills and Knowledge Transfer for Transitioning into the Green
Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
John Ogony Odiyo, Agnes Musyoki, and Rachel Makungo
7 Regulatory Frameworks, Policies, Norms and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . 79
James Chakwizira
8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
John Ogony Odiyo, Peter Bitta Bikam, and James Chakwizira
xiii
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
John Ogony Odiyo holds Ph.D. in Water Engineering from the School of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa,
Masters in Water Resources Engineering from University of Dar es Salaam in
Tanzania and BSc (Hons) in Agricultural Engineering from Egerton University,
Kenya. John Ogony Odiyo is a Professor of Hydrology and Water Resources, Faculty
of Science, Engineering and Agriculture, at the University of Venda. He provides
leadership as the Dean of the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of
Venda. Before becoming the Dean he served for 3 years as Vice Dean of the School
of Environmental Sciences and 15 years as the Head of the Department of Hydrology
and Water Resources at the University of Venda. He has 30 years of academic and
professional experience. John Odiyo is a professional member of Water Institute of
Southern Africa (WISA), a member of Geological Society of South Africa (GSSA)
(Groundwater Division) and a fellow of the Society for Environmental Toxicology
and Pollution Mitigation (SETPOM).
Peter Bitta Bikam is a registered professional town planner SACPLAN town

planner (Reg. No. A/1525/2011) with a wide range of experience in infrastruc-
ture development and service delivery planning. Professor Peter Bitta Bikam is a
professor in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Science,
Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda. He has several years of experi-
ence in the technical aspects of town planning, development planning and the spatial
planning: comprehensive infrastructure plans for growth point municipalities, i.e.
Bulk plans, sector plans, wastewater treatment works (WWTW), and asset manage-
ment plans, asset registers, energy master plan, solid waste, roads and stormwater,
rural and urban precinct master plans and above 25 years of experience in teaching,
research and community engagements as well as several journal publications.
James Chakwizira is a registered professional planner with the South African

Council of Planners (SACPLAN); a member of South African Council of Planners
xv
xvi Editors and Contributors
(SAPI), a Corporate Member of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering

(SAICE), the current Chairperson of the Committee of Heads of Planning Schools
(CHoPs) in South Africa and is a Council member and Deputy Chairperson of South
African Council of Planners (SACPLAN). Professor James Chakwizira served as the
Head of Department, Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Science, Engineering
and Agriculture at the University of Venda (UNIVEN) for thirteen years from 2009 -
2021, prior to joining the North-West University Subject Group Urban and Regional
Planning in 2021. James previously worked as Head: Roads and Traffic Engineering
at the Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre (SIRDC). During
the same period he deputised the Director—Building Technology Institute and was
Acting Head: Housing and Infrastructure Development. He has also worked as a
Senior Researcher and Acting Research Group Leader at the Council for Scien-
tific and Industrial Research (CSIR) (Pretoria, South Africa) initially in the Rural
Infrastructure and Services Competency Area and later in the Transport Systems and
Operations Competency Area. He has over 27 years of practice, consulting, research
and academia teaching in Universities in Southern Africa as well as having worked
and practiced in Europe, Asia and Africa.
Contributors
Peter Bitta Bikam Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of

Venda, Thohoyandou, Limpopo, South Africa
James Chakwizira Urban and Regional Planning, North-West University, Potchef-
stroom, South Africa
Rachel Makungo Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of
Agnes Musyoki Department of Geography and Geo-information Sciences, Univer-
sity of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
Nthaduleni Sam Nethengwe Department of Geography and Geo-Information
Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
John Ogony Odiyo Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of
Jason Samuel Ogola Department of Mining and Environmental Geology, Univer-
sity of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
Abbreviations
AKAP Attitudes, Knowledge, Awareness and Practices

AMCE AM Consulting Engineers
B-BBEE Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment
BRT Bus Rapid Transport
CFCs Hydrofluorocarbons
CITPS Comprehensive Integrated Transport Plans
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
CO Carbon Monoxide
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CoGHSTA Human Settlements and Traditional Affairs
COP Conference of the Parties
CSDP Consumer Supplier Development Programme
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
CTVET Capricorn Technical Vocational Education and Training
DBSA Development Bank of Southern Africa
DEA Department of Environmental Affairs
DHET Department of Higher Education and Training
DME Department of Minerals and Energy
DOT Department of Transport
DTI Department of Trade and Institute
ECSA Engineering Council of South Africa
EPWP Expanded Public Works Programme
GAAL Gateway Airports Authority Limited
GCOS Global Climate Observation System
GEM Global Environmental Monitoring System
GHG Greenhouse Gas Emissions
GTS Green Transport Strategy
GUMP Gas Utilisation Master Plan
HC Hydrocarbons
ICCT International Council on Clean Transportation
ICSU International Council of Scientific Unions
ICT Information, Communication Technology
xvii
xviii Abbreviations
IDC Industrial Development Corporation

IDPs Integrated Development Plans
IEA International Energy Agency
ILO International Labour Organisation
INC Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee
IPAP Industrial Policy Action Plan
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPPs Independent Power Producers
IRPTN Integrated Rapid Public Transport Plan
IT Information Technology
ITPs Integrated Transport Plans
KPAs Key Performance Areas
LDoR&A Limpopo Department of Roads and Transport
LEDET Limpopo Department of Economic Development Environment and
Tourism
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
LTT Louis Trichardt
MBTs Minibus Taxi Buses
MSA Municipal Structures Act
MSA Municipal Systems Act
NAMAS Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions
NATMAP National Transport Master Plan
NCCRP National Climate Change Response Policy
NDP National Development Plan
NEMA National Environmental Management Act
NGP New Growth Path
NIPP National Industrial Participation Programme
NLTA National Land Transport Act
NMT Non-Motorised Transport
NOx Nitrogen Oxides
NPC National Planning Commission
NSSD1 National Strategy for Sustainable Development
NTF National Transport Forum
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PLTF Provincial Land Transport Plan
PPP Public-Private Partnerships
PRASA Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa
R&D Research and Development
RDP Rural Development Programme
S&T Science and Technology
SACPLAN South African Council of Planners
SAGEM South African Green Economy Modelling Report
SALGA South African Local Government Association
SANBI South African National Biodiversity Institute
SAPI South African Planning Institute
Abbreviations xix
SAPIA South African Petroleum Industry Association

SDGS Sustainable Development Goals
SETAs Sector Education and Training Authorities
SPLUMA Spatial Planning, Land use and Management
TETA Transport, Education and Training Authority
TVET Technical Vocational and Educational Training
UK United Kingdom
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNISA University of South Africa
UNIVEN University of Venda
USA United States of America
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
WCIF Western Cape Infrastructure Framework
WHO World Health Organisation
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Elements required to optimise green transport economy . . . . . . . . 4

Fig. 1.2 Transition towards a green economy in the transport sector . . . . . 5
Fig. 1.3 Municipalities covered in the case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 2.1 Global long term solar radiative balance of the atmosphere
(IPCC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 2.2 Primary energy supply in South Africa for the years 2000
and 2006 (Department of Minerals and Energy Annual
Report 2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 2.3 Carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere
since the industrial age (Letsoalo 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 2.4 Contributors to greenhouse gas emissions in South Africa . . . . . . 14
Fig. 2.5 Floods in Kwazulu Natal in 2017 (https://www.news24.
com/SouthAfrica/News/live-massive-storm-hits-durban-cau
ses-flooding-chaos-20171010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fig. 3.1 Organisation of research findings: survey and stakeholder
engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 3.2 Percentage (%) travelers using a particular mode of transport . . . . 26
Fig. 3.3 Green transportation hierarchy, based on eco-friendliness
(Source: Bradshaw (2014)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 3.4 Consumers preferred mode of transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Fig. 6.1 Responses on training and awareness, existing skills
on green transport and adequacy of information on transport
and the green economy in Limpopo Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Fig. 7.1 Importance of green issues as an overall strategy
in the transport sector of Limpopo province. Sample size N
= 21. Source Research Findings, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 7.2 Suggested key issues in developing a green economy
in Limpopo province. Sample size N = 21. Source Research
Findings, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fig. 7.3 Summary highlights of regulatory framework, policies,
norms and standards research findings. Source Authors own
conceptualization, 2021 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
xxi
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Areas covered in the case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Table 2.1 Summary of research priorities—coastal/marinea . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Table 2.2 Summary of research priorities—coastal/rail and roada . . . . . . 16
Table 2.3 Summary of research priorities—interior/rail, road
and pipeline* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Table 3.1 Study’s sampling frame and size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 4.1 Technological and Non-Technological Innovations . . . . . . . . . . 43
Table 4.2 Classification of technical and non-technical innovations
in Limpopo Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Table 5.1 Greenhouse gases emission from 2000 to 2010 in South
Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Table 5.2 Contribution of different modes of transport emission
in 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Table 5.3 Contribution to total transport emission in 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Table 5.4 Respondents experience with vehicle licensing
in Limpopo Province, 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Table 5.5 Relevant skills required to upscale the control of emission
in a green transport economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Table 6.1 List of participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Table 6.2 Generic jobs and skills for the green economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table 6.3 Skills needs for green transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Table 6.4 Preferred career for the green economy in transport sector . . . . 71
Table 6.5 Preferred institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Table 6.6 Training preference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Table 6.7 Short, medium and long term policy recommendations . . . . . . . 75
Table 7.1 Sample list of stakeholders consulted in the Green
Transport Project in Limpopo province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Table 7.2 Sample list of legal, policy and strategic documents
consulted for the Green Transport Project in Limpopo
province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Table 7.3 National policy frameworks and strategy documents
supporting green economy and transport in South Africa . . . . . 86
xxiii
xxiv List of Tables
Table 7.4 Linking the transport policy and energy nexus dimension
in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Table 7.5 Derives norms and standards in the transport sector
of South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Table 7.6 Examples of green economy and transport initiatives
in South African provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Table 7.7 A sample selection of green transport initiatives in South
Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Table 7.8 Highlights of some transport sector major challenges
in Limpopo province, South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Table 7.9 Selected highlights of transport and related policy
document shortcomings from a provincial green transport
perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Table 7.10 Suggested drivers for integrating green transportation
and logistics initiatives in Limpopo province, South Africa . . . 100
Table 7.11 Provincial long-term plan viewed as providing direction
for green transport in Limpopo province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Table 7.12 Some innovative ways that the province can introduce
to move from conventional energy sources of supply . . . . . . . . 103
Table 7.13 Planned and current green transportation and logistics
initiatives in Limpopo province, South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Table 7.14 How policy makers can promote PPP in the green
transport sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Chapter 1
Introduction
John Ogony Odiyo, Peter Bitta Bikam, and Rachel Makungo
Abstract This book provides policy framework on “towards a Green Economy in

the Transport Sector” draws inspiration from the UNEP report on Green Economy
Modeling (2014), which focused on South Africa with respect to Transport, Natural
Resource Management, Agriculture, and Energy sectors. This is because in the last
10 years natural resources, environmental risks and ecological issues have come to
the attention of the international community because the subject is fundamentally
important for overarching sustainable growth. It is important to note that environ-
mental problems such as greenhouse gas emissions and climate change in different
regions of the world including South Africa result in significant problems. However,
the challenges can provide an opportunity to do things differently. Further to this
in 2010, South Africa hosted the Green Economy Summit to set up the stage for
the formulation of a Green Economy Plan. In line with this, the choice for a New
Growth Path (NGP) was formulated and it was aimed at creating new green jobs
in their thousands by 2020. It was in this context that the NGP policy framework
on green economy in the transport sector was envisaged to respond to the request
by Transport Education and Training Authority (TETA) to assess potential oppor-
tunities and policy levers to inform a green economy in the transport sector. The
findings from the desktop research, the stakeholder workshop and the field survey
reports form the basis from which the policy framework recommendations in this
report were made.
J. O. Odiyo · R. Makungo (B)

Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, Limpopo,
South Africa
e-mail: Rachel.Makungo@univen.ac.za
J. O. Odiyo
e-mail: johno@vut.ac.za
P. B. Bikam
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, Limpopo,
South Africa
© The Author(s) 2022 1

J. O. Odiyo et al. (eds.), Green Economy in the Transport Sector,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86178-0_1
2 J. O. Odiyo et al.
1.1 Vision
The proposed vision of the policy framework recommendations are in line with
suggestions made in 2013 by South African Green Economy Modelling report
(SAGEM) (UNEP 2013). It was based on system dynamics modeling aimed at
exploring new opportunities in a green economy in the transport sector. In view
of this, the suggested vision for ‘towards a green economy in the transport sector is
as follows:
A transport sector that promotes energy efficiency, reduces per capita km traveled,
enhances innovations, creates new green jobs, ensures modal integration, increases
investment opportunities, enhances new skills development, reduces CO2 emissions,
uses renewable energy resources and light material to build vehicles.
1.2 Strategic Objectives
In view of the vision suggested above, the strategic goals of the policy framework
recommendations are outlined as follows:
• Access to affordable public transport
To ensure that commuters have access to mass transit modes of transport and
services with opportunities for modal integration and choices.
• Smart transport logistics
To ensure integrated land use planning and smart transport management for modes
of transport such as the Bus Rapid Transport (BRT).
• Shift to environmentally friendly transport
To promote environmentally friendly transport modes to ensure transport demand
management, efficiency and provision of pedestrian and cycling lanes and shift
to alternative fuels.
• Improve funding in green transport initiatives
Increase capacity of sustainable transport and funding mechanisms to leverage
green transport modes.
• Promote skills development
Explore new ways to promote new skills and green jobs in the transport sector to
ensure access to jobs in the value chain of green transport.
In view of the importance of finding the right balance between an intensive trans-
port sector and the need to adopt green transport innovations to ensure sustainable
development in South Africa, it is important to explore a new policy framework to
inform a new path for the creation of new green jobs and the initiation of investment
opportunities. This policy framework recommendation explores new opportunities
with respect to green economy in the transport sector. To put this policy framework
in the context of the green economy, the report identified six policy framework levers
as follows:
1 Introduction 3
• Environment, climate change and the green economy,

• Transport modes and the green economy,
• Technology innovation in the green economy,
• Vehicle management, emission control and maintenance,
• Regulatory framework in the transport sector, policies and standards, and
• Skills and knowledge transfer.
It was based on the policy framework levers identified through literature review,
workshop with the stakeholders and the field survey report that the policy levers
findings and recommendations were drawn. The six policy levers were proposed on
the understanding of the following:
I .Access that forms the basis for increased ridership in green transport modes,
II .Logistics that integrates smart transport into human settlements,
III .Shift towards environmentally friendly transport modes,
IV .Increased capacity for sustainable transport modes, and
V .Development of new skills and the creation of new jobs in the green transport
sector.
1.3 The Approach to the Policy Recommendations
The approach to which the findings and recommendations outlined in this docu-
ment centers on was aimed at aligning the six policy levers to skills development
in the transport sector, creation of new job opportunities, reduction in CO2 emis-
sions, increased intermodal transport choices, smart transport logistics such as the
Bus Rapid Transport (BRT), environmentally sustainable transport and shift towards
alternative fuel such as electric cars and biofuel. The concept is illustrated in Fig. 1.1.
Figure 1.1 shows the elements required to optimise “towards a green economy in
the transport sector”. The illustration shows the elements of green transport that can
maximise the primary drivers of green transport with respect to the following:
• Access to green affordable public transport,
• Integrated land use and sustainable public transport,
• Promotion of efficient and environmentally friendly modes of transportations,
• Leverage funding for investment to improve innovative research and transport
technology, and
• Development and training of new skills across the value chain towards a green
economy in the transport sector.
The framework approach illustrated in Fig. 1.1 should ensure the transition
towards a green transport economy in the transport sector as illustrated in Fig. 1.2.
The link between the vision and strategic goals and policy levers are clearly shown
in Fig. 1.2.
The policy levers include:
Skills Lever I: Environment, climate change and the green economy,
People
Ensure access to green transport

Green economy
Create new skills and new jobs
Reduction in km travelled per capita
Use of renewable energy sources

Green transport
Innovative investments in new
transport technology
Place
Integrated land use planning
Smart transport
Efficient and environmentally friendly transport
Provision of pedestrian and cycling lanes
Reduction of CO emissions
Fig. 1.1 Elements required to optimise green transport economy
Skills Lever II: Transport modes and the green economy,

Skills Lever III: Technology innovations in green transport,
Skills Lever IV: Vehicle management and emission control and maintenance,
Skills Lever V: Skills and knowledge transfer for transitioning into the green
economy, and.
Skills Lever VI: Regulatory frameworks, policies, norms and standards.
1.4 Case Study
A case study was conducted in Limpopo Province to provide knowledge and evidence
on green economy in Limpopo Province with emphasis on transition to green trans-
port. The study was also aimed at identifying short- and long-term recommendations
that can assist in transition to green transport. Chapters 2 to 7 are based the case study
linked to skills levers I to VI. The case study covered municipalities within selected
districts in the Limpopo Province (Table 1.1 and Fig. 1.1). The area is composed
1 Introduction 5
Vision
Vision Strategic Policy levers
goals
1. Environment, cli-
Environment, cli-
AA transport
transport Access to af- mate change
mate change and
and
sector
sector that
that pro-pro- fordable public green economy
the green economy
motes
motes energy
energy effi-
effi- transport
ciency,
ciency, reduces
reduces 2. Transport modes
Transport modes
per
per capita
capita km
km trav-
trav- Smart the green
and the green econ-
econ-
eled, transport logistics omy
omy
eled, enhances
enhances in-
novations,
novations, creates
creates
new
new green
green jobs,
jobs,
3. Technology inno-
Technology inno-
ensures
ensures modal
modal in-
Shift to envi- vation in
vation in the
the green
green
tegration,
tegration, in- economy
economy
ronmentally
creases investment
creases investment
friendly transport
opportunities, en-
opportunities,
4. Vehicle
Vehicle manage-
manage-
hances new
hances new skills
skills ment,
Improve fund- ment, emission
emission
development, re-
development, re- control
control and
and mainte-
mainte-
ing for green
duces CO
duces CO emis-emis- nance
nance
transport initia-
sions, uses
sions, uses renew-
renew- 5. Regulatory
Regulatory frame-
frame-
tives
able
able energy
energy work
work inin the
the
resources and transport
transport sector,
sector,
resources and
policies
policies and
and stand-
stand-
light material
light material to
ards
ards
build vehicles.
build vehicles. 6. Skills
Skills and
and
Promote skills knowledge
knowledge transfer
transfer
development
Fig. 1.2 Transition towards a green economy in the transport sector
of predominantly rural communities and hence transition to green economy will be

beneficial to these communities.
Fig. 1.3 Municipalities covered in the case study
Table 1.1 Areas covered in

Districr Municipality
the case study
Vhembe Thulamela, Makhado and Musina
Capricorn Polokwane
Sekhukhune Greater Tubatse
Waterberg Mogalakwena
Mopane Greater Giyani
1 Introduction 7
Reference
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2013. Green economy modelling report for South
Africa: Focus on the sectors of natural resource management, agriculture, transport and energy.
Available from: https://www.environment.gov.za/sites/default/files/docs/greeneconomy_modeli
ngreport.pdf, accessed 20 September 2020
Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate
credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and
indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter’s Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by
statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from
the copyright holder.
Chapter 2
Environment, Climate Change
and the Green Economy
Jason Samuel Ogola
Abstract To identify and evaluate possible impacts of climate change on transporta-

tion in Limpopo province, it is necessary to define the scale and scope of the trans-
portation system in the province and determine its sensitivities to climate change. This
chapter, therefore locates the environment, climate change and the green economy
matters in context. The science of climate change is explored, while the main sources
of greenhouse gases are discussed. Additionally, the impacts of climate change in
South Africa is outlined. Strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in
the transport sector are provided.
Keywords Climate change · Transportation system · Green economy ·

Greenhouse gas emissions · Transport sector
2.1 Science of Climate Change
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992

defined climate change as “a change in climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activities that alter the composition of the global atmo-
sphere and which are in addition to natural climate variations observed over
comparable time periods”.
Past climate variations are attributed to natural processes while the observed
climate change is due largely to anthropogenic causes (Ogola et al. 1997). Climate
change results from the increased emissions and subsequent concentration of gases
such as methane (CH4 ), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), nitrous oxide (N2 O), chlorofluoro-
carbons (CFCs). These gases are referred to as greenhouse gases (GHGs) that form
a cloud in the atmosphere due to human activities. They help to trap heat energy
from the surface of the Earth, thus prevent heat from escaping into space (Fig. 2.1).
Global warming results in shifts in weather patterns that lead to melting of icebergs
J. S. Ogola (B)
Department of Mining and Environmental Geology, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South
Africa
e-mail: jason.ogola@univen.ac.za

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86178-0_2
10 J. S. Ogola
Fig. 2.1 Global long term solar radiative balance of the atmosphere (IPCC 1995)
and sea-level rise, frequent hurricanes, impacts on water resources, agriculture, bio-
diversity, energy demands and other resources. The result is the effect on the quality
of life with some species becoming extinct.
Awareness of climate change has been due to a number of initiatives that include:
• The Stockholm’s Declaration of the United Nations Conference on Human
Environment that took place in 1972;
• First World Climate Conference held in Geneva in 1979 by the World Meteoro-
logical Organization and the United Nations Environmental Programme, resulting
in the creation of the World Climate Research programme;
• First Joint UNEP/WMO and the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU)
held in Villach, Austria, in 1980 to initiate debate on a global convention and in
1985, the Group concluded that climate change and sea-level rise are closely
related;
• Formation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988
and establishment of the three Working Groups: Working Group I on scientific
analysis; Working Group II on impacts; and Working Group III on related legal
instruments;
• United Nations Assembly in 1990 established the Intergovernmental Negotiating
Committee (INC) to draft a Framework Convention on Climate Change (IPCC
1990);
• United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro
in June 1992, adopted the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change by the world community and it became known as the Climate Change
Convention.
• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997 and the purpose was for
nations to agree to take action to address global warming. The treaty committed
state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions;
2 Environment, Climate Change and the Green Economy 11
• Johannesburg Summit 2002—the World Summit on Sustainable Development

produced three outcomes: political declaration now known as the ‘Johannesburg
Declaration on Sustainable Development’; the Johannesburg Plan of Implementa-
tion; and ‘Type II’ commitments by governments and other stakeholders, including
business and non-governmental organisations;
• Paris Agreement (French: Accord de Paris) of 2015 is an agreement within the
UNFCCC, dealing with greenhouse-gas-emissions mitigation, adaptation, and
finance, starting in the year 2020, the agreement was negotiated by representatives
of 196 state parties at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC and
adopted by consensus, and the Paris Agreement’s long-term goal is to keep the
increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial
levels; and to limit the increase to 1.5 °C.
The development and improvement of the science of climate change involved a
number of international programmes and projects that included:
• Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEM) sponsored by UNEP;
• World Climate Data Programme that provides information on the state of climate
system and diagnosis of significant anomalies of regional and global sequence;
• Climate Change Defection Project, which regularly updates estimates of climate
change on global and regional basis and assessing the relative importance of these
change; and
• Global Climate Observation System (GCOS), which is intended to meet the needs
for climate system monitoring, climate change determination and systematic
observations of responses to climate change.
2.1.1 Sources of Greenhouse Gases
The main sources of greenhouse gases include energy use and production (57%),
chlorofluorocarbons (17%), agricultural practices (14%), deforestation (9%) and
others including industrial (3%). Burning of coal, oil and natural gas produces large
quantities of CO2 , CH4 and N2 O to the atmosphere. In South Africa, coal is the main
source of electricity in the country, accounting for 79% in 2000 and 65.7% in 2006
(Fig. 2.2).
Carbon dioxide constitutes about 55%, methane-15%, nitrous oxide-6%,
chlorofluorocarbons-11% and others-6% (IPCC 1990). Since the industrial age, about
200 years ago, the rate of CO2 emissions to the atmosphere had increased steadily
up to 1950, but after that the increase has been quite rapid (Fig. 2.3). This rapid
increase of CO2 to the atmosphere is largely attributable to energy use, especially in
the transport sector.
12 J. S. Ogola
Fig. 2.2 Primary energy supply in South Africa for the years 2000 and 2006 (Department of
Minerals and Energy Annual Report 2009)
Fig. 2.3 Carbon dioxide

emissions into the
atmosphere since the
industrial age (Letsoalo
2013)
2.2 Impacts of Climate Change in South Africa
South Africa has set two main objectives of dealing with the impacts of climate
change (National Climate Change Response White Paper 2011):
• Effectively manage inevitable climate change impacts through interventions that
build and sustain South Africa’s social, economic and environmental resilience
and emergency response capacity; and
• Make a fair contribution to the global effort to stabilise greenhouse gas (GHG)
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that avoids dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system within a timeframe that enables economic,
social and environmental development to proceed in a sustainable manner.
The climate change response objectives is based on risk reduction and manage-
ment; mitigation actions with significant outcomes; sectoral responses; policy and
regulatory alignment; informed decision making and planning; integrated planning;
technology research, development and innovation; facilitated behaviour change;
behaviour change through choice; and resource mobilisation.
The White Paper looks at the overall mitigation strategy that encompasses the
following:
• Using a National GHG Emissions Trajectory Range, against which the collective
outcome of all mitigation actions will be measured;
• Defining desired emission reduction outcomes for each significant sector and sub-
sector of the economy based on an in-depth assessment of the mitigation potential,
best available mitigation options, science, evidence and a full assessment of the
costs and benefits;
• Adopting a carbon budget approach to provide for flexibility and least-cost mech-
anisms for companies in relevant sectors and/or sub-sectors and, where appro-
priate, translating carbon budgets into company level desired emission reduction
outcomes.
• Requiring companies and economic sectors or sub-sectors for which desired emis-
sion reduction outcomes have been established to prepare and submit mitiga-
tion plans that set out how they intend to achieve the desired emission reduction
outcomes.
• Developing and implementing a wide range and mix of different types of miti-
gation approaches, policies, measures and actions that optimise the mitigation
outcomes as well as job creation and other sustainable developmental bene-
fits. This optimal mix of mitigation actions will be developed to achieve the
defined desired emission reduction outcomes for each sector and sub-sector of
the economy by ensuring that actions are specifically tailored to the potential,
best available solutions and other relevant conditions related to the specific sector,
sub-sector or organisation concerned;
• The deployment of a range of economic instruments to support the system of
desired emissions reduction outcomes, including the appropriate pricing of carbon
and economic incentives, as well as the possible use of emissions offset or emission
reduction trading mechanisms for those relevant sectors, sub-sectors, companies
or entities where a carbon budget approach has been selected; and
• A national system of data collection to provide detailed, complete, accurate and
up-to-date emissions data in the form of a Greenhouse Gas Inventory and a Moni-
toring and Evaluation System to support the analysis of the impact of mitigation
measures.
14 J. S. Ogola
2.3 Climate Change and Its Impacts on the Transport

Sector
Between 2000 and 2010, the greenhouse gas emissions in South Africa increased
by 27%, producing a total of accumulated greenhouse gases of 4,204,640 Gg CO2
equivalent (Department of Environmental Affairs 2014). The main contributors of
GHG emissions were energy sector (63.6%), predominantly from coal combustion
to produce electricity (55.1%), followed by transport (10.8%) and manufacturing
industries (9.8%) (Fig. 2.4). The transport sector contributes to greenhouse gas
emissions through combustion of fossil fuels. Emissions are primarily from diesel
and petrol consumption for road and rail transport and jet and aviation gasoline. This
results in the release of CO2 and to a lesser extent, CH4 and N2 O.
In 2010, road transport consumption of fuel was about 91.2% and this resulted in
greenhouse gas emissions of 92% of the transport sector (Department of Environ-
mental Affairs 2014). Fuel consumption is by cars, light delivery vehicles, trucks,
buses, trailers, tractors and motorcycles. Railway locomotives are of three types;
diesel, electric and steam. The diesel locomotives use engines driven by diesel, while
electric locomotives use electricity from power stations. GHG emissions from steam
locomotives are currently negligible as their use is low. Civil aviation GHG emis-
sions are due to combustion of jet and aviation gasoline. Aircraft GHG emissions
constitute 70% CO2 , less than 30% water and 1% of other components (Department
of Environmental Affairs 2014).
At a workshop in the USA on the impacts of climate change on transportation
(Federal Research Partnership Workshop 2002) some of the outcomes of the work-
shop included recommendation on research on Coastal Regions/Marine (Table 2.1)
so as to have a better understanding of the potential effects of climate change on
ports and marine shipping due to storms, sea level rise, sedimentation and erosion
0.30%
7.10% 1.A.1-Energy Industries
8.50% 1.A.2-Manufacturing
Industry and Construction
1.A.3-Transport
10.80%
1.A.4-Other Sectors
9.80%
63.60%
1.A.5-Non-Specified
1.B-Fugitive emissions
from fuels
Fig. 2.4 Contributors to greenhouse gas emissions in South Africa

Table 2.1 Summary of research priorities—coastal/marinea

Research challenge Specific research needs
Storms and sea level rise – Climate change effects on storm intensity,
location, track
– Clarification of projected trends
– Exploration of local sea level changes and
land movements
– Simulation of storm events
– Impact of sever events at different geographic
scales
Sedimentation and erosion – Impact on wave- and current-induced
sedimentation
– Changes to rainfall and river hydrology,
sedimentation rates
– Case studies at ports
– Dredging disposal options
Changes in prevailing winds, waves, currents, – Improved monitoring, modelling
and precipitation – Relation to shipping, port design
Shipping routes – Monitor extent and thickness of sea
ice—Arctic and Great Lakes
Decision making and policy tools – Improved models, elevation maps, GIS;
communication tools
Socio-economic patterns, legal issues – Localised land use, watershed, transport
development trends
a Federal Research Partnership Workshop (2002)
rates, and changes in key variables such as prevailing winds, waves, currents, and
precipitation rates.
Focus was also made on coastal regions rail and road transport that focused on the
effects of weather-related travel delays on rail and road system performance (Table
2.2).
As concerns the interior regions and their implications for surface transportation
and pipelines the expert group focused on four priority research challenges (Table
2.3).
As summarised in the National Climate Change Response White Paper (2011),
South Africa is vulnerable to impacts of climate change. According to the IPCC
Working Group II (2014), there is a possible increase in temperature within Africa
of over 2 °C by mid-century and this may reach 3–6 °C by the end of the century. This
will be accompanied by heat waves and droughts in many parts of Africa. Coastal
areas are likely to suffer from sea level rise and frequent storm surges. In the case of
South Africa, it is predicted that by 2050, South African coastal area will warm up
by 1–2 °C and by about 3 °C in the interior. By 2100, warming is projected to reach
3–4 °C along the coast and 6–7 °C in the interior. These high temperature increases
will have adverse effects on the transportation system. Consequently, there will be
need to have changes in construction and designs of transportation infrastructure
16 J. S. Ogola
Table 2.2 Summary of research priorities—coastal/rail and roada

Weather related travel time delays – Regional effects on transportation system
performance
– Travel behaviour response to delays
Impacts of climate change on roads and – GIS overlay of coastal roads and
ecosystems elevations—impacts of sea level rise on roads
and habitat
– Regional case studies of road design that
minimise environmental impacts
– Best practices for road construction and
location
Smart growth – Economics of coastal development and
impacts of climate change
– Analysis of anticipated sea-level rise and local
development plans, using GIS technologies
Lack of public awareness of climate change – State and local case studies
consequences – Website development on potential climate
change impacts
a Federal Research Partnership Workshop (2002)
Table 2.3 Summary of research priorities—interior/rail, road and pipeline

Tools to support local/regional scale impacts – Service interruptions
projection and decision making – Development of appropriate design
parameters for new facilities
– Integration of climate and impact models at
comparable resolution
– Data “info mining”
Hydrologic impacts on road, rail and pipeline – Evaluation of existing hydrologic models
infrastructure (under climate change scenarios)
– Effects of hydrological changes on
groundwater table/quality
– Landslides/washout, flooding impacts on
transportation facilities
– Effects of sediment transport on
infrastructure, and response strategies
Extreme events and impacts on roads, rail and – Methods to characterise risks without
pipelines complete reliance on historical data
– Validation of climate, hydrological and
impacts at multiple scales
Spatial and temporal shifts in demand – Timing and location of shifts in transportation
demand, relative to life of infrastructure
– Impacts on port facility capacities and
inter-modal flows
Fig. 2.5 Floods in Kwazulu Natal in 2017 (https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/live-mas

sive-storm-hits-durban-causes-flooding-chaos-20171010)
and alternative sources of energy to mitigate against climate change. Transportation

modes will have to be equipped with effective air conditioned facilities as daily
minimum and maximum temperatures increase. Some of the impacts of climate
change in South Africa have resulted in reduced crop yields due to prevailing drought
in the country, increased coastal erosion, impact on tourism and loss of jobs, and
interruption of transport systems, for example, the recent floods in Kwazulu Natal
(Fig. 2.5).
In order to identify and evaluate possible impacts of climate change on trans-
portation in Limpopo province, it is necessary to define the scale and scope of the
transportation system in the province and determine its sensitivities to climate change.
Transportation infrastructure is generally vulnerable to flooding and storm surges.
Changes in precipitation patterns can put to risk the existing infrastructure in Limpopo
province. Higher temperatures as have been experienced in 2015 and the earlier part
of 2016 can pose risks to the existing infrastructure. Storm surges can also results in
landslides as was experienced in the Vhembe district in the year 2000. Floods and
landslides can affect the road and rail transportation network. This calls for a survey
to identify valuable road sections in order to come up with mitigation strategies.
Road tunnels like the Hendric Verwoerd tunnel between Louis Trichardt and Musina
need to be monitored so as to prevent any potential calamities due to storm surges,
floods and landslides or land subsidence.
In Limpopo province, changes in precipitation, soil moisture, groundwater
regimes and flooding may put to risk both surface roads and railway network. This
may call for the need to adjust engineering standards, location of infrastructure,
maintenance of schedules, and safety management. Likewise, there could be need to
18 J. S. Ogola
re-evaluate the existing hydrologic models to cope with the identified climate change
scenarios. Risks due to potential changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme
weather events will also require attention.
Mitigation strategies for the potential impacts of climate change in Limpopo
province will have to address the following questions:
(a) What are the most significant potential problems that climate change poses for
transportation?
(b) What are the priority research areas that require immediate intervention?
(c) Are transportation planners equipped with the relevant tools that integrate
climate change and impact models to support transportation decision making
at the local and regional level?
(d) Who should take lead on mitigation strategies as the issues at hand are inter-
departmental?
The relevant tools for decision making include risk analysis information and the
ability to translate impact findings to meaningful data for mitigation. Apart from
broad issues, the study should focus on weather-related travel delays on the road and
trail systems. Research on the effects of weather on travellers’ response to adverse
weather can help inform real-time operational and maintenance decisions of trans-
portation managers. A better understanding of weather activity and its effects on
surface transportation could support better planning and investment for long-term
climate impacts (Potter 2002). This could result in best practices in road design and
construction that respond to challenges of climate change.
2.4 Strategies to Reduce GHG Emissions in the Transport

Sector
There is need to develop policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for a range
of transport modes as well as the need to maintain the momentum towards a low
carbon economy and towards decarbonising the transport sector through the use of
alternative sources of energy that do not emit CO2 .
Whereas the Limpopo provincial mitigation strategies against climate change and
environmental protection are well stipulated in the Green Economic Plan of 2013 and
in the Strategy on Climate Change of 2016, the implementation is lacking. Strate-
gies for extreme weather events fall within the docket of the Department of Disaster
and Risk Management, but impacts affect all sectors of the economy, including the
transport sector, thus there is need for coordination amongst the various departments.
The environmental principle that “the polluter pays” is extremely difficult to monitor
on site. What is being monitored is the ambient air quality and not gas emissions
from individual sources. Development and utilisation of renewable energy sources
is generally hindered by the powerful oil industry, vehicle manufacturers and trans-
port companies. The perception that “the bigger the car the better” also hinders the
development of the environmentally friendly vehicles.
2.5 Discussion
The main concern of the UNFCCC (1992) was that human activities have been
substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, that
these increases enhance the natural greenhouse effect, and that this will result on
average in an additional warming of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere and may
adversely affect natural ecosystems and humankind. This led to the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 and
the subsequent adoption of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change by the world community and it became known as the “Climate Change
Convention.” Following this, was the Kyoto Protocol and the Conference of the
Parties (COP) comprising UNFCCC participating member States. At the COP 21
meeting in Paris in December 2015, the member states adopted by consensus to
reduce emissions as part of the method for reducing the greenhouse gas emissions.
It looked at greenhouse-gas-emissions mitigation, adaptation, and finance, starting
in the year 2020.
The long-term goal of the Paris Agreement is to keep the increase in global average
temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels; and to limit the increase
to 1.5 °C, since this would substantially reduce the risks and effects of climate change
(COP 21 2015). According to this Accord, each member state must determine, plan,
and regularly report on the contribution that it undertakes to mitigate global warming.
COP21 noted that in the first half of 2016 average temperatures were about 1.3 °C
above the average in 1880, when global record-keeping began. The IPCC Working
Group II (2014), however, noted that there is a possible increase in temperature
within Africa of over 2 °C by mid-century and this may reach 3–6 °C by the end of
the century. For South Africa, it is predicted that by 2050 the coastal area will warm
up by 1–2 °C and by about 3 °C in the interior. The situation is likely to worsen by
2100 when warming is projected to reach 3–4 °C along the coast and 6–7 °C in the
interior.
The described scenario above of temperature rise in general and for South Africa in
particular calls for changes in construction and design of transportation infrastructure
and alternative sources of energy to mitigate against climate change. There will be
need to equip transportation modes with effective air conditioned facilities as daily
minimum and maximum temperatures increase. Increase in intensity and frequency
of precipitation will also result in floods and landslides, for instance, in Limpopo
Province that will put at risk the existing transportation infrastructure. For example,
in 2000 storm surges resulted in landslides in the Vhembe district and this led to
landslides and destruction of houses.
Strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change in the transportation sector
include development of policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for a range of
transport modes as well as the need to maintain a low carbon economy.
20 J. S. Ogola
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2010, 316 pp
Chapter 3
Transport Modes and the Green
Economy
Nthaduleni Sam Nethengwe
Abstract This chapter provides empirical evidence regarding the various transport
modes and the green economy in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Issues
pertaining to green transport, strategies for implementation and any challenges asso-
ciated with the transition towards green transport are grounded on empirical research
conducted in the province. In South Africa, transitioning to a green economy is envi-
sioned as a vital means to respond to critical development challenges that the country
is facing and will continue to face in the near future. Many of these challenges are
intertwined and they range from high levels of unemployment, poverty and inequality,
to energy, security and climate change. The transition to a greener economy is artic-
ulated in the national development policy through a series of frameworks, strategies,
policies and Acts which all enshrine sustainability or the notion of making the South
African economy greener (Department of Environment Affairs (2016) . However,
the implementation of green transport in general and particularly in the Limpopo
province, is still in the infancy stage.
Keywords Transport modes · Green economy · Implementation strategies ·

Transitions towards green transport
3.1 Background
3.1.1 Transition to Green Transport
In South Africa, green transport is a very complex enterprise, mainly because the
transition towards it, presents a mix of challenges and opportunities. In terms of
challenges, South Africa is at a crossroads, because while it has developed effec-
tive policies, which are in line with international trends, placing the country on a
N. S. Nethengwe (B)
Department of Geography and Geo-Information Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou,
South Africa
e-mail: nthaduleni.nethengwe@univen.ac.za

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86178-0_3
22 N. S. Nethengwe
low carbon trajectory, there is still a great need to overcome socio-economic chal-
lenges such as poverty and unemployment (Mahadea & Simson 2010). Through the
development of frameworks, policies and Acts, South Africa aspires to be a sustain-
able, economically prosperous and self-reliant nation that safeguards its democracy
by meeting the fundamental human needs of its people and implementing global
collaboration (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism 2008). Currently,
this aspiration seems to be far-fetched, and the challenges are not being addressed
except the maintenance of current transport systems that directly contribute to GHGs.
On the other hand, transition to green transport is likely to afford us the opportunity to
engage communities in meaningful and non-academic discourse in order to harness
common green transport skills and job opportunities which will allow us to integrate
them in the general value chain for the advancement of an eco-friendly, low carbon
and energy efficient transport sector (RSA 2003; Cetinkaya et al. 2011).
3.1.2 The Concept of Green Transport and Its Contribution

to Green Economy
In simple terms, green transport means any kind of transportation practice or vehicle
that is eco-friendly which also has minimal negative impacts on the immediate envi-
ronment. It is sometimes referred to as sustainable transport and has the main aim
of minimizing the adverse impact of transport on the environment while addressing
current and future transport demands based on the principles of sustainable devel-
opment. Green transport, therefore, requires that socio-economic growth targets are
met in a way that guarantees greater safety to citizens and commuters alike (Limpopo
Green Economy Plan 2013). Such targets should also harmonise with the natural,
social or economic environment (DEAT 2008). In addition, green transport intends to
reduce the adverse impact of carbon emissions and the effects of transport infrastruc-
ture on the immediate environment. This is argued to be achieved through reducing
private car dependence in favour of public and non-motorised transport as well as
using a low impact design and materials for transport infrastructure (DBSA 2011).
However, the artificially enforced separation between places of work and shopping
and places of residence (Davies 2015) makes road transport, the primary source of
CO2 emissions in South Africa, unavoidable. The heavy reliance of various sectors
(energy, transport, mining, industrial, commercial and agricultural) on road-based
transport, in order to move people and freight, contributes both to a quicker dete-
rioration of road infrastructure and higher levels of greenhouse gas emissions. The
pressures on transport and its associated infrastructure to develop the economy are
enormous and the increasing resources consumed to develop the transport sector will
negatively impact the environment in the long-term (Pearce et al. 1989).
3 Transport Modes and the Green Economy 23
3.1.3 Legislative and Policy Instruments
The following are South Africa’s legislative and policy instruments which all have a
bearing on green transport:
• National Land Transport Act (2009);
• National Environmental Management Act (1998);
• Energy Efficiency Strategy (2005);
• White Paper on National Transport Policy (1996);
• National Climate Change Response White Paper (2011); and
• National Development Plan (2011).
These legislative instruments aim to ensure sustainable road transport with
minimal impact on the environment by managing it in a sustainable manner. Other
objectives provided for in the legislations are to:
• Make public transport affordable, safe, reliable and accessible as an alternative to
private modes of transport;
• Reduce traffic congestion and carbon emissions;
• Promote non-motorised transport by providing safe infrastructure for its use;
• Ensure the use of environmentally-friendly materials in road construction and
maintenance;
• Esure that spatial and route planning enhances green transport initiatives; and
• Promote sustainable partnerships for better integration of various modes of
transport.
3.2 Study Aim and Specific Objectives
The aim of this study was to explore fundamental issues pertaining to green trans-
port modes in rural areas of the Limpopo Province. The specific objectives were
to: determine dominant types and characteristics of green transport modes; iden-
tify resources, infrastructure, skills and enhancement plans needed for green trans-
port support; examine the perceptions of the public (commuters) and stakeholders
pertaining to green transport modes; identify the challenges as well as the strategies
to support effective implementation of GT modes; and identify and examine the level
of green skills development for particular transport modes.
24 N. S. Nethengwe
Table 3.1 Study’s sampling

Province District Municipality No of commuters
frame and size
Limpopo Vhembe Thulamela 10
Makhado 7
Musina 8
Mopane Greater Giyani 10
Capricorn Polokwane 10
Waterberg Mokopane 10
Total (N) 55
3.3 Research Methodology
3.3.1 Study Location
The study location is comprised of selected districts in the Limpopo Province,

namely: the Vhembe, Mopani, Capricorn and Waterberg districts (Table 3.1). This
is home to predominantly rural communities that often distance themselves from
urban areas. In the Waterberg district, communities that were interviewed were situ-
ated along the main transport route to town and they were living in rural development
programme (RDP) houses probably due to proximity to towns.
3.3.2 Research Design
The research design adopted for this study was a case study coupled with grounded
theory which allowed us to investigate transport modes from the points of view of
commuters and main stakeholders in the transport sector. This design also provided
us with a framework for understanding green transport within a particular social and
institutional context. It has also allowed us to form our own impressions and reactions,
as researchers, about green transport issues which then presented an opportunity to
develop a theoretical account of the general features of GT modes in the province
and ground the account in empirical observations/data.
3.3.3 Sampling Approach
Considering the difficulties which would be faced when attempting to interview all
travellers and drivers in transit, 55 commuters using public and private transport
modes in four districts were randomly sampled for a questionnaire interview. Purpo-
sive sampling of the main transport stakeholders (from all the districts in Limpopo)
was adopted and these stakeholders were invited to a workshop organised for this
study.
3.3.4 Data Collection and Analysis
Questionnaires and the cluster analysis technique were used to collect and analyse
data. Questionnaires were distributed to 55 respondents (mainly consumers) who
elicited empirical evidence on transport mode preferences; rationale behind these
preferences; current utilisation of available green transport modes; general readiness
with the shift to green transport economy; and the use of IT to reduce business trips.
Cluster analysis as a technique was used to group similar observations into a number
of clusters based on the observed values of several variables for each individual. It
is an exploratory data analysis tool for organizing observed data or cases into two
or more groups. Stakeholder engagement in the form of a workshop and interviews
elicited data on the use ratio of motorised and non-motorised transport; technology,
innovation and skills transfer in green transport; policy implications and directions
about green transport; roles and responsibilities as well as challenges associated
with green transport. The emphasis was placed on strategies/enhancement initiatives,
green technology and challenges associated with the transition to green transport.
Collected data were then captured into SPSS for analysis.
3.4 Results and Discussion
3.4.1 General Modal Spilt
The results of the study are organised as shown in Fig. 3.1. Modal split represents
the percentage of travellers using a particular mode of transport to and from work.
Green or sustainable transport reduces the impact on the environment with respect to
carbon emissions and the effects of transport infrastructure on the immediate environ-
ment. Empirical data from the Limpopo Province, especially in the Mopane (63%)
and Waterberg (40%) districts, showed that the respondents interviewed regarded
Taxi’s as the preferred form of transport (Fig. 3.2) when compared to other forms.
More importantly, the overall use of Taxi’s and single occupant cars was greater
in all selected districts as compared to walking, cycling, the use of buses and car
sharing/pooling. However, walking is the preferred mode in Mopane (38%), followed
by the Capricorn (33%) and Waterberg (20%) districts. The district in Limpopo
(excluding Sekhukhune) which walked the least was the Vhembe district which
together with Waterberg used “bakkies” to commute to work and school. This is
regarded by Bradshaw as the top priority and most ecologically friendly mode of
transport (Fig. 3.3). Pedestrian mode requires one to prefer to walk to school, to
26 N. S. Nethengwe
Fig. 3.1 Organisation of research findings: survey and stakeholder engagement
Fig. 3.2 Percentage (%) travelers using a particular mode of transport

Fig. 3.3 Green transportation hierarchy, based on eco-friendliness (Source: Bradshaw (2014))
work and to shops, because walking does not emit any greenhouse gas (Hass-Klau
1993). It is also free and a good form of exercise for the body. The main impediments
in rural areas are long distances from home to work, due to the artificial separation
of the two sectors.
3.4.2 Factors Influencing Modal Choice
Respondents were asked to provide reasons as to why they preferred a particular

mode of transport. Of the four districts visited, Mopane recorded the highest use of
single occupant vehicles (88%), followed by the Waterberg district (40%). In terms
of carpooling, Capricorn and Waterberg showed the highest figure compared to the
Vhembe district. The concept of carpooling (multi occupant vehicle) seemed non-
existent in the Mopane district. This is a favorable mode of green transportation,
where groups of people, can use one vehicle, when heading in similar directions
on a regular basis. It is a more economical and eco-friendly option, especially if
all rotational vehicles are insured and well serviced. Cost, income, comfort, driving
license ownership, time and reliability are perceived as factors influencing trans-
port modal choice (Chee & Fernandez 2013; Wibowo and Chalermpong 2010).
Most respondents (54%) attributed their choice of a single occupant car to reliability
(Box 3.1). Taxi’s, though not perceived as cheap and reliable, were chosen by the
majority (50%) due to time effectiveness. Similarly, walking was regarded as cheap
and quick, especially for shorter distances. Respondents have not selected income,
comfort and driving license ownership as factors which have influenced their trans-
port modal choice. However, the lack of an alternative was perceived as the most
important rationale for the choice of a bus as a mode of transportation (Fig. 3.4).
28 N. S. Nethengwe
Fig. 3.4 Consumers preferred mode of transport
Box 3.1 Perceived factors influencing transport modal choice in Limpopo
3.4.3 Utilisation of Eco-Friendly Transport Modes
The study has used various indicators to assess the use of eco-friendly modes of
transport amongst consumers. Such indicators included the use of public transporta-
tion; bicycle ownership and use; car sharing/pooling; use of IT to reduce business
trips and the concept of working from home.
Use of Public Transport
Public transport is regarded as the third greenest mode according to Bradshaw’s
(2014) green transportation hierarchy (Fig. 3.3). Regardless, most respondents (51%)
do not use public transport when going to work compared to 47% who used it due
to the lack of an alternative. The difference between the commuters who used public
transport to work and those who did not is not of statistical significance at (p =
0.01). However, this finding is consistent with a study by Alvinsyah Soehodho and
Nainggolan (2005) who argued that most commuters, especially men, prefer to drive
to work instead of using public transport due to the lack of comfort. Perceptions of
mode attributes are significant in determining the likelihood of a modal shift from
private to public transport (Nurdden et al. 2007; Satiennam et al. 2011). According
to Nor Ghani et al. (2007) preferences for comfort and convenience significantly
increase the likelihood of choosing to drive over using a bus service. Though it
is much more comfortable and convenient to drive one’s own private vehicle to the
office or market every day, it is required of responsible world citizens to opt for green
transportation modes that are easily accessible to everyone. 18% of people who use
public transport have employer subsidised tickets. Perhaps, lack of employer subsidy
is an issue of concern, especially for those who use taxis to and from work.
Bicycle Ownership and Use
Using bicycles to commute to work is another great mode of green transportation. It
is faster than walking, has a low cost and is a form of healthy exercise. The buying
and maintenance costs of a bicycle are only a fraction of that required for car. In
many cities though, cycling has received very little attention from transport planners
over the years and it has been a marginalised mode of transport. Motorised modes
of transport often take up much more space in cities and within transport planning
(Koglin and Rye 2014). In the Limpopo province, bicycle ownership data obtained
were sparse and time series varied considerably in length from one district to another.
To find similarities in ownership across geographical regions, clustering presented
itself as an effective pattern recognition tool. The questionnaire survey indicated that
66% of respondents in urban areas owned bicycles but they did not necessarily use
them to travel to work. This is in comparison with 34% in rural areas who said they
used them to go to work. More than 30% of the urban commuters showed interest in
purchasing discounted tax-free bicycles for exercising and for bicycle competitions
but not to ride them to work. Despite, this geographic variation in bicycle ownership
among the five districts of Limpopo, we were able to identify two distinct districts
(i.e. Vhembe and Makhado) in which riding bicycles to work is perceived as a sign
of ‘poverty and the onset of mid-life crisis’. In these two districts, cycling is also
hampered by a lack of appropriate bicycle lanes and a generally negative attitude by
motorists towards cyclist which may impose an accident risk to cyclists (de Hartog
et al. 2010). It cannot be assumed though, that simply by developing a “walkable”
(or “cyclable”) environment, public health goals will be achieved; the relationships
are more complex than this (Andrews et al. 2012).
Despite the health benefits associated with cycling and walking, few people use
bicycles to get to work. This trend is different from that of the USA and Scandina-
vian countries where bicycle ownership is high and regarded as a sustainable mode
of transport, especially by workers and students. In South Africa, the government
at all levels with the help of public health experts, health and transport geographers
30 N. S. Nethengwe
(Davison & Curl 2014), and other stakeholders, can harness and mobilize cyclists
as change agents by developing policies that support bicycle education, infrastruc-
ture, and a culture of safety for all road users. As highlighted by Rind et al. (2013)
and Andrews et al. (2012), attention should be paid to inequality, both in the built
environment in terms of its ability to facilitate walking and cycling as well as active
travel behaviour, which may or may not be related to the environment.
Car Sharing/Pooling
Globally, the growth of car-sharing services as a new and more sustainable way of
transportation is shifting the private mobility from ownership to service use (Ferrero
et al. 2018; Thamizh Arasan & Vedagiri 2011). The basic idea of car-sharing is
quite simple: you share the usage of a vehicle fleet by members for trip making
on a per trip basis which is an option often motivated by economic reasons. In
the Limpopo province, 4.3% of motorists usually drove with three or more people
to work showing little evidence of car sharing. More than twenty percent (23%) of
commuters used single occupant vehicles to make business trips outside the province.
This practice was often considered by employees as a safety precaution in order to
avoid significant loss in the case of an accident. According to Chee and Fernandez
(2013), the possession of a driving license and regular access to a private vehicle are
both significant factors in influencing the choice of transport mode. These factors
contribute towards the tendency to use single occupant vehicle. Other barriers to the
adoption of car sharing services in Limpopo, include: long distances to cover, lack
of comfort, distrust and fear of liability in the case of an accident.
Use of ICT to Reduce Business Trips
Combating carbon emissions to advance a low carbon trajectory is an urgent task
for us all. ICT can have a positive impact on the reduction of CO2 emissions while
making businesses more efficient. A survey in the Limpopo province, indicated that
the state of green technology, in the form of Skype, face time and video-conferencing
to reduce business trips, is in infancy stages. About 35% of respondents were unaware
of these facilities compared to 30% who were aware of these facilities. All in all, 23%
did not have the required skills. The spatial variation is insignificant and negligible.
The only difference is that most urban respondents were aware of these facilities
but were not using them regularly in order to reduce business trips. The use of tele-
conferencing in some businesses was motivated by the cutting of costs rather than
environmental considerations (Rasagam 1999).
The Concept of Working from Home
Work from home is a concept where the employee can do his or her job from home.
Work from home gives a flexible working hour to the employee as well as the job
for the employer is done with ease. In South Africa, working from home is often
perceived as informal and self-employment. 30% of respondents who work in the
corporate world or formal sector would be interested in working from home if their
companies or government could approve and advance such initiatives. However, 28%
of the respondents who are self-employed were already working from home as a cost
saving initiative.
3.4.4 General Public Interest Toward Green Transport Modes
There is a general lack of interest in cycling, walking, car sharing, IT use for busi-
ness trips and the use of public transport. This could be attributed to the type of
business; distance to work; lack of dedicated lanes, cost and lack of general aware-
ness on IT uses for business meetings. Empirical evidence from Limpopo suggests
a general lack of readiness with regards to a shift towards green transportation. In
Limpopo, this shift is constrained by longer distances to be covered to work, under-
developed pedestrians/cyclists’ lanes and overcrowded public modes of transport.
In South Africa, especially in Limpopo and other remote rural areas, most of these
public modes of transportation are not fuel-efficient and still use high Sulphur diesel
(500 ppm) that contributes to GHGs. Hence, most people in Limpopo still resort to
private transportation to commute to and from work.
3.4.5 Enhancement Initiatives, Green Technology

Development and Challenges
In a workshop organised for stakeholder engagement in the Limpopo Province,

participants from various transport chambers were asked to identify green transport
enhancement initiatives, green skills and challenges associated with the transition to
green transport in Limpopo.
Enhancement Initiatives on Green Transport
Various commissions identified the following initiatives to advance transition to green
transportation:
• Need to make all modes of transport (motorised and non-motorised) green in the
long run:
– Buses, motorcycles, taxi’s, walking, skating and donkey carts for rural
transport;
– Promote non-motorised transportation and prioritise mass public transporta-
tion with the identification of hotspot (high volumes) zones;
• Partial banning of small vehicles in highly congested areas during peak hours.
32 N. S. Nethengwe
Green Technology Development for Green Transport

Commissions at the Limpopo Stakeholder Workshop have pinpointed the fact that
each transport mode has different green technology skill requirements and that there
is need to harness green transport common technology and integrate it into the general
transport value chain. The specific common area identified in green transport was
the energy sector which requires the identification of mechanisms and knowledge
in dealing with various energy components in terms of various transport modes,
transport infrastructure and technology required for maintenance of such transport
modes (Winston 1991).
• Green Technology for Car/Bus/Bicycles/Motorbikes:
– Fuel – transition from Lead to Unleaded (already existing); From high sulphur
(500 ppm) to less sulphur (50 or 10 ppm) (already existing).
– Battery—electric cars and motorbikes while also providing adequate charging
points/stations and/or high capacity batteries.
– Solar—solar car (effective if hydro-electricity is generated); solar powered
bicycles/motorbikes;
– Bio-gas—provide adequate pump services; effective utilisation of waste in
landfills;
– Bicycles—Using Chinese bamboo or waste instead of metals for bicycle
frames, especially for non-racing bicycles, could be problematic and dangerous
for mountain biking.
– Bio-diesel—provide adequate pump services; take extra care of the environ-
ment; do not utilise staple food crops for bio-diesel production since this will
impact food security negatively.
– Hybrid cars—reduce cost and improve reselling value.
• Green Transport Infrastructure:
– Bus stops – solar lighting could be introduced.
– Traffic lights/Street lighting—solar lighting adequate.
– Introduction of daylight devices for automating the switching off and on of
lights in order to save power.
The development of green transport technology in Limpopo is still at an infant
stage. The situation is relatively similar in most developing economies (Marchán &
Viscidi 2015).
Challenges Associated with Green Transport in Limpopo
With regard to challenges associated with the transition to green transport, stake-
holders in Limpopo identified the following:
• Poor Investment in energy efficient public transport, including rail;
• Green transport is perceived as another Taxi re-capitalisation programme;
• Lack of mobility alternatives for short distances;
• Poor rail, taxi and bus linkage system;
• No specific effective policy for green transport although a green economy strategy
exists;
• Role identification poor, responsibilities fluid and co-ordination lacking at all
three tiers of government with respect to green transport;
• Job losses, and people would have no skills for new green jobs created; and
• Lack of integration of green transport skills in the general value chain.
These are consistent with green transport challenges in more developing and
emerging economies in Africa and Latin America (Caia et al. 2011; Maia et al. 2011;
Mxolisi 2006; UNEP 2008, 2011).
3.5 Summary of the Major Findings
• The use of private cars is typical in most districts of the Limpopo province;
although walking is predominant for shorter distances;
• Lack of alternative cheaper modes of transport to cover long distances due to
apartheid spatial planning;
• Subsidisation of green transport and green initiatives by employers not available;
• There is a general lack of interest in cycling and walking to and from work.
• Rudimentary use of IT (Skype, tele and video-conferencing, face time, etc.) to
reduce business trips;
• Very little evidence of car sharing or car-pooling.
• Solar lighting at bus stops and robots not administered.
3.6 Policy Recommendation for Sustainable

Implementation of Green Transport
• Short to medium term recommendations include:

– Developing green transport awareness and sensitisation programmes.
– Enhancing access to green affordable public transport.
• Other policy recommendations include:
– Incorporating green transport in relevant policy making processes;
– Conducting monthly audits for the utilisation of green transportation;
– Training more local green transport professionals;
– Making all modes of transportation green;
– Harnessing common green skills;
– Integrating job creation and poverty alleviation in green transport into the
general value chain.
34 N. S. Nethengwe
3.7 Conclusion
The term “green transport” has often been used as a greenwash marketing technique
for products which are not proven to make a positive contribution to environmental
sustainability. Nevertheless, there is consensus that transport is a major contributor of
greenhouse gases and hence, the primary target for reducing CO2 emissions. Green
transport emphasises the need to walk and the use of multi-occupant vehicles as the
modes that should receive top priority since they are beneficial for the environment.
Hence, it is asserted that the environmental impacts of transport can be reduced
by improving the walking and cycling environment in towns and cities, and by
enhancing the role of public transport, especially electric rail and fuel-efficient public
buses and taxis. In South Africa, the problems regarding the balancing act of socio-
economic objectives with environmental objectives may render some of the green
transport initiatives ineffective. This is clearly supported by empirical evidence from
the Limpopo Province. Nevertheless, some consumers and transport stakeholders
in Limpopo have supported green transport initiatives and have reckoned that such
initiatives are likely to alleviate poverty and unemployment in the long-term if green
skills are harnessed and transport technology is adopted to support green transport
initiatives in rural provinces in South Africa.
Acknowledgements Thanks to commuters in the Limpopo province, stakeholders who attended

the Stakeholder Workshop in Limpopo (14–15 July 2016) and my research assistants (Ms. Gundo
Mulaudzi and Ms. Shylet Anesu Nyamwanza) who interviewed commuters in the Vhembe, Mopane,
Capricorn and Waterberg districts of the Limpopo Province. The final gratitude goes to the Transport
Education and Training Authority (TETA) for funding the project.
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https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.5.1.113
Chapter 4
Technology Innovations in Green
Transport
Peter Bitta Bikam
Abstract The paper uses the case study of Limpopo province to discuss technology
innovations in green transport in South Africa with respect to the reduction of global
greenhouse emission through technology innovation. South Africa’s emission from
fuel combustion is the world’s 15th largest in forms of CO emission because it
contributes about 1.2% of global emissions. In a submission from the Department
of Environmental Affairs (DEA) on the impact of greenhouse emissions stated that
companies are required to be innovative to reduce the carbon emission levels in South
Africa. Literature on road transport in South Africa shows that road transport is the
fastest growing source of greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for 19% of global
energy consumption. The policy to promote an integrated public transport in munici-
palities is in line with the National Development Plan and the White Paper on National
Climate Change Response. This requires innovative technology that promotes carbon
trading markets such as taxi recapitalisation programmes and carbon tax on new
vehicles. The study analysed the factors influencing green technology innovations in
South Africa with specific reference to Limpopo province green transportation study.
The methodology used to unpack innovative technology in South Africa discusses
green technology in Limpopo province in the context of greenhouse gases emission
reduction innovative technologies in the transport sector with respect to sustainable
fuels, energy efficient systems and smart information as well as hybrid technologies.
The study advances arguments on technologies for engine and propulsion systems,
alternative energy sources, navigation technologies, cargo handling systems, heating
and cooling vehicles, road and rail vehicles and maritime transportation with respect
to innovations as well as battery charging systems, engine oil disposal etc. The find-
ings shows that no single trajectory of technology innovation in green transport will
suffice but technological innovations that improve fuel economy and transition from
fossil fuels to cleaner fuel alternatives. The study in Limpopo province showed that
green transport innovations must not obscure the role of non-technological innova-
tions in reducing emissions, but the two should be tackled with green transport value
chain as a whole.
P. B. Bikam (B)
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, Limpopo,
South Africa
e-mail: peter.bikam@univen.ac.za

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86178-0_4
38 P. B. Bikam
Keywords Green transport · Technology innovations · Greenhouse gas

emissions · Reducing emissions · Green transport value chain
4.1 Introduction
Reducing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission from the transport sector in South Africa
should be a matter of priority considering that most major role players in the trans-
port manufacturing industry are committed to shifting to new innovative technolo-
gies such as electric cars or hybrid vehicles. The issue of technology innovation in
South Africa has to be addressed from a holistic approach across the value chain in
addition to tax policies to reduce greenhouse emission in the transport industry. In
rural provinces, such as Limpopo the participation of traffic officers, bus and taxi
drivers, car repairers, and manufacturers would be primordial (Lin and Ho 2010).
The paper uses examples from Limpopo province to argue that technological inno-
vations that improve fuel economy and the transformation of the energy bases of the
transport sector are essentials for GHS abatement. However, these innovations must
consider the value chain in the transport industry including non-technological inno-
vations such as green transport logistics display of information for commuters. The
technology innovations should include less visible innovations such as mass transit,
access cards, radio information, and treatment of used engine oils at appropriate
recycling sites. The paper argues that although innovation will play an important
role in the transportation sector in South Africa in the future, at the grass root level,
three concepts can be said to influence technology innovation in green transport i.e.
management skills, organisational enforcement and awareness support for innova-
tive ideas. According to Vigar (2000), the definition of technology innovation in
the transport industry has been narrowed down to green transport technology. Tech-
nological innovations in the transport industry has been narrowly defined and such
narrow definition can limit for example innovations in traffic management or smart
transport logistics and non-technological innovations that reduce emissions related to
road transport. The data that streamlines the definition were collected from the case
study areas in Limpopo province and from the literature review. The survey followed
the administration of questionnaires to 120 people in the transport industry including
vehicle engine repairers, fuel dealers, car heating and cooling technicians, taxi and
bus drivers, car electricians, private car owners, traffic officers and commuters. A
desktop review of relevant literature on sustainable transport and innovation was
undertaken. The paper unpacks green transport technology innovation with respect
to Limpopo province because of the significance of road transport in greenhouse
emissions in the province. This was unpacked with respect to the awareness on
issues which can have a particular pollutant influence on air quality. The Limpopo
case study demonstrates the experience of many rural dwellers who depend on the
current form of motor vehicle technology to commute, but the current technology
and vehicle use increases the emission of CO2 , NOx , CO and VOC (Litman and
Burwell 2006).
4 Technology Innovations in Green Transport 39
4.2 Literature Review
According to a report by the OECD (2005), technology innovation is defined as

the introduction of technologically new or substantial changes in goods or services
or the use of a technologically new or substantially changed process (Chapman
and Quin 2003). This definition dates back to the beginning of the 1990’s and it
was inspired by sustainable transport system researchers. This concept is widely
explored by Nijkamp (1994), Vigar (2000), Friedl and Steininger (2002) where they
argue that there are three kinds of innovations i.e. non-technical innovations product
and process innovations. Their emphasis was on the role of technological, organi-
sational and environmental issues that help to create a social support to accompany
the establishment of more ecological modes of transport with reduced GHG (Sviden
1988). Sahal (1980) however, argues that innovation in the transport sector is not
only a productive activity that requires technological innovation but also an innova-
tive technology that puts emphasis on the health of commuters. These views means
that the concept of the green transport should reduce per-capital kilometer travelled
in general (Miles 2005). In other words the transport sector is within the sphere of the
entrepreneur and the customer and both require technological innovations to keep
up with the information age and the reduction in greenhouse emissions. According
to Burneister and Djellal (2004) the debate on transport service innovations started
in the 1960s when innovation emerged as an area of research with respect to mainly
car manufacturing. However, Schot and Geels (2008) and Swann (2009) argue that
innovative theory refers to products, process, market inputs and organisational inno-
vations. In other words, technology innovation in a green transport economy cuts
across the value chain in the transport industry. With respect to the concept it can be
said to include technological process innovations and organisational process innova-
tions. The OECD (2005) defines the concept of innovation in the transport sector in
the context of basic access of individuals, group interest in the transport industry as
related to safety, health standards, and emission control affordable transport, access
to different modes of transport in a competitive economy (Schmookler 1966).
Functional Trajectories of Innovations in Green Transport
The literature review on technology innovation shows that there are three main areas
innovations can be classified, i.e. non-technical, technological product innovation
process, organisational and environmental innovations. Although the survey from
Limpopo province dealt with mainly innovations from road transport, other forms
of innovations were discussed. The study looks at innovations that deals with the
material function of the vehicle service (the car) and innovations that involves the
function of treatment of information, communication and innovations that deals with
organisational or relational functions. The advantage of the three categories is that
it allows us to determine innovations in the transport sector from both goods and
services within the value chain (Sahal 1980). The three categories can be broken
down further into five functions as follows:
40 P. B. Bikam
Technology Innovation Functions

These are innovations that involve the material substance of the vehicular product
such as the body parts of the vehicles and the flow of information (Rennings 2000).
The study in Limpopo province shows that for innovative light car materials, 62%
of the respondents indicated that they preferred steel body parts because they are
durable. In terms of information flow, 41% of the respondents indicated that the
introduction of the BRT in Polokwane will enhance access to information with respect
to the system. With respect to drivers and passengers, smart ticketing system, 57%
indicated that in rural areas it will be difficult to implement because of the educational
level of most commuters and low paying jobs which may not be enough to purchase
hybrid vehicles (Aquila-Obra and Melendez 2006).
Organizational Innovation Functions
These are innovations that involve the flow of information and dealings from one
service to the other within the transport sector value chain. Innovations that deal
with methodological functions i.e., new approaches to provide a service for example,
government support services are important for technology and logistics. When the
respondents were asked to indicate their preferences to transport sector information,
87% indicated they got to know about the green transport concept from newspapers,
the internet, and very little from the government. However, on taxi re-capitalization
and information on the BRT 87% indicated they were well informed of govern-
ment policies through the internet, the television, newspapers etc. 92% indicated that
there is lack of awareness campaigns on the green transport concept in the province
(Aronsson and Brodin 2006).
Environmental Innovation Function
These are innovations that deal with how external environmental factors influence
the release of GHG in the air. Emissions is one of the major causes of air pollution
and with respect to this (Azevedo et al 2007), indicated that customer pressure such
as demand for new vehicle can trigger regulations and policy innovations to resolve
environmental related issues (Lin 2007). From the study in Limpopo province, inno-
vations that can contain the pollution of the environment such as smoke from car
exhausts, can be reduced by providing policies that promote de-registration of vehi-
cles that pollute the environment. However, 37% of the respondents were not in favour
because, according to them it will be tantamount to de-registering most vehicles older
than 10 years, (Aronsson and Brodin 2006).
Hybrid Vehicles
The Toyota Prius, the world’s most popular hybrid car, uses a combination of
an internal combustion engine and a battery electric drive system to increase
fuel economy and reduce emissions. When pulling away from a stop, the electric
motor powers the car, drawing on the battery for power. At the Paris worlds motor
show which took place from 1st to 6th October 1–6, 2018, a hybrid car was claimed
to have been charged and would travel 200 km. The electric storage and charging
technology that made this possible was powered by solar panels. The technology
is said to be easily deployable at existing or future road and highway stations, as
solar energy continues to develop throughout worldwide. It was indicated that it
is the charging solution that will eventually enable electric cars to rival traditional
combustion-powered vehicles, whose growth was made possible by gas stations. The
team that developed the technology is based in France, but the development potential
for this technology is clearly international (Coqueline energies 2018).
4.3 Methodology
The methodology used to discuss technology innovation in Limpopo Province was

based on (Nelson and Winter 1982) method of first defining the problem before
unpacking the content. To achieve this, a literature review (Sect. 4.2) of current
research and publications on technology innovations in the transport industry was
undertaken to put the subject in context. This was followed by the identification
of key informants who attended a workshop on green transport economy in Polok-
wane. Among them were taxi associations’ representatives, bus and taxi drivers,
traffic officers, auto electricians, motor electricians, pedestrians, car dealers, rail,
air and commuters in general. A total of 120 relevant stakeholders in the trans-
port industry were interviewed to give their views on technological innovations in
Limpopo Province. In addition to this, close and open-ended questionnaires were
administered to them. The analysis of the survey results was mainly on how the
transport industry main stakeholder’s current views on the concept of innovation in
green transport. In addition to the analysis, also discussed were type of skills that
will be required when new innovations are introduced in the transport industry.
4.4 Discussions
The expression technological innovation emerged from the work of Dosi (1982), Dosi
(1984) and Schumpeter (1983) who postulated that innovation is a process of learning
which is localised but can be expanded to other sectors and regions (Kimberly and
Evanisko 1981). The central theme of the discussion in Limpopo Province was to
get the opinions of stakeholders in the transport sector with the aim of informing
policy makers on the potentials of technology innovations in the transport industry,
particularly at the grass root level (Azevodo et al. 2007). In view of the fact that road
transport has a significant impact on environmental problems, most of the innovations
pointed out by the respondents were with respect to pollutant impact on air quality
particularly the concentration of:
• CO2 —Carbon Dioxide;
• NOx —Nitrogen Oxide; and
42 P. B. Bikam
• VOC—Volatile Organic Compound.

In order to determine the views of the respondents on vehicle emissions a survey
was undertaken with respect to non-technical and technical innovations and the
restrictions of emissions components. They were required to respond to a number of
questions on emission control in the province. The perceptions of the respondents
were with respect to technical and non-technical innovations in Limpopo province,
(Alexe and Ezhilarasie 2011). They were asked to indicate their choice of selected
transport sector value areas by indicating on a scale 0–5 with 0 being; do not agree,
1-fairly agree, 2-agree, 3- highly agree, 4-very highly agree, and 5- totally agree as
shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 is a compilation of 120 respondent’s choice of technical and non-
technical innovation categories relevant to green transport in Limpopo province. Note
that the classification was to determine what the stakeholder and respondents consid-
ered technical and non-technical innovations with respect to the transport industry.
In each column of the technical innovations, 120 respondents gave a rating of 0 to
5. In each column the total highest score would be theoretically 9000 i.e. 5 × 120 ×
15 selected transport sector value chain areas and the lowest would be theoretically
0. The total highest score was 44 or 7.33% as compared to non-technical with an
average of 26 or 3.60% and material information innovation, 23 or 2.8%, communi-
cation innovation, with 43 or 7.2% respectively (ITF 2010). The field survey showed
that apart from stakeholders such as traffic officers, auto electricians, auto mechanic
and car dealers who had a fairly good knowledge of technology innovations in the
transport sector value chain, most of the respondents were not aware of the green
transport technology innovation concepts (Hamdouch and Samuelides 2001).
Summary of Technical and Non-Technical Transport Innovations in Limpopo
Province
Table 4.1 innovations as perceived by the 120 respondents were derived and classified
into four categories as shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 shows that innovations with respect to sustainable green transport in
Limpopo province would be dependent on new external technologies, new markets,
new institutional rules and new forms of information from mainly major car manu-
facturing countries such as Japan, France, Italy, USA to mention just a few (Foster
and Green 1999). Adaptations according to 69% of the respondents depends on the
path the local authority follows with respect to training policies to respond to new job
skills that would be needed. This would in turn depend on the degree of buy-in, flex-
ibility and attitude of the stakeholders as and when new green transport innovations
are introduced (Geels and Green 2004).
Table 4.1 Technological and Non-Technological Innovations
Selected transport Categories of technical innovations rating scale 0–5
sector value areas Technical green Non-Technical Material information Internet information Communication Policy and regulatory
transport innovations green transport innovations innovations technology innovations
innovations innovations
Average scores for Average scores Average score for 120 Average scores for Average scores Average scores for
120 respondents 0–5 for 120 respondents 0–5 120 respondents 0–5 for 120 120 respondents 0–5
respondents 0–5 respondents 0–5
Access control i.e. 4 3
low emission zones
Mass transit modes 3 3 5 4 4
of transportation
Parking management 4 3 5
fleet
4 Technology Innovations in Green Transport
Intelligent transport 4 5 4
system information
to users
Ramp metering 3 4
actual time and
public transport
structure
Fuel use (bio-gas and 4
hybrid vechiles)
Pedestrian/ 5 5 4 4
cycling/roller scatter
Park and pay 4 5 5 3
Park and ride 4 4 4
Car pooling 4 4 4
43
(continued)
Table 4.1 (continued)
44
Selected transport Categories of technical innovations rating scale 0–5

sector value areas Technical green Non-Technical Material information Internet information Communication Policy and regulatory
transport innovations green transport innovations innovations technology innovations
innovations innovations
Average scores for Average scores Average score for 120 Average scores for Average scores Average scores for
120 respondents 0–5 for 120 respondents 0–5 120 respondents 0–5 for 120 120 respondents 0–5
respondents 0–5 respondents 0–5
Dial a ride 3 4 4
Flect, freight forward 4 4
and clearing
management and
ticketing
√
Taxes on fuel use a
Data acquisition 4 4 3 5
Technology to reduce 5 5 4 5 4 5
the emission of NOx,
CO2 and VOC on thr
environment
Total percentage 44 × 15 = 660/9000 26 × 15 = 23 × 15 = 345/9000 21 × 15 = 315/9000 33 × 15 = 43 × 15 = 645/9000
= 7.33% 390/9000 = = 3.80% = 3.50% 495/9000 = = 7.20%
3.60% 5.50%
Source Authors field data 2016
P. B. Bikam
Table 4.2 Classification of technical and non-technical innovations in Limpopo Province

Category Innovations
Roads infrastructure Pedestrian/cycling/roller skater
Ramp metering actual time and public transport structures
Air and rail
Taxes on fuel use
Policy and regulations Parking management fleet
Access control i.e., emission zones
Fleet, freight forward and clearing management and ticketing
Intelligent transport system information to users
Car pooling
Dial a ride
Chemicals Fuel use (bio-gas and hybrid vechiles)
Technology to reduce the emission of NOx, C02 and VO on the
environment
Transport cost Data acquisition
Park and ride
Source Authors field data 2016
4.5 Challenges to Technology Innovation in Green

Transport in Limpopo Province
The study categorised the challenges to innovation in green transport in Limpopo

Province into two:
Technology innovation: This is considered a new concept because of the
following reasons:
• It allows basic access and development needs of individuals, companies and
society to be met safely in a manner consistent with human and ecosystem health
and promotes equity within and between successive generations.
• Is affordable, operates fairly and efficiently, offers a choice of transport mode and
supports a competitive economy, as well as a balanced regional development.
• Limits emissions and waste within the planets ability to absorb them, uses renew-
able resources at or below their rates of generation, and uses non-renewable at
or below the rates of development of renewable substitutes while minimizing the
impact on the use of land and generation of noise.
• Safety and E-administrative systems.
Affordability issues: Affordability was identified by the respondents from rural

areas to be one of the fundamental issues to ensure the buy-in for green transport
technologies such as hybrid electric cars, bio-gas fuel etc. However, the study showed
that the introduction of public transport systems such as the Bus Rapid Transport
Systems can be one of the fastest ways to begin the introduction of new technologies
in the transport sector (Kemp and Rotmans 2004).
46 P. B. Bikam
Recommendations
In view of the analysis discussed above, recommendations to address the issues are
outlined into short and medium term and long term as follows:
Short and Medium Term Recommendations
The short term recommendations emphasis issues that can be tackled within a period
of ten years.
• Awareness campaign: to introduce and explain the green transport concept to the
public.
• Framework to encourage metropolitan areas and municipalities to embark on BRT
projects, which should incorporate some type of the new technologies discussed.
• Framework to integrate land use planning with dedicated lanes for non-motorised
transport, BRT and cycling routes and pedestrian walk ways.
• Introduce green concept curriculum in secondary schools to sensitize them at an
early age on the future of green transport economy.
• Provide collection site for the collection and recycling of used moto engine oils,
and
• Provide incentives to interested companies to pilot green transport technologies.
Long Term Recommendations

The study has shown that long term strategies require more research and planning to
bring on board the following recommendations, (DME 2012).
• Fund research institutions and R&D companies to embark on green transport
research and technologies and prioritize policy recommendations.
• Establish green transport curriculum development forums to begin to discuss the
contents of the curriculum.
• Encourage investment in bio-fuel and solar energy related vehicles.
• Identify long term key skills required for green transport development suitable
for South Africa.
• Provide incentives for investors to establish electric vehicle battery stations so
that the general public can have access, and
• Ensure buy-in of the green transport concept by engaging with key stakeholder
such as private public bus owners and taxi associations on conversion to cleaner
fuel products.
Key Role Players Recommended

The key role players identified during the study in Limpopo province but not
exhaustive are outlined as follows:
• Taxi Associations
• Department of Transport (DOT)
• Transport Education and Training Authority (TETA)
• Municipalities: Land use planning unit
• Research Institutions
• Rail transport (PRASA)
• Roads agency
• Aviation industry
• Car manufactures
• Roads Traffic Department
• Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA)
• Environmental Protection Agency
• Maritime
• Gautrain
• Traffic and road safety officers etc.
4.6 Conclusions
The focus in this chapter was on technical and non-technical innovations to promote
sustainable transport. The study shows that both technical and non-technical innova-
tions are relevant concepts that require more in-depth research to address the problems
of greenhouse emissions in South Africa and in particular Limpopo Province. It is
difficult to assume that green transport innovations can be accepted by the stake-
holders without any form of awareness campaign and support from government. The
approach should be a bottom up driven process, particularly in rural areas such as
Limpopo province. The targeted population in the survey showed that stakeholders
will not be committed to innovations without proper awareness campaigns and buy-
in considering current pack of vehicles majority of which are more than 10 years old
in rural areas. The study showed that technology innovations in the transport sector
are inevitable, but there will be challenges such as cost of hybrid cars, retraining in
new skills and qualifications across the transport skills sector. However, research and
gradual introduction of relevant policies, to support the concept, provision of vehicle
charging parks and logistics incentives for non-motorised inventions etc. should be
the approach.
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Chapter 5
Vehicle Management and Emission
Control and Maintenance
Peter Bitta Bikam
Abstract South Africa range 15th as the world largest CO2 emitter contributing to
1.2% of global emission. During the Kyoto Protocol of 2014, South Africa pledged
to reduce its emission by 34% and 42% in 2020 and 2025 respectively. This study is a
combination of literature review from South Africa with particular emphasis on road
transport. The focus was on vehicle emission with reference to Limpopo Province to
demonstrate how emissions from primarily the use of diesel and petrol as one of the
major contributors to CO2 emission in the province are vital for the sustainability
debate. The methodology used to illustrate the dangers of vehicular emissions were
based on statistical estimates from the Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA)
inventory report from 2000 to 2010. The information used in assessing the vehicle
emission standards in Limpopo were obtained from DEA. The findings from literature
reviews in general and the results from the field survey from Limpopo Province shed
some light on South Africa’s vehicle emissions policy issues and standards. Also the
analysis focused on the impact of vehicular fleet management and carbon emissions.
The article concludes by drilling down to vehicle users, motor vehicle repairs, engine
over haulers, used engine collection and disposal with respect to their roles in vehicle
emission and control in South Africa.
Keywords Vehicle management · Emission control · Vehicle maintenance ·

Carbon emissions
5.1 Introduction
South African Greenhouse Gas inventory submission to the United Nations Frame-
work Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) published in 2014 shows that in
2010 the energy used in the transportation industry contributed to 47.6% MtCO2e
or 8.8% of the country’s gas emissions excluding emissions from vehicles fuel used
on farms. Policies on measurement of vehicles emissions in South Africa have not
P. B. Bikam (B)
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
e-mail: peter.bikam@univen.ac.za

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86178-0_5
52 P. B. Bikam
been precise particularly from the laboratories nor in the real world where vehicle
users including public transport, locomotives, taxis, private vehicle users etc., do not
understand what is emissions control. In addition to this, driving patterns including
the use of aging vehicles, irregular vehicle maintenance and poor vehicle operational
histories such as un-registered and use of non-road worthy vehicles can increase
emissions. Emissions from the transport sector has grown by 32% from 2000 to
2010 (Vosper & Mercure 2007). In the case study from Limpopo, South Africa,
vehicle fleets were composed of new and aging vehicles (SAPIA 2008). The ulti-
mate goal of the government is to improve ambient air quality. The emphasis in
this chapter is the analysis of vehicle emission and control processes to demonstrate
whether vehicle users are in compliance of government policies on vehicle emission
control or not. The analysis begins with the definition of what is fuel quality standard.
This approach was necessary to unpack the impact of vehicle emission control and
management in South Africa. Although the analysis in this chapter looks at what
literature has on vehicle management, emission control and management in South
Africa, Limpopo Province was used as the case study area to explain whether those
in the transport sector understand emission issues in the local context (DES 2010).
Outlined in the preceding paragraph are the literature reviewed with respect to vehicle
management, emission control and management. The literature begins by defining
what is fuel quality standard, the standard figures with respect to vehicle emissions
in South Africa, before undertaking the discussion of the field survey results.
What is Fuel Quality Standard?
According to the ICCT (2009) technical report on black carbon climate science
and appropriate emission control strategies, fuel quality and emission standards are
usually underlined with respect to characteristics such as lead and sulphur contents
in fuel. The explanation shows that fuel sulphur is one of the culprits responsible
for the sharp rise in emission levels. With respect to fuel quality standard, Woolf
et al. (2007) indicated that emissions from vehicles that use fuel with lead can cause
damage to human organs. In addition to this, lead can damage vehicles in three ways.
For example the catalytic converters in a vehicle can be modified by de-activating the
catalysts and preventing them from working efficiently to reduce NOx , CO and HC
in the vehicle exhaust. Therefore, the elimination of lead from gasoline is an essential
pre-requisite for implementing policy standards to control vehicle emissions (Vosper
& Mercure 2007).
Statistical Facts on Vehicle Emission in South Africa
Gas analysing instruments measure the concentration of hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon
Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxide (NOX ), and CO2 . The concentration units relate to
the amount of HC, CO2 to the amount of total air collected i.e. percentage or part per
5 Vehicle Management and Emission Control and Maintenance 53
million (ppm units). For example, mass emissions in towns such as Johannesburg
and Polokwane can be calculated as the product of the molecular mass and measured
concentration of each pollutant and the total volume of air collected. The emission
from vehicles are in grams per kilometer (gpk) emission factors (Minjares & Hon
2012). The review of literature on vehicle emission shows three primary greenhouse
gas emission in South Africa from the transport sector from 2000 to 2010 as shown
in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 shows the relative contribution of greenhouse gas emissions from
different modes of transportation in South Africa. Note that the contribution of
Methane and Nitrogen Oxide in terms of percentage of total accounts for only 2.14%
of the total from 2000 to 2010 in South Africa. However, the understanding of the
contribution of greenhouse emission will not be complete without considering the
contribution of different modes of transport emitters from South Africa, as shown in
Table 5.2.
It is clear from Table 5.2 that the figures include emission from Diesel, Lique-
fied Petroleum Gas (LPQ), and residual fuel oil, Kerosene and petrol consumption
from road transport. However, only diesel for rail transport and jet kerosene and Jet
gasoline for domestic aviation were considered. Note that electricity used in rail was
not factored in the calculation (Roads and Transport Gauteng Province 2014). The
statistics from the Department of Energy shows the contribution of other services
to greenhouse emission in 2010 excluding emissions from the production of fuel in
South Africa is shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.1 Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gas Emission (Mt % of total emission
emission from 2000 to 2010
CO2e ) (%)
in South Africa
Carbon dioxide 444.21 97.86
(CO2 )
Methane (CH4 ) 3.19 0.70
Nitrous oxide 0.52 1.44
(N2 O)
Total 453.92 99.74
Source Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) (2014)
Table 5.2 Contribution of

Vehicle mode and energy % contribution to overall
different modes of transport
carrier emission (%)
emission in 2010
Domestic 7.7
Road (diesel and petrol) 91.2
Rail (diesel only) 1.1
Total 100
Source Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) (2014)
54 P. B. Bikam
Table 5.3 Contribution to total transport emission in 2010

Mode Emission of greenhouse gas in % contribution to emission
MtCO2e (%)
Electricity to run fuel pipeline 0.090 MtCO2e 0.1
Electricity forum electric rail 2.800 MtCO2e 4.5
Marine transport (gas and fuel 9.820 MtCO2e 15.6
oil)
Domestic aviation (jet kerosene 3.665 MtCO2e 5.8
and jet gasoline)
Rail (diesel) 0.524 MtCO2e 0.8
Road (diesel, LPG, residential 43.411 MtCO2e 15.6
fuel oil, other kerosene and
petrol)
Total 61.14 MtCO2e 42.4
Source IEA (2015), CO2 emission from fuel combustion: highlights
Table 5.3 shows that greenhouse emission from the transport sector contributed to
42.2% of emissions selected and road transport accounted for 15.6%. Rail and Diesel
contributed 0.524 MtCO2e or 0.8%. If emissions from fuel manufacturing is added to
the overall emission from the energy used in refineries, including those from SASOL’s
processing plant will be contributing 42 MtCO2e and South Africa’s international
marine bunkers emission in 2010 was 9.82 MtCO2e (IEA 2015). However, SASOL’s
coal to liquids plants are CO2 intensive making up to half of the contribution to South
Africa emissions (IEA 2015).
5.3 Methodology
The methodology to unpack vehicle management, emission control and management

in South Africa discusses the concept of emission control in Limpopo Province in the
context of greenhouse gases emission reduction in the transport sector with respect to
vehicle fleet management, efficient systems and smart information as well as access
to green transport. The study advances arguments on emission control, fuel quality
standards, and greenhouse emissions in South Africa from 2000 to 2010 to determine
the contribution of South Africa in greenhouse emission globally. The study drills
down to the case study area in Limpopo province to discuss vehicle management
approach in the province. The findings from the literature review and the results from
the field survey from Limpopo province shows that vehicle emission control policy is
lacking. This was attributed to the high level of carbon emissions in South Africa. The
study demonstrates that through dedicated research on vehicle management control,
improved emission control and reduced per capita kilometer travelled in a vehicle.
The case study in Limpopo shows that public transport could be improved through
the introduction of the Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) in the province, particularly
in growth point towns such as Polokwane. The pilot study demonstrates how the
potential of adopting the BRT and re-skilling of vehicle repairers, traffic police, and
transportation planners could enhance the buy-in of green transport management
especially in rural areas. This was demonstrated with the response from the targeted
respondents who indicated that awareness campaign and education via improved
bus technology, improved understanding of traffic at bus stops, improved payment
systems, use of low cost control systems, efficient boarding and alighting facilities
will contribute to improved vehicle management, emission control and management.
5.4 Limpopo Province Field Survey Results Discussions
This section uses the research findings from Limpopo Province to unpack inherent
variability of vehicle emissions, vehicle technology, vehicle age, vehicle mode to
mention just a few, with respect to measurement of vehicle emissions, technology
and vehicle model (SEPA 1999a, b).
5.4.1 Difficulty in Measuring Vehicle Emission Variations
The study in Limpopo Province on various modes of transport users as well as petrol,
diesel or engine oil uses were factored in. Emissions vary according to the use and the
condition of the vehicle. However, the study showed that 40% of the sampled road
transport users including traffic officers indicated that vehicle exhaust emission from
the engine occur because of unburned fuel, HC and incomplete combustion leading
to the emission of NOx , HC and CO emissions. Majority of the targeted populations’
i.e., 79% of the 120 respondents indicated that when vehicles do not function properly
due to lack of gadgets to reduce emissions, the result is more emissions. The study
shows that vehicle engine sometimes fail to operate as designed due to exhaust aging
resulting in rise in emissions depending on the vehicle condition. Outlined below are
some of the factors affecting emissions with respect to different modes of transport
which include vehicles make or vehicle technology, age or model or year of make,
manufacturer, misuse of the vehicle, malfunctioning of the vehicle etc.
5.4.2 The Effect of Vehicle Material Technology on Emission

Control
The innovation of new technologies to control greenhouse emission are said to be

incorporated in new vehicles in South Africa. However, 56% of the respondents
56 P. B. Bikam
were not aware of the exhausts gas recirculation to reduce NOx formulation in the
car engines. This can be done in addition to replacement of old carbonators with
throttle body and part fuel injections and a computerised inbuilt air–fuel mixing and
spark time. With respect to new car dealers that were consulted in the province, it was
indicated that some new cars have emission control mechanism inbuilt by certain car
manufactures who include them in their designs to promote reduction in emissions,
but as the vehicle gets old the emission control efficiency decreases.
The major objective of transportation management is to move product from an
origin (i.e., location) to the destination with minimizing cost and reduced nega-
tive impact to the environment (Lin 2009; Lin & Ho 2008). Innovation in engine
technology for aircraft, locomotives, and trucks can reduce air pollutants and other
forms of emissions (Mercure & Lam 2015). Similarly, low combustion chambers
can sustainably lower the emissions of NOx , CO2 , and unburned hydrocarbons.
The development of new aircraft types, alternative fuels and engines with increased
fuel efficient hybrid can mitigate the environmental impacts of aircraft operations.
According to Lin and Ho, transportation technologies commonly used in logistics
industry include transportation information system, global positioning system (GPS),
geographic information systems (GIS), radio frequency communication system, and
transportation data recorders. The transportation information system and geograph-
ical information system can help logistics managers to plan, manage and control
transport challenges. The global positioning system, and radio frequency communi-
cation system can track and guide drivers during the transportation of products. This
argument was supported by Murphy and Posit (2003) on the mitigation of the negative
effects of vehicle emissions on the environment by emphasising intermodal trans-
portation logistics using internet tracking system, GPS, and other means to ensure
efficiency. Furthermore, they found out that electric and digital logistics management
can reduce delivery time, optimize transportation and distribution routes and provide
greater flexibility in the used of transportation modes.
The Effect of Age of Vehicles and the Millage Accumulated Over Time on
Emission Control
The policy on the age of vehicles in South Africa shows that vehicles older than
10 years should not be on the road as well those with high millage accumulated.
This is because the age of the vehicle and millage accumulation tend to increase
greenhouse gas emissions. With respect to age of vehicles, 65% of the respondents
against 25% agreed that emission discharge is both a function of the normal degra-
dation of the vehicle due to the age and irregular maintenance of the vehicle. 82%
of the respondents indicated that lack of regular maintenance of vehicles was one of
the major reasons there is increase in vehicle gas emission particularly CO and HC
emissions. 38% of the respondents did not have any opinion on whether old vehicles
should be discarded. They regarded the age of vehicles as important but added that
if the vehicle owner undertakes regular maintenance the vehicle emission will not
be as much as irregular maintenance. Taxi drivers, bus owners were unanimous that
re-capitalization may not be practicable in rural areas if the aim of the policy is just
to reduce carbon emissions because they identified poverty as the main challenge.
5.4.3 The Effect of Vehicle Manufacturing Model

on Emission Control
South Africa is not a major car manufacturing country as compared to those from
Europe, USA and Asia. However, it is important to note that some car models perform
better with respect to vehicle emission than others. With respect to vehicle mainte-
nance, 52.2% of the respondents’ indicated that vehicle models and the type of car
can exhibit very low gas emission as compared to other vehicle engines that may
have emission control facilities inducted in the engine. They indicated that the effec-
tiveness of a vehicle engine in emission control and the life time durability of the car
depends on the make, the model and usage, (Wagner & Rutherford 2013).
5.4.4 The Effect of Vehicle Maintenance Culture

on Emission Control
The research in Limpopo showed that there is no policy on the degree to which an
individual vehicle owner in South Africa should be controlled with respect to vehicle
emission and maintenance of his or her vehicle. 46% of car repairers consulted in
Limpopo province indicated that regular vehicle maintenance as recommended by
the manufacturers can improve the engine emission system. Similarly, 75% of vehicle
repairers in the province indicated that informal vehicle repairers such as road-side
mechanics can affect the quality of vehicle repairs if the mechanics are not well
trained. This is because poor vehicle maintenance can degrade the catalytic convertor
or tuning engines which can impact on emissions. In a developing country such as
South Africa, sophisticated on board sensors to monitor vehicle performance can
be installed in new vehicles. Major car maintenance garages in Limpopo indicated
that those who adhere to manufacturers’ warranties with respect to maintenance can
improve engine performance and extend the life span of the vehicles. Out of 40
vehicle owners contacted including taxi drivers on their service plans, 86% of them
indicated that they do not go for regular vehicle maintenance.
5.4.5 The Effect of Misuse and Malfunctioning of Vehicles

on Emission Control
The study showed that drivers that do not comply with driving rules and misuse their
vehicles can lead to increase in CO2 emissions. For example, prolonged high-power
driving on steep mountain roads can lead to a rise in vehicle engine temperature which
is a major cause of pre-mature damage to the catalytic conveter and this can result
in increase in emissions. Similarly, regular vehicle malfunctioning due to irregular
driving habits can in general trigger vehicle malfunctioning with high CO emission
58 P. B. Bikam
and high HC emission while vehicles with high NOx emission tend to have relatively
low CO and HC emissions. With respect to misuse and malfunctioning of vehicles
on emission, the main findings in Limpopo showed that 59% of the respondents
agreed that it increases vehicle emissions as compared to vehicles in good working
conditions.
5.4.6 The Effect of Driving and Fuel Delivery Engine Load

on Emission Control
According to 53% of the respondents in Limpopo province, vehicle emission vary

due to changing vehicle engine load. This is because the relationship between emis-
sion and load depends on the fuel-delivery and the type of emission-control tech-
nology installed in the car engine. This is because NOx emissions will increase
with increasing engine load. Six out of seven motor vehicle formal services centres
consulted in Limpopo province, five (5) indicated that enrichment of the air fuel
mixture can lead to elevation in CO and HC formations because of inadequate oxygen
available for pollutant conversion to CO2 and water in the catalyst (Foster & Green
1999). Out of seven auto vehicle repairers contacted all of them indicated that steep
roads and the installation of air conditioning and heating devices in vehicles can put
additional load on the engine and this can affect emissions. The seven auto-mechanics
consulted indicated that the way drivers shift gears on vehicle in a non-automatic
car can affect emission rates because depending on how the driver presses the pedal,
smoothly or excess acceleration can increase emissions.
5.4.7 Vehicle Humidity, Catalyst and Ambient Temperatures

and Emission Control
According to Wagner and Shao (2015), catalytic convertors and oxygen sensors of a
vehicle are effective at low temperatures. However, when it is heated by the vehicle
exhaust, the devices can attain very high temperatures required for the operation
of the vehicle after 1–4 min of driving. Similarly, ambient temperature has direct
effect on the evaporation of HC emission (Ligterink et al. 2013). This explains why
very low temperatures for example, below 20 °F or 3 °C can influence emission of
gases at ignition and this may cause the catalyst of some vehicles to cool during
stops. As a result of this, very high ambient temperatures of the engine can affect
vehicle exhaust emission because engine loads can increase due to the prolonged
use of vehicle air conditioners. Similarly, this can lead to higher emission of NOx .
Consequently, the amount of water vapour in the air can affect NOx in aging and
malfunctioning vehicles. Although 43% of the respondents did not understand the
complexities, vehicle humidity, catalyst and ambient temperature impact on emission
control, 23% were of the opinion that high temperature can increase NOx and HC
emissions.
5.4.8 Quality of Fuel Used in the Vehicle
In an article on fuel effects in auto/oil high emitting vehicles, (Nunes & Bennett 2009)
postulated that the quality content of fuel in the vehicle can have a substantial impact
on tied-pipe and evaporative emissions of the vehicle. For example, in urban areas
such as Beijing, the authorities introduced oxygenates in fuel to reduce the quantity of
CO emissions during the winter to decrease the volatility as well as reduce evaporative
HC emissions during hot seasons. The study in Limpopo province did not go as far as
unpacking the evaporative components of the emissions but fuel stations consulted in
South Africa showed that, the concern is on the sulphur content of the fuel (Jumadi
& Zailani 2011) and (Murphy & Posit 2003). The practice of standardizing fuel
quality in South Africa is to make sure that fuel consumption no matter the make of
the vehicle, capacity and geographical location have access to the same category of
the fuel. This practice is to ensure a year-round gasoline standard across the county
with respect to emission control as a strategy. However, it is important to note that
the emission of vehicles at the province are difficult to measure. However, with
respect to the concerns raised by the respondents on awareness campaign, 86% of
them indicated that it is important to determine in the future the relevant policy and
regulatory frameworks on the use of hybrid vehicles in South Africa, (Technology
Fuels Green Efforts 2003).
5.4.9 Inspection of Vehicles in Limpopo Province
Measures to track malfunctioning vehicles in Limpopo Province and in South Africa

in general are undertaken by road traffic officers during road inspection of vehi-
cles. However, 83% of the commuters indicated that traffic officers were more
concerned with driving offences such as drink-driving, over-speeding, overflowing
than checking vehicle emissions. A trajectory of 56 road traffic officers and private
car owners were requested to indicate their observations with respect to vehicle
inspection in 2016, in line with a similar exercise by (Istrfi & Chico 2013). Their
responses are shown in Table 5.4.
The investigation in Limpopo did not deal directly with the measurements of
the distribution of vehicle with respect to HC emission because the emphasis was
on respondents experiences with categories of testing in the province. In order to
ascertain the opinion of traffic officers, private car owners and vehicle repairers were
targeted to provide their experience in the last 5 years with vehicle testing in the
categories indicated. The same questions were administered to all the respondents to
ensure the validity of the answers and to cross-check contradictory answers. What
60
Table 5.4 Respondents experience with vehicle licensing in Limpopo Province, 2016
Category of Number of District Municipalities Vehicle test categories
respondents respondents Vehicle test category Meet standard % Did not meet standard %
Traffic 6 Vhembe Thulamela No. of vehicles tested 30 53.6 26 46.6
Officers for road traffic offenders
Truck Drivers 8 Sekhukhune Tubatse Over speeding 46 82 10 17.9
Taxi Drivers 10 Mopani Greater Giyani Vehicle emission check 51 91.15 5 8.9
Bus Drivers 6 Waterberg Polokwane Number of vehicles 21 37.5 62.5
observed with exhaust
smoke
Private car 10 Capricorn Mogalakwena Vehicle road worthiness 54 94 3 5.1
owners checks
Total 56
Authors field data, 2016
P. B. Bikam
was interesting in the Limpopo field survey was that 53.6% of the respondents as
against 46.4% indicated that road traffic officers do conduct checks but without
devices by merely undertaking observation inspection of the vehicles. 52% of the
traffic officers interviewed in Limpopo province indicated that most of their routine
checks on vehicles were mainly for reckless driving, and over-speeding. The most
interesting part was when the respondents were requested to indicate whether they
have experienced vehicle emission checks by traffic officers and 91.1% of them as
against 8.9% indicated none. This means that the priority for road traffic officers were
centred on roads accidents avoidance than the inspection of vehicles to determine
greenhouse emission levels as indicated by a similar study conducted in China.
5.4.9.1 Enforcement of Traffic Regulations in Limpopo Province
On the enforcement of traffic regulation, 92% of the respondents indicated that to

drive a car in South Africa, one must go through a stringent driving test. The study
showed that the accumulation of driving distance i.e., per capita km travelled can
increase greenhouse emissions. In the rural areas of Limpopo where vehicle checks
are less frequent, vehicles older than 10 years were still in use in 2016. 67% of the
respondents indicated that they have owned motor-vehicles which were out of their
service plans. In a study conducted by (Vashon & Klassen 2006) on vehicle emission
and testing it was discovered that 50% of total vehicle emitting CO and HC in rural
areas were from vehicles older than 10 years. The study in Limpopo showed that 47%
of the respondents were not in favour of scrapping vehicles older than 10 years in
Limpopo because according to them it will affect those who earn less than R3500.00
per month and own a car. The reasons they gave for not scrapping old vehicles was
that those who spent more than 10% of their disposable income on transport cannot
afford to have their vehicle scrapped (Vashon & Klassen 2006). If vehicles older
than 10 years were scrapped in Limpopo province, majority of the vehicles in the
rural areas will be phased out but carbon emissions will be reduced. In addition to
this, most taxis, buses and private vehicle owners depend on such old vehicles to
commute and make a means of livelihood in the rural areas (SEPA 1999a, b).
5.5 Recommendations
The literature on vehicular emission shows that the subject is very wide and complex.
However, the literature review and the field study results also showed that as a
developing country, South Africa should in the nearest future focus on the prospects
of green transport technology to ensure that compliance and control over vehicle
emission is achieved to reduce greenhouse emission. With respect to the vehicle
management, emission control and management in Limpopo province, 82% of the
respondents indicated that with respect to green transport economy there is need
to re-skill those in the transport industry with respect to hybrid vehicles. This will
62 P. B. Bikam
Table 5.5 Relevant skills required to upscale the control of emission in a green transport economy
Skills suggested based on the findings Elements of the skills
Green IT technology (technicians and GIS To learn new softwares relevant to green
experts) transport technology and interpretation of
graphics symbols
Emission control handling skills (technical To be able to operate and test equipment such as
experts: electrical, chemists, safety batteries, bio-fuel, electrical wires etc.
technicians etc.) To be able to identify motor vehicle emission
levels and their effects on the environment
Heavy vehicle emission systems repair To be able to repair heavy vehicle that use
procedures for biofuel (mechanics/biofuel bio-fuel and undertake post repair testing to
technicians, electricians etc.) ensure control
Skills on moto vehicle emission control Training on new legislations that may be needed
legislations and standards setting (legal when green energy transport technologies are
experts) introduced
Moto vehicle green standards skills (greens To be able to undertake visual inspections of
skills traffic control officers) vehicle emission control system such as
particulates filters, catalytic converters,
crankcase ventilation. In addition to this be able
to detect excessive emissions i.e. hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, oxide of nitrogen and also
examine excessive consumption of fuel
Green vehicle component repair skills To be able to undertake green transport vehicle
(general mechanic skills) component repairs skills such as removal of
parts, replace and adjustment procedures,
dismantle, repair re-assemble and adjustment
procedures
require an awareness campaign and the redesign of curriculums in transport related

fields of study. Table 5.5 shows some of the relevant skills that may be required in
the future.
Table 5.5 shows some of the skills that will be needed to enhance new green trans-
port technologies such as hybrid cars, bio-fuel cars, emission control mechanisms
and software etc.
5.6 Conclusions
The study in Limpopo province on vehicle management, emission control and

management in South Africa has showed that measuring greenhouse gas emissions
is still in its infancy. In addition to this, several issues complicate the subject because
new vehicle technologies will be required to ensure stricter fuel quality to gradually
improve the situations. The case study in Limpopo province and the desktop review of
literature have shown that the quality of existing fuel falls below the hybrid vehicles
in terms of emission control. Vehicle emission control in South Africa will require
stricter vehicle emission standards to be implemented step by step taking along all the
stakeholders in the transport industry. The study showed that awareness campaigns
on emission control need to be emphasised to sensitise people on current emission
standard in the province and in South Africa in general. These require re-skilling
across the whole value chain in the transport sector. Similarly to enforce vehicle
emissions in South Africa will require policies that will carry along the stakeholders
in terms of re-skilling.
The advantage with hybrid vehicles is that they have the potential to reduce emis-
sion by 25 MtCO2e per amount by 2050 (Mercure & Lam 2015). The cost of savings
will account for R385 per ton, CO2e for petrol with the use of plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles. It is pertinent to note that more research to explain the concept of green trans-
port to the public is needed i.e., workshops. The introduction of new hybrid cars in the
nearest future with respect to management of transportation systems should focus on
regulating urban transport via the introduction of the BRT and improvements of road
network quality, improving transport operation conditions and enforcing gradually
stricter regulations and standards with respect to old vehicles in rural areas of South
Africa.
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Chapter 6
Skills and Knowledge Transfer
for Transitioning into the Green
Economy
John Ogony Odiyo, Agnes Musyoki, and Rachel Makungo
Abstract This chapter aimed at identifying skills required for transitioning into
green economy in the transport sector, preferred careers and institutions, challenges
that could hinder transition to green economy in transport sector in addition to
suggesting policy recommendations in case study carried out Limpopo Province.
Case studies are required to provide insight into the nature of the current situation
with respect to transition to green economy in the transport sector and providing
knowledge and evidence on skills required transition to green transport. The study
followed a qualitative and exploratory methodology involving administering ques-
tionnaire to purposively selected participants and stakeholder workshop aimed at
discussing and debating on required knowledge and skills for transition to green
economy in Limpopo Province, identifying challenges and policy recommendations.
A total of twenty questionnaires were completed while 56 delegates from different
departments and organisations participated in the workshop. A wide range of specific
skills needs within technical, management skills and knowledge on techniques and
skills on innovation and management for change categories, in the transport sector
and their value chains were identified. Many of the skills required in the transport
sector correspond to those required for the general green economy indicating that
the transport sector will also benefit through implementation of the green economy
in all sectors in the province. Most people chose environmental science as the most
suitable career to follow in ensuring green economy. The respondents recognized
the importance of mainstreaming the green economy at all levels of study. Chal-
lenges that could hinder transition to green economy include inadequate training and
awareness programs, lack of existing skills directly related to the green economy at
work places and inadequate funding for skills development in the green economy.
J. O. Odiyo · R. Makungo (B)

Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
e-mail: Rachel.Makungo@univen.ac.za
J. O. Odiyo
e-mail: johno@vut.ac.za
A. Musyoki
Department of Geography and Geo-information Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou,
South Africa

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86178-0_6
Some of the policy recommendations include green growth capacity building for
public administrators and policy makers, knowledge and skills transfer to be iden-
tified following the value chain based on the jobs required for each mode of green
transport, development of methodology to mainstream green economy in all work
places, mainstreaming green economy at all education levels, government to fund
policy and legislation, and research and innovation related to green transport.
Keywords Green economy · Knowledge transfer · Skills · Transport sector
6.1 Introduction
Transition to a resource efficient and low carbon green economy is essential in

reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating climate change by decoupling
future growth from the use of non-renewable fossil fuels and other natural resources
(CSIR 2014). In South Africa transition into a green economy has also been iden-
tified as a key policy area due to its potential to stimulate economic growth and
create sustainable jobs. This will aid in responding to critical development chal-
lenges faced by South Africa which include high levels of unemployment, poverty
and inequality, energy security and climate change (PAGE 2017). However, shortage
of skills shortage in green industries, lack of coordination in training and develop-
ment, as well as the lack of green skills programmes are challenges that needs to
be addressed urgently (ILO 2017), to promote transition to a green economy. In
addition, National Skills Development Strategy III (DHET 2011) identified the need
to develop skills in support of the green economy as a national priority. Having an
increased green skills pool will enable South Africa to proactively implement and
up-scale green economy initiatives (PAGE 2017).
Transition to green transport will include creation of additional jobs in new or
expanding areas, adaptation of jobs to make them greener, substitution of jobs and
elimination of jobs (WHO 2011). With these expectations, specific knowledge and
skills are therefore required in order to transition into the green economy. One of
the key success factors for transitioning to a low-carbon economy in South Africa
include addressing shortages of skills in certain areas, re-skilling and development
of specific skills capabilities (IDC 2012). Despite the accepted notion that transition
to a low carbon economy can be a source of job growth, there is still lack of evidence
from case studies to support this. In addition, understanding what skills are necessary
to make the transition to a greener economy is critical since data on skills profiles in
the green economy is scarce (Slingenberg et al. 2008).
DEA (2010) recommended development of case studies of greening existing skills
by various Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) to demonstrate how
environmental skills planning is being mainstreamed into development within the
context of green economy. Despite this, there is still shortage of studies on identi-
fied skills required for the transition to green economy. PAGE (2016) identified the
learning needs of ‘champions’ in government, business, civil society and academia,
6 Skills and Knowledge Transfer for Transitioning … 67
who drive the transition towards a green economy in diverse policy contexts at
national, provincial or local levels in South Africa. The study did not cover skills
required by the broader working population for participating in a green economy.
A green economy roundtable discussion by Mpumalanga Provincial Government
(2016) noted that there is lack of knowledge transfer and skills development related
to green economy at the local community level in Mpumalanga, resulting to limited
meaningful participation from local communities. This was attributed to low literacy
levels, low economic base and low levels of entrepreneurship. This is likely to be the
case in Limpopo Province which has these similar characteristics.
Though, the Limpopo government in its green economy plan (LEDET 2013) sees
the green economy as an opportunity for economic growth through creating jobs and
eradicating poverty, there is a need to identify the skills required for the green jobs.
Musyoki (2012) has identified utilisation of biofuel and solar energy as options for
transitioning into green economy in Limpopo Province but there is still a need to
profile skills required for jobs that are in these categories and other related ones within
the context of green economy. This case study is aimed at identifying skills required
for transitioning into green economy in the transport sector in Limpopo Province.
In addition, the study ranked preferred careers and institutions and challenges that
could hinder transition to green economy in transport sector in addition to suggesting
policy recommendations. The study contributed knowledge and evidence on skills
required transition to green transport, relevant careers and expected challenges. Such
information is essential improve on the transition and develop strategies to address
challenges on transition to green transport.
6.2 Methodology
The study followed a qualitative and exploratory methodology. Questionnaires were

completed by a key professional green economy researcher, government officials,
and an education stakeholder, individuals in the private sector, university students
and the general public. A total of twenty questionnaires were completed (Table 6.1).
A related study by Brown (2015) also interviewed 20 participants including stake-
holders from transport and Logistics Company, medium and small sized businesses,
Energy Generation Company, green skills centre, amongst others, in Australia. Brown
(2015) emphasized that though the latter study had limited scale and reliability, it
provided insight into the nature of the current situation. It is expected that though
the current study is also of limited scale, it will also provide insight into the nature
of the current situation with respect to transition to green economy in the transport
sector in Limpopo Province.
The participants were purposively selected. They were contacted by phone and
questionnaires sent to them which they returned by email, others were administered
at places of work in August 2016. Some individuals were not willing to participate
in the questionnaire survey due to lack of general knowledge on green economy and
this limited the number of participants in the study.
Table 6.1 List of participants

Participant type No. of participants Profession/organisation
Professional key informant (worked 1 UNISA (green economy researcher)
a long time in Limpopo)
Private transport users 3 Accounting professions
Department of transport 2 1 Assistant Director and 1 logistics
officer (controls transport booking)
Education (teacher) 1 High school teacher
LEDET 3 Deputy director, Assistant director
and an in service trainee
Vhembe district municipality 1 IDP officer
Department of agriculture, forestry 1 Limpopo province
& fisheries
University Students 6 Universal greening organization
(executive)
A green economy project supported
by government and private
stakeholders)
Department of water and sanitation 1 Community development officer
COGHSTA 1 Chief town and regional planner
(Polokwane)
A stakeholder consultation workshop was also conducted to discuss and debate on

required knowledge and skills for transition to green economy in Limpopo Province,
identifying challenges and policy recommendations. A total of 56 delegates from
different departments and organisations including Department of Transport (DoT),
University of South Africa (UNISA), Limpopo Department of Economic Devel-
opment, Environment and Tourism (LEDET), South African National Biodiversity
Institute (SANBI), Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA), Gateway Airports
Authority Limited (GAAL), Capricorn Technical Vocational Education and Training
(TVET), Letaba TVET, Limpopo DoT, Cooperative Governance, Human Settle-
ments and Traditional Affairs (CoGHSTA), AM Consulting Engineers (AMCE),
Polokwane Municipality, Limpopo Premier’s office, Mapfura Makhura Incubator (a
biodiesel organisation), Transport Education and Training Authority (TETA) and
University of Venda (UNIVEN) research team.
6.3 Results and Discussions
6.3.1 Green Jobs and Skills Needs for the Green Economy
in Transport Sector
The respondents identified skills needed for the green economy in general (Table
6.2) which were grouped according to where they best add to the value chains of
main categories of green skills outlined in UK Government (2011). These include
skills that support low carbon transition, resource efficiency, climate resilience and
management of natural resources. The identified generic jobs and skills should be
given priority in Limpopo Province to promote transition into the green economy.
Table 6.3 indicates the identified specific skills needs in the transport sector and
their value chains with respect to alternative sources of fuel and different transport
industries (passenger, freight and logistics, automotive industry (including manu-
facturing and retail)). The skills were identified through stakeholder participation
workshop and interviews. Some of the skills cut across all the categories but were
placed where they add most value. The results show that the respondents had a fair
Table 6.2 Generic jobs and skills for the green economy
Support low carbon Support resource Support climate Manage natural
transition efficiency resilience resources
• Business and • Water quality waste • Environmental • Environmental
financial accounting and pollution education science
(carbon and natural management • Technical skills • Project management
environment • Environmental • Engineering skills • Environmental
accounting) management • Modelling and impacts assessment
• Fuel saving • Skills to adopt interpreting climate (quantification of
knowledge technologies change projections impacts)
(appreciate use of • Environmental • Risk management • Management of
buses and bicycles) science • Hydrological skills natural resources
• Energy generation • Recycling • Communication • Indigenous
skills • Land use planning skills knowledge skills
• Skills to minimise • Operator level • Policy development
carbon emissions actions to maximise
• Interpretation of resource efficiency
environmental (reduce waste in
legislation production)
• Design and • Marketing and
technologies, interpersonal skills
products processes • Pollution
increasing resource
efficiency
• Legislation
• Entrepreneurial
skills (business
start-ups)
Table 6.3 Skills needs for green transport

Alternative fuel (bio Passenger and Automotive industry Freight and logistics
fuel) alternative transport
• Environmental • Ability to identify • Industrial • Coordination
sciences green but engineering • Marketing
• Chemical economically viable • Environmental • Interpersonal skills
engineering transport engineering • Communication
• Biofuel production alternatives • Mechanical skills
• Power supply • Understanding of engineering • Communication
technology the legislative • Chemical • Organisational skills
• Research skills benefits for moving engineering • Mobility
• Education on use of into the green • Mining engineering management and
alternative fuel economy in • Technological advice
• Air quality transport (tax engineering • Freight logistics and
• Environmental benefits) • Information management
change detection • Tourism communication • Data management
management technology • Refrigerated storage
• Pollution control
• Manufacturing of • Construction of skills
• Global warming
buses electric cars • Freight transport
prevention
• Bicycle • Solar car technology management
• Value chain analysis maintenance • Skills to minimise (logistics)
• Green procurement • Use of traditional carbon emissions • Risk mitigation and
• Stakeholder transport modes • Design and adaptation
engagements (e.g. animals) technologies, • GIS
• Accounting for
• Car-pool products processes • Town and regional
natural environment
• Awareness increasing resource planning
campaign efficiency • Modelling and
organisation interpreting climate
• Efficient driving change projections
• Public transport
access
• Construction of bus
stops, train stations
and road
maintenance
• Legal compliance
• Operator level
actions to maximise
resource efficiency
(reduce waste in
production)
• Risk management
understanding of specific skills that would be required to transition into a green trans-
port but that many of these skills are still lacking. Many of the skills required in the
transport sector correspond to those required for the general green economy. Thus,
implementation of the green economy in all sectors of the Limpopo economy will
have positive impact in the transport sector.
Maclean et al. (2018) identified specific skills in green transport to include training
in infrastructure labour, operation and maintenance, production of more resource-
efficient vehicles and their maintenance, research and development in alternative
fuel technology, transport infrastructure design and engineering; and public transport
network construction, in Asian countries including India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and
Viet Nam. Most of the identified skills are comparable to those identified in this study
indicating that skills required for green jobs in the transport sector are likely to be
similar in most countries. OECD (2014) reported that in addition to technical skills
(for example research or engineering skills), management skills and knowledge on
techniques (to become more energy efficient, reduce waste generation and pollution),
skills on innovation and management for change (communication skills) are also
required to transition to green economy. These are some of the skills that were also
identified by respondents in the Limpopo Province case study. Thus, identified skills
fit within technical, management skills and knowledge on techniques and skills on
innovation and management for change categories.
6.3.2 Ranking of Preferred Careers and Institutions

for Transition to Green Economy in the Transport
Sector
Careers listed in Table 6.4 were found to be relevant to green economy in trans-
port sector in Limpopo Province by the respondents. Most people chose environ-
mental science as the most suitable career to follow in ensuring green economy,
followed by engineering. This career choice if pursued will support the Limpopo
Province’s green economy plan (LEDET 2013) which views green economy as local
production and consumption, efficient use of energy and water and care of natural
and created resources thereby providing socially and environmentally solutions to
Table 6.4 Preferred career

Career type Rank
for the green economy in
transport sector Environmental science 1
Engineering 2
Computer technology 6
Education (teachers and lecturers) 5
Electronics 10
Bio-technology and biological sciences 3
Management Sciences 4
Legislation 5
Nuclear and renewable energy 9
Drivers and technicians 8
Table 6.5 Preferred

Institution Rank
institutions
University 1
University of technology 3
FET colleges 2
SETA 4
economic exclusion and resource degradation, since all these are issues of concern
within the field of environmental sciences.
Education training is important from primary, secondary and tertiary institutions
and was considered to be the third choice of preference in ensuring transition to
green economy. The need to study law in order to implement policies that will
ensure that daily activities will align with the goal to go green was ranked number
five. Careers in technology are important for ensuring development of green cars and
machinery hence was ranked number six followed by bio-technology and biological
sciences. The need to train drivers and technicians though important to green trans-
port was ranked number eight. Any mode of transportation rely on energy input,
however respondents find the study of nuclear and renewable energy not that impor-
tant ranking it at second last number nine. Career in electronics was found least
suitable in going green and ranked number ten. One would conclude that as much as
all these anticipated career choices have some input with respect to various respon-
dent’s perspectives, the idea of going fully green in transport sector will not require
just one field of study but the integration of various studies balanced together to
achieve the ultimate goal of green economy not just in Limpopo but in South Africa
as a whole.
Institutions preferred for accessing knowledge and training in green economy
in transport skills are indicated on Table 6.5. Although respondents recognized the
importance of all levels of education, universities and FETs were ranked highest
while university of technology and SETAs were least. This implies that respondents
recognized the importance of mainstreaming the green economy at all levels of study.
Lethoko (2014) reported that transition to green economy will require a complete
overhaul of the education system from pre-primary up to tertiary level, creating the
need to look closely at the training that is being offered within secondary schools,
vocational schools and tertiary institutions such as universities and universities of
technology in South Africa. Nenngwekhulu (2017) also noted that since green growth
requires higher education qualification for both high and low profile positions, it is
important to ascertain the teaching gap so that graduates and unskilled unemployed
people can be trained to acquire green jobs. This also confirms that mainstreaming
the green economy at all levels of study will ensure inclusion people in both high
and low profile positions in green transport.
The results indicated the need for a combination of both three to four years degree
programmes as well as short courses (Table 6.6). The three to four year degree
programmes were preferred by more respondents. This is likely to be due to that
Table 6.6 Training

Training preference % of respondents
preference
Three to four year degree programmes 57.7%
Short courses 42.3%
the majority of the respondents (Table 6.1) were university students and government
officials who would aspire to acquire university qualifications.
6.3.3 Challenges that Could Hinder Transition to Green

Economy in Transport Sector and Suggested Policy
Recommendations
Identified challenges that could hinder transition to green economy include inade-
quate training and awareness programs, lack of existing skills directly related to the
green economy at work places and inadequate funding for skills development in the
green economy (Fig. 6.1). The study in Limpopo Province found that most organi-
sations (70%) did not have training and awareness programmes on green transport
(Fig. 6.1). Environmental issues are not considered seriously in most organisations
while a few respondents indicated that driving skills and use of fuel with low sulphur
content are encouraged at their organisations. Workshops are concentrated on safety
and misuse of avoidance initiatives, though conducting such programs is limited by
lack of funds.
100
90
80
70
Respondents (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Training and awareness Exisng skills on green Adequacy of informaon on
programmes transport transport and the green
economy
Yes No
Fig. 6.1 Responses on training and awareness, existing skills on green transport and adequacy of
information on transport and the green economy in Limpopo Province
Most of the respondents (75%) indicated that they did not have any skills directly
related to green transport but the skills that they have could be improved through re-
training and short courses. Nenngwekhulu (2017) also noted that the major limiting
factor in the development of a green economy in Gauteng Province is the availability
of the appropriate skills and policies to enable such developments. Thus, lack of
skills is also expected to affect transition to green economy in transport sector within
Limpopo Province. A few (25%) respondents indicated that they had skills in driving
to minimise emissions and save petrol. An example is that ‘cars must be driven in the
right gear and at the right speed’ as they noted. They felt that more environmental
education was necessary at various businesses and establishments. A few respon-
dents (especially students) felt that their training was relevant to the green economy
especially courses taken in botany, chemistry, biological sciences, environmental
sciences, ecology and resource management, pollution prevention. They, however,
raised the need to mainstream the green economy in the curriculum. Hence, the need
to develop tailor made training to the needs of various organisations was identified.
The study found that most organisations (95%) are struggling in raising funding to
support programmes to transition into the green economy. A key stakeholder strongly
felt that the transition should primarily be funded through existing budgetary allo-
cations without further burdening the fiscus. It was felt that private and government
entities should seek to redirect funding to promote green alternatives throughout their
operations. The respondents’ view was that only limited tax incentives should be
granted to entities to support investments in the green economy. Nhemachena et al.
(2015) indicated that barriers constraining the implementation of green economy
initiatives in the municipalities within in Limpopo Province include lack of informa-
tion, shortage of workers with full knowledge on green economy, shortage of training
programmes on green economy and costs of implementation. This challenges are
similar to those identified in this study.
Table 6.7 indicates policy recommendations to be considered for implemen-
tation in Limpopo Province to promote transitioning into the green economy in
transport sector. These were obtained from questionnaire findings and discussions
with stakeholders. In comparison with findings from related studies, Nhemachena
et al. (2015) recommended improve awareness of green economy activities across
all levels in Limpopo Province. Amis et al. (2018) also noted that there is a great
need for increased awareness, shift in practice, and skilling and re-skilling to follow
through the commitments made in government strategies and policies in South Africa.
ILO (2011) reported that a lot of public policies are inadequate in addressing the
skills component of adaptation and mitigation policies. Thus, the identified policy
recommendations can be used to fill this gap in Limpopo Province in South Africa.
6.4 Conclusions
Skills required for transitioning into green economy in the transport sector preferred
careers and institutions, challenges that could hinder transition to green economy
Table 6.7 Short, medium and long term policy recommendations

Short and medium term Long term
• Making use of existing institutions such as • Mainstreaming green economy in university,
University of Venda, University of Limpopo, college and school curriculum
TVETs, FET Colleges • Tax incentives should be provided to
• Green growth capacity building for public companies that invest in green economy
administrators and policy makers initiatives and training
• Knowledge and skills transfer to be identified • Skills developed at all levels on sustainable
following the value chain based on the jobs public transportation
required for each mode of green transport: • Government to fund policy and legislation,
– Bicycle repairs, manufacturing of and research and innovation related to green
batteries for green cars, trains with green transport
lighting and security • National land transport act to include green
– Transforming jobs: a mechanic who used economy considerations
to repair petrol buses maybe trained to • Non-motorized transport usage and
become an electrical mechanic infrastructure development in all major towns
– Drivers should be reskilled to become • National transport policy in which training is
train drivers, security conductors, ticket a standing item
sellers, for example, within the rail system • Providing transport service providers and
• Polokwane City’s strategies to uplift local their users with monetary incentives to
skills as a means of investing in local encourage them to use transport alternatives
knowledge should be replicated in other which promote green economy
areas of Limpopo • Implement policy on use of biogas
• Taxi recapitalization for example, provides • Enforce transport and climate change
regulatory framework for knowledge and policies
skills transfer • Corporations in the transport industry should
• Public education for car owners be the main funders of such initiatives. The
• University students to be supported and training programs should form part of
encouraged to promote green awareness industries’ Corporate Social Investment
• Enforce adherence to environmental ethics (CSI) initiatives
• Public transport usage be encouraged • Businesses to make donation to support
• Training shop stewards to disseminate training which tax is deductible
information to their members
• A budget is needed for awareness activities
of union members
• Methodology to be developed on
mainstreaming green economy in all work
places
• Mandatory training should be provided to
staff. The implementation of green initiatives
should be added to performance agreements
of employees with points awarded for skills
obtained and initiatives supported
in transport sector in addition to suggesting policy recommendations in Limpopo

Province were identified in this study. A wide range of specific skills needs in
the transport sector and their value chains with respect to alternative sources of
fuel and different transport industries (passenger, freight and logistics, automotive
industry (including manufacturing and retail)) were identified. The identified skills
were within technical, management skills and knowledge on techniques and skills
on innovation and management for change categories, which are equally important
for transition to green economy in the transport sector. The study found that many of
the skills required in the transport sector correspond to those required for the general
green economy. Thus, implementation of the green economy in all sectors of the
Limpopo economy will have positive impact in the transport sector.
Most people chose environmental science as the most suitable career to follow in
ensuring green economy, followed by engineering. Although respondents recognized
the importance of all levels of education, universities and FETs were ranked highest
while university of technology and SETAs were least. This implies that respondents
recognized the importance of mainstreaming the green economy at all levels of study.
Identified challenges that could hinder transition to green economy include inade-
quate training and awareness programs, lack of existing skills directly related to the
green economy at work places and inadequate funding for skills development in the
green economy. Some of the identified policy recommendations include green growth
capacity building for public administrators and policy makers, knowledge and skills
transfer should be identified following the value chain based on the jobs required for
each mode of green transport, development of methodology on mainstreaming green
economy in all work places, mainstreaming green economy in university, college
and school curriculum, government to fund policy and legislation, and research and
innovation related to green transport.
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Chapter 7
Regulatory Frameworks, Policies, Norms
and Standards
James Chakwizira
Abstract This chapter provides a review of policies, strategies, and regulations in

the transport sector. The narrative plays out in terms of outlining national, provin-
cial, and local application dimensions and impacts of transport using green trans-
port lenses. The different application scales for transport policies, strategies and
regulations as enunciated through different spheres of government constitutes the
main thread of the discussion. In any case, the impact and outcomes of government
and non-governmental transport intervention are discussed from a green transport
perspective. Complementary to this, the role and scope for norms and standards in
promoting green transport policy, innovation and activities is outlined. A thematic
approach is used in unpacking green transport issues with respect to transport in
Limpopo province. The analysis is anchored within the green transport systems
theory of innovation framework.
Keywords Green transport · Norms and standards · Policies · Strategies ·

Regulations · Systems
7.1 Introduction
Literature review corroborates that transport has long been acknowledged as being
the heartbeat of South Africa’s economic growth and social development (Dewar
and Todeschini 2017; Dimitrov 2012; Plan 2010; Walters 2013). Thus, transport
is a proven structuring element and instrument for building and developing local,
regional, and international markets, facilitates inter and intra-trade, linking and
connecting people, places, spaces with communities across the world. However, at
the same time, the transport sector is heavily reliant on conventional, fossil-based
fuels and therefore, contributes to the problem of not only climate change but poor
J. Chakwizira (B)
Urban and Regional Planning, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
e-mail: 26878208@nwu.ac.za

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86178-0_7
80 J. Chakwizira
urban quality, given that the road sub-sector is the fastest growing in developing
countries like South Africa (Broto and Bulkeley 2013; Creutzig et al. 2015; Jennings
2015a, b; Turner 2017). Greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector are
said to be the fastest growing but, at the same time, the sector as a whole also
offers the highest climate change mitigation potential, estimated at around 34% if
appropriate mitigation interventions are to be made (Borel-Saladin and Turok 2013;
Bulkeley 2013; Chakwizira et al. 2011; Davoudi et al. 2009; Farid 2016; Meyer
et al. 2007; Wilbanks et al. 2012). A green transport strategy is necessary in the
transport sector as part and parcel of contributing to the “National Climate Change
Response Policy and the Green Economy Accord, but also implementation of
Chapter 5 of the National Development Plan” (Gupta and Laubscher 2017; Jennings
2015a, b; Labuschagne and Ribbens 2014). Under commitment 9 of the Green
Economy Accord, the Department of Transport has committed to reducing carbon
emissions on national roads. However, the transport sector makes contributions that
cut across other Accord commitments, such as commitment 4 on energy efficiency
and commitment 6 on biofuels (Borel-Saladin and Turok 2013; Brent 2016; Death
2014; Mohamed et al. 2014). Exploring the implications of policies, strategies,
regulations, norms, and standards in the transport sector is therefore an important
aspect in the quest to transition to a low carbon economy in South Africa.
Addressing climate change through a transport lense requires cooperation by govern-

ment and non-government sectors operating at different spatial scales (Bobbins and
Culwick 2015, Broto and Bulkeley 2013, Cilliers and Camp 2013; National Planning
Commission 2013b; Oranje and Merrifield 2010). The issue of transport justice and
equity has increasingly gained prominence in literature emphasising the cardinal role
that transport interventions can contribute towards spatial transformation aimed at
tackling spatial fragmentation and automobile dependent high energy consumption
systems and spatial set-up, typical of the post-apartheid South African settlement
system (Davoudi et al. 2009; Jennings 2015a, b; Schalekamp and Behrens 2010;
Venter 2013). The need to address spatial mismatches between job density and
opportunities with location of residential areas especially for low-income earners
remain a stubborn matter requiring decisive measures in post-apartheid South Africa
(Farid 2016; Musyoki 2012; Rogerson 2017). At the same time spatial fragmentation
continues to manifest in the form of social exclusion, deprivation and perpetuated
disadvantages for marginal and low-income settlement residents in South Africa
(Chakwizira et al. 2011; Dimitrov 2012; Van Wyk 2015; Walters 2014). The fractured
and splintered nature of settlements encourages spatial and housing settlement gentri-
fication which reinforces inherited inequities, encourages continued growth, and use
of private motors cars (Bruwer and Andersen 2015; Chakwizira 2015, 2016; Dewar
and Todeschini 2017; Turok 2012). The automobile dependent economy places a
high premium on energy consumption as well as generation of green-house gases
7 Regulatory Frameworks, Policies, Norms and Standards 81
in the atmosphere leading to climate change (Banister 2011; Bulkeley 2013; Dickey
2017; Viitanen and Kingston 2014; Wilbanks et al. 2012). The impact of climate
changes entails the need to rethink spatial and settlement planning, infrastructure,
and mobility systems in both urban and rural areas (Creutzig et al. 2015; Dulal
et al. 2011; Hickman et al. 2010; Marsden and Rye 2010; Meyer et al. 2007; Stanley
et al. 2011; Turner 2017; Wilbanks et al. 2012). While transport policies, framework,
legislation, norms and standards, surveys and studies have been conducted at interna-
tional and national level, similar studies have not been cascaded and implemented at
provincial and local level to the same degree with particular reference to South Africa
(Koma 2010; Montmasson-Clair 2012; Mtembu and Pillay 2017; Nhemachena et al.
2015; Economic Policy Reforms 2010; Wentworth 2014). A study that therefore
focuses on green transport economy in Limpopo becomes instructional as it seeks
to unravel the nuances and subtle matters linked to transport policies, framework,
legislation, norms, and standards at the provincial, district and local level within
the purview of a predominantly rural province in South Africa. Understanding the
implications that appropriate and adequate transport policies, framework, legisla-
tion, norms, and standards, play in anchoring a low carbon economy is therefore of
fundamental importance.
7.3 Research Methodology
The empirical research approach employed involved interviews with Key Informants
(KI). The chapter utilizes a case study approach of Limpopo province to unpack
the green transport policies, framework, legislation, norms and standards matters.
Case studies have been argued to be an appropriate methodology for gaining in-
depth insights of a phenomena and process through the application of the attitudes,
knowledge, awareness and practices (AKAP) tool or methodology as exercised in this
instance (Casey and Houghton 2010; Mahlatji 2013; Montmasson-Clair 2012). Case
studies also arise from the need to understand complex socio-economic dynamic
matters such as the link and implications that green transport policies, framework,
legislation, norms, and standards pose within the transport governance framework
and system (Geels 2011; Lawhon and Murphy 2012; Yin 2003).
7.3.1 Questionnaire Survey
A research questionnaire with 26 close and open-ended questions was developed

to guide the interview process. Researcher assistants were drawn from the Trans-
port, Education and Training Authority (TETA) Sponsored project master’s student
cohort. The researchers were trained in the questionnaire survey methodology and
administration by the Senior researcher responsible for the theme. The question-
naire was pilot tested within the project team at the University prior to being tested
82 J. Chakwizira
at the TETA Workshop with participants held at Polokwane Ranch Hotel. During
the workshop the questionnaire was shared with delegates for feedback and input
aimed at further strengthening the questionnaire format, questioning style, format,
organisation, general flow, and relevance of questions for the subject under investi-
gation. Through these exercises, combined questions that needed to be open ended
and those that required being coded and close ended questions were identified and
developed. The final outcome of the series of internal and external peer review of the
questionnaire instrument was the final questionnaire that was used in executing the
research project. In any case, the Client (TETA) was also consulted for approval prior
to administering questionnaire interviews in the field. Overall, the methodology for
data collection employed was purposive random sampling focusing on selected key
stakeholders in the province.
7.3.2 Stakeholder Mapping and Consultation
A list of key transport and green transportation related database was generated in
consultation with TETA. Table 7.1 presents the transportation stakeholder list which
was consulted to gain insights and knowledge on green transport issues in Limpopo
province.
7.3.3 Secondary Data Analysis
Studies that deal with legislation requires document analysis of policy, strategy, and
legislative documents available in the public domain. Table 7.2 presents the list
of documents consulted and analysed for gaps, opportunities, and issues regarding
transition towards a green transport in Limpopo province.
From Tables 7.1 and 7.2 we can deduce that a mixed research method was used.
Central to the operationalization of the mixed method was the use of the snow-
ball technique in assisting to address key issues. Techniques such as gap analysis
and strength, weakness, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis were utilised
in identifying the challenges that existing policy, legal and strategic transport and
transport related documents present in the context of Limpopo Province.
7.3.4 Analytical Framework
Thematic analysis of policy, strategy and legislative documents covering green trans-
port was conducted within the purview of the green transport systems theory of inno-
vation framework. The spatial and human settlement planning and management
models of polycentric and monocentric nodes/hubs, central place theory, transplant
Table 7.1 Sample list of stakeholders consulted in the Green Transport Project in Limpopo province
Government Universities and Research institutions Members of
departments educational professional bodies
institutions consulted
“Department of University of Council for Scientific & South African Planning
Transport (DoT)” Venda Industrial Research Institute (SAPI)
(CSIR)
“Limpopo Department University of South African Council
of Roads and Limpopo of Planners
Transport” (SACPLAN)
“Department of Roads, University of Engineering Council of
Public Infrastructure Johannesburg South Africa (ECSA)
and Planning”
“Limpopo Department TVET Vhembe South African
of Economic Institution of Civil
Development and Engineering (SAICE)
Tourism (LEDET)”
“Department of Council on Built
Economic Affairs” Environment (CBE)
“The Department of
Cooperative
Governance, Human
Settlements and
Traditional Affairs
(CoGHSTA)”
“South African Local
Government
Association
(SALGA)”
cities and rural areas, industrial satellite cities, cluster cities and regions, hub and
spoke urban and rural areas, university towns, resource and tourism based cities,
functional settlement and regions as well as transport governance and innovation
systems are the building blocks in unpacking green transport policies, framework,
legislation, norms and standards in Limpopo province (Chakwizira and Mashiri 2009,
2017; Geels 2011; Lember et al. 2011).
84 J. Chakwizira
Table 7.2 Sample list of legal, policy and strategic documents consulted for the Green Transport
Project in Limpopo province
Legal document Policy documents Strategic documents
Spatial Planning, Land use and Rural Transport Policy Limpopo Provincial Growth
Management (SPLUMA) (2007) and Development Plan
(2013) (2009–2014)
National Environmental Public Transport Strategy & Limpopo Land Transport
Management Act (NEMA) Policy (2007) Framework (2009)
(2008)
Municipal Structures Act National Development Plan Limpopo Freight Databank &
(MSA) (1998) (2030) Policy (2011)
Municipal Systems Act (MSA) New Growth Path (2011) Limpopo Spatial Development
(2003) Plan (2016)
National Land Transport Act Sustainable Development Limpopo Spatial Development
(NLTA) (2009) Goals (2016) Plan (2007)
Limpopo Green Integrated Development Plans
Economy Plan (2013) (IDPs)—All Municipalities in
Limpopo
The Moving South Africa Integrated Transport Plans
(MSA) study (1998) (ITPs)—All Municipalities in
Limpopo Province
“National Freight Strategy National Master Plan (2050)
(2005)”
“The National Land Limpopo Rural Transport Plan
Transport Strategic (2009)
Framework (2012–2017)”
The Industrial Policy Action Energy Efficiency Strategy
Plan (2011/12–2013/14) (2005)
National Strategy for White Paper on National
Sustainable Development Transport Policy (1996)
2011–2014 (NSSD1)
National Climate Change National Climate Change
Response Policy (NCCRP), Response White Paper (2011)
2011
“Draft Policy and Strategy
Framework for Green
Economy in the Context of
Sustainable Development:
Towards Implementation of
the National Development
Plan, 2014”
7.4 Discussion of Research Findings and Results
7.4.1 Status Quo of South Africa’s Transport Policy

and Legislative Framework with Respect to Green
Transport
The status quo within “South Africa’s transport sector has been informed by a number
of legislative and policy documents, most of which have been developed since the
advent of a new democratic dispensation, and some of which have been inherited
from previous dispensations” (Walters 2013, 2014). “The Constitution Act 108 of
1996 mandates the President and other members of Cabinet with the responsibility
to develop national policy” (McKay et al. 2017). “This mandate places responsibility
on the Minister of Transport to ensure that any development and implementation of
national transport policy by the DoT addresses the mobility needs of all citizens”
(Chakwizira 2016; Goetz and Schaeffler 2015). “The Constitution assigns different
roles and responsibilities to each sphere of Government. With specific reference to
transport matters, Schedule 4 Part A of the Constitution assigns Public Transport
as a functional area over which both the National and Provincial governments have
concurrent jurisdiction, whilst Local Government has a responsibility for Municipal
Public Transport” (Marsay and Seobi 2010; Schalekamp and Behrens 2010). The
Constitution does not, however, define Public Transport nor does it make reference
to green transport. Table 7.3 presents a high-level summary of instructive national
policy frameworks and strategic documents supporting the green economy.
In short, Table 7.3 presents that South Africa’s short, medium and long-term
national spatial and transportation vision includes the need to plan for environ-
mentally sustainable, climate-change resilience, and a transition to a low-carbon
economy and just society (National Planning Commission 2013a). Pursuant to the
need to monitor and evaluate progress with respect to moving “towards a green
economy” strategy, green economy indicators were identified, which also cover the
transport domain (Goetz and Schaeffler 2015; Mtembu and Pillay 2017). However, to
date finding data for the measurement of the green economy indicators has however
proved to be a challenge and in particular for the various sub-sectors in the trans-
port industry (Bobbins and Culwick 2015). Inclusive green transport thus entails the
robust deployment of fuel efficiency for public and private vehicles as a critical part
of both the energy and transport policies (Pasquini et al. 2015). Efforts in the energy
sector to move toward green transport also include the use of clean fuels to minimize
pollution (Labuschagne and Ribbens 2014). As a result, the use of natural gas is an
alternate fuel to gasoline and diesel which is being actively explored—for public
transport fleets in the short term and for private vehicles in the longer term.
86 J. Chakwizira
7.4.2 Green Transport Strategy
In the interim, the current Mid-Term Strategic Framework period, the Department
of Transport has finalised and approved the Green Transport Strategy (GTS) and
Implementation Plan, 2018. The GTS is a strategic document that complements
Table 7.3 National policy frameworks and strategy documents supporting green economy and
transport in South Africa
Policy framework Provision Implications for the transport
sector and green transport
“National Strategy for “The NSSD1 identifies “The need to transit to low
Sustainable Development “towards a green economy” as transport technologies”
2011–2014 (NSSD1)” being one of the five key
priorities for the transition
towards a green economy
encompassing green transport
sector growth and
management”
“National Development Plan “Green economy discussion is “The need to explore alternative
(NDP), 2011” largely orientated around the sources of fuel for the transport
promotion of renewable sector”
energy, application of energy “The need to move towards
efficient technologies, public transport systems rather
developing a resource efficient than retain a motorised
low carbon economy in which approach to development”
clear strategies for both “The need for compact, smart
adapting and reducing the and integrated urban and rural
carbon emissions from the settlements”
transport sector are clearly
articulated”
“2020 New Growth Plan “The 2020 New Growth Plan “Implications regarding
(Accord 4: Green Economy identifies the Green Economy transport sector green industries
Accord), 2011” as being one of the key sectors and value chain promotion and
for growth. The Green development”
Economy Accord prioritises “The need to anchor transport
green industries and sector green procurement
manufacturing through a systems in the industry and
localised strategy that uses the beyond”
enormous spending on climate “Provision and deployment of
change-induced technologies transport sector green
to create local industrial infrastructure investment and
capacity, local jobs and local incentives”
technological innovation. The “Transport sector green road,
opportunities in the green rail, aviation and maritime
economy are described as construction and building
varied and include energy materials”
efficiency, recycling, green
buildings and biofuels”
(continued)

“National Climate Change “The NCCRP aims to promote “Transport sector green skills,
Response Policy (NCCRP), investment in human and capacity building and training”
2011” productive resources that will “Transport sector knowledge
facilitate the growth of the economy”
green economy and that “Transport sector creative and
government will have to innovation economy”
increase the mobility of labour
and capital out of carbon
intensive sectors and industries
and move towards greener
productive sectors and
industries”
“Industrial Policy Action “The IPAP identifies green “Transport sector green industry
Plan (IPAP), 2013” industries as being a priority development roadmap
area and supports the state’s implementation plan”
comprehensive and integrated
drive to scale up industrial
policy by developing and
designing sector-specific
incentives for strategic areas,
including the green industry
area”
“Draft Policy and Strategy “The Draft Policy and Strategy “Green transport is part of the
Framework for Green Framework states that in terms wider green economy enabling
Economy in the Context of of the 2010 green economy and intervention framework”
Sustainable Development: deliberations, South Africa
Towards Implementation of views a green economy as a
the National Development sustainable development path
Plan, 2014” based on addressing the
interdependence between
economic growth, social
protection and natural
ecosystem”
“Medium Term Strategic “The framework defines the The Department of Transport
Framework for 2014 to strategic objectives and targets developed a Green Transport
2019” of government with respect to Strategy and Implementation
key green economy issues such Plan, 2018 to guide the sector
as job creation; skills response
development and
infrastructure; sustainable
human settlements; and rural
development”
(continued)
88 J. Chakwizira

“NATMAP, 2050” “Long term efforts towards “Implement low carbon
transitioning to a green transportation systems
economy in the immediate and i. Mass transport
long term, way beyond year ii. Electric vehicles
2050” Remove subsidies for fossil fuel
and penalise inefficiency (high
fuel consumption)”
“Engage in a long-term strategic
shift away from private car use
and support for mass transit,
public transport, rail, etc.”
Explore ways to work closely
with Transnet to significantly
improve Spoornet so that freight
is moved much more by rail
than road transport”
Sources Black (2010), National Planning Commission (2013b), Emeran et al. (2013), Giles-Corti
et al. (2016), Letsoalo (2013), Masson et al. (2017), McKay et al. (2017), Musyoki (2012),
Nhemachena et al. (2015), Pasquini et al. (2015), Schoeman (2015)
the National Climate Change Response Policy (NCCRP) of 2011, and sets out the
environmental directive of the DoT. It is envisaged to be an all-encompassing docu-
ment, covering all modes of transport; and packaged in such a way that it includes
all economically viable climate change mitigation measures and options across the
modes, based on their peculiarities, to avoid a “one-size-fits-all” approach, which
may be inappropriate and impractical to implement for some transport sub-sectors.
The goal of the GTS is to promote transport that reduces emissions and associated
with transport systems while supporting the contribution of the transport sector to
the social and economic development of the country.
From the innovation and technology development point of view, it is envisaged
that the strategy is all encompassing, and also investigates other transport-related
mitigation options such as electric vehicles and promotion of cleaner or alterna-
tive fuels for the sector. To this end, the Department is working closely with the
Department of Energy on exploring possible options to make electric vehicles more
affordable so as to promote their uptake and remove any market barriers related to the
uptake of cleaner fuels such as “Compressed Natural Gas, or BioGas”. The Depart-
ment of Transport is thus committed to the reduction of Greenhouse Gasses through
several climate change mitigation partnerships such as the “Nationally Appropriate
Mitigation Actions”, or NAMAS. NAMA’s are emissions reduction measures by the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Parties that
are reported by national governments. They can also be referred to as a set of poli-
cies and actions that countries undertake as part of their commitment to reduce their
Greenhouse Gas emissions. NAMAs also emphasises financial assistance from devel-
oped countries to developing countries to reduce emissions. Furthermore, developing
countries NAMAs can be tailored to suit their national circumstances. In 2011 the
Department, in partnership with the Department of Environmental Affairs, initiated
the transport NAMAs through the project “Establishing Transport NAMAs in South
Africa”, these projects include:
• The up-scaling of the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems;
• The shift from “Road to Rail”
• The promotion of Non-Motorised Transport; and
• The Cleaner Fuels Initiative.
7.4.3 The Intersection of the Transport Policy and Legislative

Framework with Energy Dimensions
A review of the regulatory requirements relating to alternative low carbon fuels such
as gas and biofuels yields exciting findings. The Gas Act (No. 48 of 2001) stipulates
certain licensing requirements that apply to commercial transmission, storage, distri-
bution, liquefaction or re-gasification facilities or to trade in gas, but these do not
represent an unnecessary burden to stakeholders. Similarly, consulted stakeholders in
Limpopo do not regard the more extensive regulations covering biodiesel and ethanol
under the Petroleum Products Act (No. 120 of 1977) and subsequent amendments,
to be obstacles to the take-up of these transport fuels. The energy policy frame-
work comprises various key development-based policies and integrated plans, which
together indicate that the government considers natural gas and biogas as central
to South Africa’s energy mix. Table 7.4, presents a tabular illustration linking the
transport policy and energy nexus dimension in South Africa.
From Table 7.4, we can deduce that a strong nexus exists between transport and
energy in South Africa. The relationship has ramifications regarding the need for full
cycle analysis and implementation in the transport and energy planning sectors, trans-
portation manufacturing, construction and infrastructure maintenance and rehabili-
tation value chain. Consequently, in consultation with various industry stakeholders,
the National Planning Commission (NPC), departments of energy and trade and
industry, and National Treasury are in the process of drafting the Gas Utilisation
Master Plan (GUMP), which will take a 30-year view of the industry from a regu-
latory, economic, and social perspective. Initially commissioned to diversify South
Africa’s energy production mix with conventional and unconventional gas, GUMP
has developed to include industry and infrastructure planning models and acknowl-
edges that it should also inform the gas IPPs. The latter development directly affects
the downstream petroleum sector. The NPC recognises that, for gas exploration and
production to remain viable, suitable downstream entities will need to provide the
demand. Gas Independent Power Producers (IPPs) are expected to provide the initial
demand but, for sustainability purposes, other downstream players will also need to
90 J. Chakwizira
Table 7.4 Linking the transport policy and energy nexus dimension in South Africa
Policy Content
Competitive Supplier Development The CSDP aims to improve the capacity and
Programme (CSDP) competitiveness of the local supply base and
contribution to growth, employment creation,
poverty reduction, skills development, and
Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment
(B-BBEE) imperatives. These aims are to be
achieved primarily through the requirement for
local manufacturing
National Industrial Participation Programme The NIPP and IPAP consider transportation to be
(NIPP) and Industrial Policy Action Plan a key multiplier for economic development. An
2012–2015 (IPAP) important development sector identified is fleet
programmes and products, albeit in the context
of supply chains and local manufacturing, rather
than the provision of a municipal service
IPAP also considers biofuels development to
have significant economic development
potential because of its strong linkages to
agriculture, manufacturing and distribution, and
its ability to create substantial numbers of
labour-intensive jobs in the agriculture sector.
Government has committed to a 2% blend target
for including biofuels in the national fuel supply
but is looking to increase this to 10%, which
would create approximately 125 000 direct jobs
contribute to demand. This offers scope for downstream petroleum sector players,
such as municipalities intending to switch municipal bus fleets to gas, to introduce
BRT system as well as the need to transition public transport buses and minibus taxi
buses (MBTs) to benefit immensely from the GUMP process. The need to provide
viable alternatives, such as “Alternative Cleaner Fuels and Efficient Vehicle Tech-
nologies”, programs to reduce private car usage by providing efficient, safe and reli-
able public transport as well as non-motorised transport infrastructure is therefore a
central recommendation for the green transport agenda in Limpopo.
7.4.4 South Africa’s Transport Policy and Legislative

Framework Implications for Green Transport
Innovation and Technologies
Historically, South Africa’s success in the automotive industry has been the driver
behind efforts to develop an electric vehicle industry. The Department of Trade and
Institute (DTI’s) second Industrial Policy Action Plan (IPAP2) includes the commer-
cialisation of electric vehicles, and appropriate support to encourage local manufac-
ture of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and related components, installation of infrastructure
for such EVs, creation of testing facilities, provision of demand-stimulation mech-

anisms, and public education on the use and benefits of alternative-energy vehicles.
Led by the DTI, the plan was supported by the DoT, the Department of Science and
Technology, provincial governments. The need for such policy expression to become
a reality in Limpopo Province is critical as currently no green car manufacturing plant
is in the province.
7.4.5 Norms and Standards in the Transport Sector of South

Africa
Another critical dimension of the green transport discourse is the role and scope for
transport norms and standards in making green transport transition easier in Limpopo
province. A clear norms and standards set-up will entail that green transport transition
will happen with minimum challenges. Norms and standards for the green economy
and transport sector in South Africa can be deduced from legislation, policies and
strategies. Key legislation, policies and strategies including the associated norms and
standards are presented in Table 7.5.
Table 7.5 Derives norms and standards in the transport sector of South Africa
Legislation Norms and standards Implications for transport sector
NLTA (2009) Integrated transport planning Integrated land use and
Joined up transport governance transportation planning
Developmental local government
Cooperative local governance
SPLUMA (2013) Spatial resilience Inclusive green transport economy
Spatial economy Transport sector resilience
Spatial efficiency Transport technology efficiency
Good administration Transport systems and governance
Mixed housing Sustainable human settlements
Compact settlements Adaptive and green transport
Integrated housing and settlements infrastructure and services
Spatial integration
NEMA (2008) Environmental sustainability Sustainable transportation and
Environmental impact assessments services
Traffic impact studies Transportation mitigation and
Environmental mitigation and adaptation
Adaptation Emissions standards
NATMAP (2050) Low carbon economy Green transportation
Compact settlements Transit Orientated Developments
Integrated settlements (ToDS)
Appropriate transport technologies Efficient energy vehicles
Public transit systems Efficient transport technologies
Bio-fuels and alternative energy Alternative fuel types and
sources combustion engine types
92 J. Chakwizira
Table 7.5 presents norms and standards that exist for measuring transformation
towards a green economy and transport sector in South Africa. The challenge though
is the lack of adequate datasets and information on indicators or measuring criteria.
In addition, achieving the norms and standards in the transport sector is hamstrung
by financial, technical and human skills constraints.
7.4.6 Green Economy and Transport Initiatives in South

Africa
Table 7.6 presents some examples of green economy and transport initiatives in
the South African provinces. What stands out from the table is that all provinces in
South Africa including Limpopo which is the case study of this project have virtually
developed green economy strategies and frameworks meant to assist in implementing
“towards a green economy” national plan.
Table 7.6 Examples of green economy and transport initiatives in South African provinces
Province Green economy and transport initiate
Gauteng “In 2010 Gauteng Province’s Department of Economic Development
finalised its provincial strategy for a developmental green economy. The
strategy responded to international trends, as many cities, city-regions and
other similar areas had begun investing heavily in green technologies and
creating green jobs in a post-economic crisis environment where sustainable
growth becomes the norm. A further incentive is the need to avoid
environmental taxes and penalties. The overall goal of the strategy is
sustainable growth and job creation for Gauteng”
Kwa-Zulu Natal “In 2012 KwaZulu-Natal’s Department of Economic Development and
Tourism published its green economy strategy with the principal aim of
supporting and directing the re-orientation and growth of the province’s
economy to become increasingly competitive and resilient, and to reduce
poverty, create sustainable jobs for local citizens, and address social equity
throughout the province. There are three specific goals listed in the strategy:
Goal 1: Leverage the green economy through greening provincial
government investments, activities and operations
Goal 2: Create “enabling conditions” for the development of the green
economy; and
Goal 3: Unlock the green economy through turnkey/pilot projects in the
green economy”
Limpopo “In June 2013 the Limpopo Province’s Department of Economic
Development, Environment and Tourism published the province’s Green
Economy Plan—Including Provincial Climate Response. The plan identifies
short, medium and long-term green economy goals for the province:
Short-term: Generate jobs; Improve environmental quality
Medium term: Create enabling conditions for green growth; Change
behavioural and production patterns, and
Long-term: Build a new economic/environmental paradigm for Limpopo”
From Table 7.6 we also identify that green economy and transport is an inclusive
rather than exclusive concept and approach. Interventions and programmes aimed at
promoting green economy and transport are predicated on the need to create jobs,
alleviate poverty and encourage greater economic diversification and growth patterns
in the economy.
However, while green growth and green economy discussions at a metro level are
not yet fully developed, there are initiatives within the major metropolitan cities of
South Africa aimed at anchoring green transport interventions much more strongly.
Examples include the Cape Town’s MyCiti Integrated Rapid Public Transport System,
Johannesburg BRT Rea Vaya; Tshwane’s Areyeng, Ekurhuleni’s Harambee and
Gautrain. These are public transport integrated bus rapid systems aimed at encour-
aging a modal shift from the less energy and fuel efficient private transport system
towards a more efficient urban mass transit system. Table 7.7 presents a sample of
green transport initiatives in South Africa.
From Table 7.7, we can deduce that there are several existing platforms that can be
used to promote strategic environmental protection and sustainable economic devel-
opment making use of a green economy and transport approach, such as the Climate
Change Municipal Support Programme. In this envisaged approach, onward feedback
loops into local Integrated Development Plans (IDPs); Comprehensive Integrated
Transport Plans (CITPs) etc. as practised in the city of Cape Town are pronounced.
The green economy and by extension green transport dimensions presents opportu-
nities to address service delivery challenges with new and more sustainable solutions
that are more resource and cost efficient and more resilient over the longer term. Many
municipalities have recognised over time the need to invest in greener infrastructure
and related climate change projects. The Municipal Finance Management Act 56 of
2003 allows for this investment, but there are some constraints, such as inadequate
budgetary allocations particularly with respect to the capital outlay infrastructure
and transport (including road and rail) requirements and investments projects with
longer-term payback periods. Lack of capacity and skills is a further aspect, which
can be mitigated through inter-governmental partnerships as well as partnerships
with non-profit organisations and private companies. In Limpopo province there is
need to appreciate the key role that public –private partnerships can play in helping
to facilitate knowledge sharing and unlocking shared barriers for municipalities.
7.4.7 Sustainable and Safe Transport Policies

and Programmes in Limpopo Province, South Africa
The Limpopo green economy plan highlights key interventions and considerations
necessary to encourage the transition to a low carbon economy. Nationally, it is
important to acknowledge that the transport industry has taken several steps to
reduce CO2 emissions and other environmental impacts, notably those associated
with fossil-fuel combustion. Combined with growing demands for mobility, many
94 J. Chakwizira
Table 7.7 A sample selection of green transport initiatives in South Africa

Area Type of green transport intervention/program
Cape Town “The City of Cape Town has adopted a UNEP-based definition of the green
economy, emphasising low-carbon, resource efficient, socially inclusive
solutions. The desired outcomes include identification of new economic
opportunities, environmental risk-reduction and job creation. Within the broader
green economy, the City has identified key roles for itself:
• Ensure that the city remains attractive to investment by using appropriate
regulations, incentives, and planning tools
• Develop and market economic opportunities with competitive advantage, e.g.
eco-tourism and renewable energy
• Stimulate private sector growth through green procurement, green building,
water and energy efficient technologies
• Ensure greened and climate-resilient infrastructure, and
• Build on Expanded Public Works Programme job creation to unlock
longer-term job opportunities that reduce environmental risk and offer the
opportunity for alternative methods of service delivery”
Greening “The Western Cape Infrastructure Framework (WCIF) aims to align all
infrastructure infrastructure development in the Western Cape to the province’s strategic
agenda, described in the One Cape 2040 Vision. It also has links to the Green is
Smart Strategy Framework. The WCIF outlines a fundamental shift towards
greening infrastructure in the Western Cape with key transitions in energy, water,
transport, settlements and information, communication technology (ICT),
including plans to:
• Introduce natural gas processing and transport infrastructure to make gas
available as a transition fuel
• Promote the development of renewable energy plants in the province and
associated manufacturing capability
• Have more stringent water conservation and demand-management initiatives
• Adopt more widely the reuse of wastewater effluent as standard practice
• Adopt large-scale desalination once it becomes the “next best” option
• Invest in public transport and non-motorised transport infrastructure,
particularly in larger urban centres
• Prioritise general rail freight over bulk rail freight
• Shift freight traffic from road to rail along major routes
• Diversify the housing programme, with greater emphasis on incremental
options
• Integrate settlement development, prioritising public service facilities in
previously neglected areas, and
• Increase the speed and functionality of existing ICT networks and supply new
technology as it becomes available”
“Implementation guidelines for the WCIF that incorporate measuring green
transport have clear monitoring and evaluation indicators that have been
prepared”
(continued)

Area Type of green transport intervention/program
South “The SAGEM study was undertaken in 2013 at the request of the Department of
African Environmental Affairs (DEA) to assess potential opportunities to promote a
Green green economy as set out by the National Development Plan—Vision 2030.
Economy Commissioned by UNEP, the assessment was led by Stellenbosch University and
Modelling the Sustainability Institute of South Africa. It utilised the Threshold 21
Report framework developed by the Millennium Institute, customized for the South
(SAGEM) African context”
“The SAGEM study comprised of a modelling exercise comparing a
‘business-as-usual’ investment scenario with other scenarios in which
investments were allocated in various configurations to four critical green
economy sectors, namely, natural resource management, agriculture, transport
and energy”
“Considering economic growth, poverty, employment, resource efficiency and
climate change, the research showed that the strengthening of natural resource
management and environmental protection is fundamental for sustained
economic growth and wellbeing. Reducing emissions and conserving natural
capital stocks in the short-term to profit from their healthier state in the future,
benefitted both sustainable growth and wellbeing”
“Overall, the model suggested that driving green economy investment was better
for the economy than not. Concentrating investment in the energy sector was
shown to maximize employment creation potential overall. This is due to
additional infrastructure requirements in the sector. However, given an equal
allocation of investment across the four sectors, agriculture showed the highest
employment creation potential”
“This work fed into the development of Green Accord, which forms part of the
New Growth Path”
Sources Antal and Van Den Bergh (2016), Graichen et al. (2017), Mazzucato et al. (2018), Munang
et al. (2013), Olhoff and Christensen (2018), Pasquini et al. (2015), Williams (2013)
eco-innovation initiatives have focused on increasing the energy efficiency of vehi-

cles and other forms of transportation, while at the same time improving safety.
Table 7.8 summarizes the transport sector green economy challenges with respect
to Limpopo province. These challenges operate at all scales, spheres and sectors of
government and non-governmental sectors. Table 7.8 presents highlights of some
transport sector major challenges in Limpopo Province.
Letsoalo (2013, pp. 33–34) indicates that to promote faster development in
transport sector as highlighted by the Table 7.8, there is a need for a more user-
friendly policy and government intervention to enhance competition for new inno-
vations, business ideas and strategies to manage the environmental impact on the
transportation system. Some of the issues requiring the intervention is:
• Consideration of subsidising cost to convert a vehicle to an aftermarket alternative
fuel system;
• Consideration of exempting taxis and buses powered by alternative fuels from
paying road tax;
96 J. Chakwizira
Table 7.8 Highlights of some transport sector major challenges in Limpopo province, South Africa
Identified issue Challenge Opportunity for action
Spatial planning Land fragmentation Bring people closer to work
opportunities to reduce need
for transport, align land-uses
with public transport and
pedestrian routes
Review land regulations and
operations
Compile an updated Green
House Gas inventory and
Atlas for Limpopo province
Enhance the use of existing
infrastructure like the natural
gas pipelines, existing
distribution channels of LPG,
existing petrol/diesel stations
for biodiesel/bioethanol
blends, including charging
EVs at home or shopping
malls or airports
Promotion of modal shifts,
favouring transport modes
with high transport and fuel
efficiency, e.g. high-speed
passenger trains or rail such as
the Johannesburg to Durban
high speed passenger train as
well as shifting freight from
road to rail
Taxi industry Transformation of taxi Corporatization of taxi
industry industry
Disgruntlement with new opportunity to move operators
arrangements such as BRT from second to first economy
(i.e. from taxi owners to bus
owners/operators
IRPTN projects—Polokwane Integrated ticketing system New jobs created through bus
Branding of public transport operation like maintenance,
Roll-out and implementation fare collection, security can be
of BRT project quite sustainable moving into
the future
Develop comprehensive rail
policy and programmes aimed
at addressing inefficiencies in
the rail sector thus promoting
it as viable option for
transportation of both goods
and passengers
(continued)

Identified issue Challenge Opportunity for action
Alternative green technology Deployment, cost, access, Testing next generation
and innovation affordability and acceptability climate friendly buses
of new transport technologies including ethanol, CNG, and
in transit systems and for biodiesel buses in order to
private vehicles gain operational,
environmental, and financial
data on their impact
Putting more emphasis on the
introduction of electric and
hybrid vehicles to mitigate
climate change
Synchronize the traffic lights
Urban design for energy
efficiency (bicycle roads, no
car zones)
Solar traffic lights
Solar street lights
Alternative energy vehicles
Cars: Hybrid or electric
Bus retrofitting (gas)
Electric bikes
Hybrid buses
Gas fuel technology
Biodiesel
Hydrogen fuel cell
Solar production of hydrogen
for rail and public transport
Biofuel
Roads upgrading programme
using environmentally
responsible technologies
(green roads)
Expanded public works Upgrading EPWP to be Opportunity to secure funding
programme compliant to green to create green jobs within
procurement and green job these projects
profiling requirements
Building on momentum of the Development of NMT Utilise and development of
2010 World Cup NMT infrastructure and green jobs NMT infrastructure and green
initiatives around 2010 roads projects jobs around 2010 roads
projects and beyond
Shifts in policy direction Take advantage of reviews of Development of new policy
IDPs, ITPs, SDFs etc. to direction around issues like
infuse and incorporate green climate response strategy for
transport components the transport sector, energy
efficiency framework for the
transport sector including
cleaner fuel technologies and
alternative fuels
Sources Broto and Bulkeley (2013), Giordano (2014), Letsoalo (2013), Rivett-Carnac et al. (2016)
98 J. Chakwizira
• Consideration of exempting import duties and encouraging the setting up of

manufacturing facilities in South Africa for products like toolkit development,
dispensers, cylinders, batteries, etc.;
7.5 Transport, Policy, Norms and Standards in Limpopo

Province: Case Study Findings
Transport, policy, norms and standards in Limpopo province are an extension of

the national transport, policy, norms and standards. The issues, gaps, opportunities
and challenges mirror those reflected at the national level. However, differentiated
nuances emerge in the context of Limpopo province informed by unique geographical
realities, context and the interplay of various development dynamics in the country.
7.5.1 Lack or Absence of a Provincial Green Transport Policy
Limpopo province does not have an explicit green transport policy that addresses
the emergent green transport issues. Consequent to this, green transport initiatives
and policy directions are approached by default and implicitly. It is for this reason
among others that green transport is either addressed as a sentence, a few sentences,
a paragraph or section in various policy documents. In this policy findings and
recommendations, we thus argue that transport and by extension green transport
is a specialised domain and field that requires undivided and indivisible attention if
green transport matters are to occupy the rightful place in development debates. Table
7.9 presents selected highlights of a transport and related policy documents opinions
from a provincial green transport perspective as indicated by surveyed stakeholders.
While the Constitution (i.e. 28.5%) and the NDP (28.5%) are key national policy
pronouncements, these are not enough in themselves for purposes of realizing a green
transport compliant Limpopo province. Transport sector strategies and plans such
as public transport strategy (14.28%), National Transport Master Plan (NATMAP)
(14.28%) etc. do not provide structured green transport transitional measures to facil-
itate a seamless shift from a high carbon emitting economy to a low carbon emitting
economy. Other complementary green transport policies, guidelines and regulations
will need to be developed at the provincial and local level if green transport is to
become a success.
From Table 7.9, we can further deduce that while transport policy documents
exist at national level, these are not enough in themselves to ensure green transport
implementation at the provincial and local level. In order to implement robust, flexible
and resilient green transport policy provisions, there will be need to supplement and
complement them with provincial green transport policy and guidelines attuned to
Limpopo’s local needs and requirements.
Table 7.9 Selected highlights of transport and related policy document shortcomings from a
provincial green transport perspective
Name of policy document Identified policy shortcoming Frequency %
Constitution of Republic of South Is generic and does not provides 6 28.5
Africa specifics to respond to new issues
such as green transport
NATMAP, 2050 Was crafted prior to Climate change 3 14.28
and green transport becoming topical
issues and hence is silent on the
matters
Public Transport Strategy, 2007 Addresses green transport by default 3 14.28
and does not provide adequate
guidance regarding green transport
manufacturing, procurement and
implementation guidelines for use at
local or municipal level
National Development Plan (2030) Identifies transition to a low carbon 6 28.5
economy as essential and presents
some broad-brush measures such as
compact development and integrated
spatial planning. However, this
picture is illustrative and inadequate
for local-level interventions needs
National Land Transport Framework Incorporates the need for low carbon 2 9.52
(2014–2019) transition in the transport sector but
does not provide a province specific
road-map and strategy for
implementing low carbon transitions
in each of South Africa’s provinces
Others 1 4.76
Total 21 100
Sample size N = 21
Source Research Findings, 2016
7.5.2 Lack of or Absence or Inadequate Green Transport

Budgeting and Accounting
While in the province, specific Departments such as Limpopo Department of

Economic Development and Tourism (LEDET) and Limpopo Department of Roads
and Transport (LDoR&A) have been charged with the responsibility to oversee green
economy initiatives, budgeting and accounting systems beyond these main Depart-
ments is not clear. While Departments can and do indeed reflect and comment on
green transport contributions and impact, this is as an addendum or after thought.
At the same time, when budgets are being disbursed from Treasury, be it provincial
or national there is no explicit budgetary line that indicates that such an amount is
meant to promote exclusively green transport initiatives. As a result of this, beyond
100 J. Chakwizira
Table 7.10 Suggested drivers for integrating green transportation and logistics initiatives in
Limpopo province, South Africa
Options Scale 1–5 (1 lowest and 5 highest)
1 2 3 4 5
Partnerships 6
Decreasing CO2 2
Implement policies related to 4
green transportation
Decrease conventional fuel 2
consumption for bio-fuel
Provide green transport (BRT) 4
Incentives for individuals and 3
companies towards a green
transport economy
Total 0 8 27 16 20
Rank 5 4 1 3 2
Sample size N = 21
LEDET and LDoR&T, green transport actions and measures are not explicitly tied
to budgeting and funding flows but finds themselves expressed by implication. The
need to develop a clear framework for provisioning green transport budgeting and
accounting becomes critical.
Table 7.10 presents the ranking of suggested drivers for integrating green trans-
portation and logistics in Limpopo Province. In terms of ranking establishing part-
nerships (27) with individuals, companies and sectors aimed at promoting green
transportation is crucial. As an example partnership with schools and Universities
regarding green projects, innovations and competitions would be one way of strongly
anchoring the green economy and transport project in Limpopo Province.
From Table 7.10 we can deduce that implementing policies (20) related to green
transportation came second, suggesting that the value of policies lies in their imple-
mentation and uptake. Decreasing carbon emissions (16) through using cleaner fuels
and better transport was also important and is therefore a critical element in actions
and measures meant to reverse and reduce the carbon footprint of transport and the
economy in Limpopo Province.
7.5.3 Inadequate Research and Innovation Think-Tank

on Green Transport in Limpopo Province
Granted that there is the existence of the Limpopo research commission which is
made up of all stakeholders in Limpopo including research and university commu-
nity, green economy and by extension green transport interventions still remain
largely inadequate. Even when one factors the efforts of the National Transport
Forum (NTF) that includes all provinces and stakeholders involved in the transport
sector, at the provincial operational level, transport research and by extension green
transport research is inadequately covered. In order to overcome this challenge, it
is suggested that the Limpopo Transport Forum (which was quite vibrant at some
reference point in terms of the Limpopo Freight Transport Forum) be revived and
used as a springboard for sharper and heightened focus on green transport matters
covering all transportation sectors in the province such as roads, railways, air etc.
Figure 7.1 presents an overview of the importance of green issues in the transport
sector in Limpopo Province.
From Fig. 7.1 we can deduce that most interviewed stakeholders identified that
green issues are very important (61.9%) for and in the transport sector. However,
the challenge they raised related to the need to address “green transport adoption”
owing to perception, opinion and behaviour or lifestyle issues. It was argued that a
significant proportion of people in the province believe that they are “incomplete”
if they are not driving. However, at the same time the impact of decentralisation of
services between areas for example Louis Trichardt (LTT) and Thohoyandou was
viewed as one practical way of reducing emissions by eliminating trips through
bringing services closer to people. This was viewed in the context of densifying
70
61.9047619 % (13)
60
Percenatge (Frequency)
50
40
30
19.04761905 % (4)
20
4.761904762 % (1) 4.761904762% (1) 9.523809524% (2)
10
0
Not Important Somehow Fairly important Important Very Important
Important
Importance of green issues as an overall strategy in the transport sector
in Limpopo province
Fig. 7.1 Importance of green issues as an overall strategy in the transport sector of Limpopo
province. Sample size N = 21. Source Research Findings, 2016
102 J. Chakwizira
and diversifying services offered in Thohoyandou so that the need to travel to Louis
Trichardt is minimized.
7.5.4 Existing Spatial Patterns of Settlements in Limpopo

Province Present Green Transport Implementation
Challenges and Opportunities
The fragmented and scattered nature of settlements overlaid on a difficult geograph-

ical and challenging climatic zone make it difficult to engage in alternative and green
transport interventions such as cycling and walking given the terrain (i.e. slopes),
long distances between home areas, work area and facilities of interest. However, at
the same time opportunities for pooling transport resources together and engaging
in car—pooling, car sharing, lift-clubs and use of buses including BRTs present an
opportunity to reduce the carbon footprint of traffic in the Province. It is however
critical to realise that the province has different types of towns which will require
differentiated green transport interventions. For example, the province has mining
towns, agricultural towns as well as border towns all presenting different nuances
of green transport needs. If one also includes the strong eco-tourism component of
the province, this brings another dimension of the green transport relevant to the
tourism sector as an example. Recognition that no one size fits all for green transport
interventions is one central theme that green transport policy and recommendations
in Limpopo Province will need to be sensitive to. Table 7.11 presents the results of
the opinion survey from stakeholders indicating which plans they view as providing
leadership to tackling green transport issues in the Province.
From Table 7.11, we can deduce that currently the provincial green economy plan
is viewed as the document providing clear direction to the green transport sector
(33.33%) than anything else. While respondents argued that the provincial land
transport plan (14.28%) should provide leadership, it was argued that the existing
document is outdated and required urgent review. Given that the last provincial land
transport plan (PLTF) did not incorporate green issues, the plan was criticized as
Table 7.11 Provincial

Provincial long term green plan portrait Frequency %
long-term plan viewed as
providing direction for green Provincial growth and development plan 4 19.04
transport in Limpopo Provincial green economy plan 7 33.33
province
Provincial spatial development plan 4 19.04
Provincial land transport plan 3 14.28
Provincial infrastructure master plan 2 9.52
Others 1 4.76
Sample size N = 21
providing little value in addressing green transport challenges. The provincial infras-
tructure plan (9.25%) (i.e. currently under preparation) was viewed as an opportunity
that should not be missed in seeking to craft and strongly infuse the green economy
and by extension green transport matters in the province.
7.5.5 Existence of a Conducive National Transport Policy,

Regulations, Norms and Standards to Act as Platforms
for Implementing Provincial Customized Green
Transport Solutions
The review and discussions with stakeholders yielded the outcome that overall
national frameworks and regulations exist. However, the downside of it, is that as
framework legislation, they were never crafted to address the provincial peculiarities
and dynamics of implementation that vary from one province to the next. As such it is
critical that the province of Limpopo develops its own refinement and improvement
of the broad-based national frameworks, policies and norms adapted to the case of
Limpopo. Table 7.12 presents some of the innovative ways that the province can
introduce to move away from conventional energy sources.
From Table 7.12 we can deduce that no stand-alone intervention exist that can
single-handedly address fully green transport requirements in Limpopo province.
This strongly suggests that a balanced implementation approach that considers the
need for promoting BRT (23.8%) were appropriate, promoting NMT (28.57%) as far
as practical as well as fostering enhanced smart and integrated planning (38.09%) are
important. However, others (19.04%) suggest that innovation and thinking beyond
the current approaches is also an important ingredient for sustainable green transport
development and implementation in Limpopo Province.
Table 7.12 Some innovative ways that the province can introduce to move from conventional
energy sources of supply
Innovative option Frequency %
Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) 5 23.8
Promote non-motorised transport (NMT) such as cycling, walking etc 6 28.57
Smart and integrated planning e.g. compact development, Transit Orientated 8 38.09
development (ToDs etc.)
Others 4 19.04
Total 21 100
Sample size N = 21
104 J. Chakwizira
7.5.6 Lack or Absence or Inadequate Coverage of Green

Transport Qualifications or Programme Offering
in Limpopo Province
While different types of educational institutions ranging from Universities, Technical

Vocational and Educational Training (TVET) colleges, Schools and private institu-
tions exist offering different programmes which have resonates in green transport,
the challenge is that the actions are ad-hoc, not streamlined and integrated. The focus
is not clearly structured to address green transport needs in the province and by exten-
sion in the country. While it can be argued that graduates from these institutions will
adapt and learn the green skills, knowledge and needs once at work, it is also true that
challenges will abound under such a model. Indeed, academic institutions touch on
green economy and green transport challenges in courses on environment, tourism,
agriculture, geography, urban and regional planning, engineering, etc. However, the
problem is that the focus of the programs is not green transport and hence inade-
quate attention is paid to in-calculating knowledge, skills and techniques relevant
to green transport. The TVET colleges do not have dedicated programmes on green
infrastructure designing and manufacturing as an example. Table 7.13 presents the
state of planned and current green transportation and logistics initiatives in Limpopo
Province.
Table 7.13 Planned and current green transportation and logistics initiatives in Limpopo province,
South Africa
Options Scale 1–5 (1 lowest and 5
highest)
1 2 3 4 5
Emissions measuring and reduction 1
Improving energy efficiency in motor vehicles 1
Trail or use of alternative green fuels 1
Moving freight away from air, road to rail 6
Strategic warehousing and distribution centres after peak hours 1
Vehicles routing to reduce mileage and carbon emission
Green procurement 2
Green materials usage 1
Sustainable transport policies and green thinking 6
Hybrid and alternative energy vehicle development and usage 1
Others 1
Total 0 6 9 8 61
Rank 5 5 2 3 1
Sample size N = 21
From Table 7.13 we can deduce that high and middle income people own cars.
For them to switch to green transport modes there is need for incentives in terms
of providing a standard BRT service or incentives for car sharing and pooling or
making it affordable to acquire green cars. Sustainable transport policies and green
thinking (6) will result in improved spatial outcomes and spatial transformation that
leads to green resilient settlements. Spatial planning, land use and management act
(SPLUMA, 2013) is expected to play a leading role in making this contribution a
reality. Moving freight from air and road to rail (6) was a strategic move to reduce
emissions especially given the high volume of trucks on the N1 road that traverses
Limpopo Province.
7.5.7 Lack of a One Transport Governance Approach

in (Re)solving Issues
While institutions and actors exist covering different components of the transport
sector such as infrastructure, construction, planning, policy, financing and sustain-
ability as examples, the efforts are disjointed, fragmented and incoherent. There is
therefore need for a one governance approach to enable integrated land use and trans-
portation planning which is at the core of green transport interventions. Table 7.14
presents the results of the opinion survey from stakeholders interviewed. While chal-
lenges exist, the “silver lining” is that public–private partnerships (PPP) can offer
a window to implement a raft of interventions that would assist in green transport
transformation in the province. Establishing a green fund initiative (i.e. 47.61%)
was argued as a practical way to ensuring green budgeting, accounting and moni-
toring as well as supporting science and technology (S&T) work aimed at upscaling,
retrofitting and acquiring green manufacturing equipment aimed at reducing the
carbon footprint of industries and sectors that support and promote green transport
in Limpopo Province.
Table 7.14 How policy makers can promote PPP in the green transport sector
PPP intervention measures and option Frequency %
Green transport industrial fund 10 47.61
Green transport corridors 5 23.8
Eco-mobility initiatives 3 14.28
Carbon tax policy 2 9.52
Tax rebates for individuals who use public transport, car sharing, car-pooling 1 4.76
or lift clubs etc.
Others 0 0
Total 21 100
Sample size N = 21
106 J. Chakwizira
From Table 7.14, we can deduce that achieving a sustainable green transport policy
direction in Limpopo province will require multi-faceted and diverse implementation
models. No one approach will provide an inclusive, integrated and comprehensive
solution. The need to apply different strategies fit for different scales that consider
different dynamics and realities of individuals, institutions and sectors is therefore
fundamental. While eco-mobility (i.e. 14.28%) was mentioned, the respondents indi-
cated that this solution required initiatives that predate to implementing awareness
campaigns to children starting at the Crèche or kindergarten level. In this thinking the
slogan “catch them young” was touted as one practical way of developing and building
a “green transport” generation of citizens, essential in promoting green interventions
throughout their life-cycles. The carbon tax policy (i.e. 9.25%) although hailed as
a move in the right direction was questioned regarding its implementation practi-
calities. It was cautioned that given the rural nature of the province and the reality
that certain marginalised and deep rural areas are only saved by the “bakkie” trans-
port, implementing a carbon tax model may be pricing the transport service out of
the reach of peripheral and poor people in the province. In this regard, solution and
policy direction must strike a differentiated balance between promoting green trans-
port and ensuring that the intervention bring a “value add” dimensions to all sectors
of the society and economy without disempowering others sectors unconsciously.
7.5.8 Overcoming Constraints to Implementing Green

Transport in Limpopo Province
Stakeholders discussed and identified that different forms and types of constraints
exist in seeking to promote the transition to green transport in Limpopo. These range
from financial, structural or spatial, policy or legislative as well as behavioural or
institutional constraints. In seeking to propagate a suitable green transport agenda
for Limpopo province, it was suggested that all areas and sectors required attention
if an inclusive, resilient, integrated and sustainable green transport agenda is to be
realised. Figure 7.2 presents suggested key issues in developing a green economy in
Limpopo Province.
From Fig. 7.2 we can deduce that technological innovations (33%) running the
gamut of vehicle manufacturing, infrastructure manufacturing and transportation
construction materials and technologies are at the centre of a green transport turn-
around strategy and policy. For this to happen, a supportive policy and legislative
environment (29%) that will enable the “painless transition” is fundamental. Imple-
mentation of a carbon policy on emissions such as car retirement policies, enforcing
carbon emission certificates and standards (19%) is also a critical dimension of a
broad-based pathway towards a low carbon economy in Limpopo Province.
2[10%]
Policy development
2[9%] 6[29%]
Technological innovation
Vehicular management and emission

4[19%] control
Green skills development
Developing practical solutions e.g.

7[33%] alternative fuels
Fig. 7.2 Suggested key issues in developing a green economy in Limpopo province. Sample size
N = 21. Source Research Findings, 2016
7.5.9 Synthesis of Green Transport in Limpopo Province
A synthesis of the policies, strategies, regulations, norms and standards in the trans-
port sector highlights a strong narrative replete with low carbon transition gaps
(Benson et al. 2014). At the same time these existing gaps represent an opportunity
to convert them in value adding and transformation green transport levers and plat-
forms for charting a low carbon transition roadmap and implementation in Limpopo
province. Figure 7.3 presents a schematic diagrammatic illustration summarising
the critical Highlights of Regulatory Framework, Policies, Norms and Standards
Research Findings.
Fig. 7.3 Summary highlights of regulatory framework, policies, norms and standards research
findings. Source Authors own conceptualization, 2021
108 J. Chakwizira
From Fig. 7.3 we can deduce that to transition towards a low carbon economy in
Limpopo, there is need for the implementation of a raft of interventions and measures
covering the full gamut of regulatory framework, policies, norms and standards in the
transport sector. It is heartening to realise that minimum conditions and a framework
regime for implementing and engaging in a green transport inclusive and green
induced and focused growth and economy exist (Montmasson-Clair 2012). However,
the need to upscale, update and align the Regulatory Framework, Policies, Norms
and Standards to be compliant to a green transport growth and development approach
requires further investment in innovation, training and skills transfer and knowledge
development also taking into account the 4th Industrial Revolution (Aoyi et al. 2016;
Gumbo and Letlape 2016).
7.6 Chapter Recommendations
i. Short and medium term

In the short to medium term, several high impact and practical policy measures
are recommended for development, implementation and management. The
recommendations are based on principles and values aimed at strengthening and
improving existing systems and mechanism in line with the need to promote
the green economy and by extension green transport initiatives. These are as
follows, namely:
• Generation of a 10-year provincial short-medium term green transport policy
in Limpopo that is aligned with the National Development Plan (NDP) 2030;
• The development, implementation and management of green transport
budgeting and accounting guidelines for use by Government departments
and sectors in promoting the “transition to a green economy in Limpopo
province” (Letsoalo 2013);
• The development, implementation and review of short term (i.e. refresher
courses, certificate and diploma courses) in transportation with a clear
emphasis on green transport by Universities in Limpopo such as “Univer-
sity of Venda”, “University of Limpopo” etc. aimed at (re)training current
and future green transport stakeholders such as practitioners, policy-makers,
decision-makers etc. (Musyoki 2012);
• Implementing a robust and flexible training, capacity building and awareness
raising programmes, projects, campaigns and roadshows covering the need,
importance and relevance of green transport budgeting and accounting for all
government departments, sectors and non-governmental sectors in Limpopo
province;
• Development and support of green transport non-governmental organisa-
tions (NGOs), civil groups and or incorporation of green transport activists
in existing and future NGOs, civil groups to create multiple lobby and advo-
cate groups in promoting green transport and by extension green economic
development;
• Revival of the Limpopo transport forum with a special chapter or sub-
group or reference working group focusing on green transport and the
green economy. The aim of the special chapter or sub-group or refer-
ence working group is to “facilitate information sharing and coordination,
including organising seminars and site visits to different municipal green
transport initiatives” (Nhemachena et al. 2015);
• The University of Venda to establish a transportation research unit which
focuses among other themes on green transport as a niche area;
• Utilise Limpopo’s Polokwane’s bus rapid transport (BRT) project to show-
case the need and advantages of green transport in the growth and
development of secondary cities and small-medium sized cities.
• “Successes and lessons learned in implementing green transport initiatives
need to be effectively disseminated between cities, small to medium sized
towns, communities, farms and villages in the Province” (Mahlatji 2013);
• Update existing provincial, district and local level transport, land use, infras-
tructure, economic and closely related policy documents to incorporate green
economy in general and green transport in particular interventions explic-
itly. This should be implemented during the next rounds of reviews for the
different documents, namely in the next 5 years for the integrated transport
plan (ITP) review, local economic development (LED) policy document and
next integrated development policy (IDP) cycle for all municipalities etc.
respectively;
• Establish green economy desks or green transport desks in departments and
sectors either individually or in clusters depending with need and budgetary
provision to assist in expanding and aligning green transport portfolios and
footprints of interventions between and across sectors;
• Employing the October transport month to pilot, demonstrate and show-case
eco-mobility interventions such as cycling, car free days etc.;
• Identification, implementation and management of green transport high
impact corridors of interventions in which “green infrastructure and transport
interventions are consciously implemented as demonstration or pilot projects
per each Local municipality or District municipality in the province” (HM
Treasury 2011);
• Establishment and development of a green transport manufacturing, procure-
ment requirements, systems and regulations value chain and addition
structure aimed at developing a minimum set of skills, knowledge and
competencies upon which a green economy rests on;
110 J. Chakwizira
ii. Long-term
• The University of Venda to develop a new programme or a suite of trans-
portation programmes offered at both undergraduate and post-graduate level
with green transport as a niche area;
• Departments to transition towards green transport “budgeting and account-
ing” complete with key performance areas (KPAs) and key performance indi-
cators (KPIs) to facilitate project and programme monitoring of interventions
and challenges thereof (HM Treasury 2011);
• Use lessons from the implementation of Polokwane’s BRT to implement
similar BRT’s in other secondary cities such as Mokopane, Lepalale, Tzaneen
etc.;
• Explore and investigate how the concept of integrated rapid public transport
plan (IRPTN) can be extended to service the needs of rural based trans-
port corridors connecting major towns with villages e.g. Polokwane with
Lebowakgomo etc.;
• Develop a 2050 Green Transport Master Plan for the province of Limpopo
clearly articulating the green transport transition pathway for the province
by department, sectors, non-state sector complete with timelines, budgeting,
responsibilities etc. This plan should indicate clearly the green transport
infrastructure requirements, options and funding modalities as an example
etc.;
• “Streamlining and development of a joined up or one governance transport
approach and systems to facilitate better and coordinated green transport
interventions and measures” (Chakwizira 2016).
Key Actors
Several key actors exist regarding addressing the critical green transport transition
and required development trajectory. The identified key actors include the following,
namely:
• Limpopo Department of Roads and Transport: The Department’s mission and
vision is to spearhead, oversee and provide leadership regarding key policy issues
in Limpopo, of which the green transport is one such area. The need for the
department of Transport to provide structured leadership in this direction can-not
be over-emphasised.
• Limpopo Department of Economic Development (LEDET): This department
has already provided impetus and is mandated with championing green economy
and sustainable environmental interventions and transformation in the province.
The need to upscale green economy interventions and make such work more
inclusive and complementary to green transport interventions is vital.
• South African Local Government Association (SALGA): SALGA is expected
to play a key role in capacity building and training of district and local author-
ities regarding smart planning, integrated land use and transportation planning,
SPLUMA as well as green transport.
• District and Local Municipalities in Limpopo province: These play a key role
in ensuring policy implementation and filtering into the respective documents
including the need to make sure that integrated development plans (IDPs), inte-
grated transport plans (ITPs), Infrastructure Master Plans etc. reflect and incor-
porate green transport infrastructure and services needs in their proposals and
implementation plans.
• Office of the Premier—Limpopo: The Office of the Premier through its plan-
ning and coordination role provides overall sight leadership and guidance to all
policies being implemented in the province. Their role in securing green transport
transformation cannot therefore be over-emphasised.
• University of Venda: The University offers a Bachelor of Urban and Regional
Planning programme which has transportation courses and components. In devel-
oping both short-term and long term green transport courses, the Department is
expected to explore certificate, diploma, degree and post-graduate qualification
in Transportation Engineering, Planning and Logistics using green transport as a
niche.
The shift towards green transport is a process. As such available options such
as dual-fuel and hybrid-electric vehicles provide a means to manage the risk and
transition associated with switching to cleaner technologies. The “silver-lining” for
green transport transition perhaps lies in the fact that the private sector has innate
capacity and willingness to invest in green transport technologies, infrastructure and
services needed to accomplish this shift (Graichen et al. 2017). “In light of the public
benefits associated with green transport, government needs to assist by creating
demand and providing an enabling environment” (Gupta and Laubscher 2017).
7.7 Conclusions
The South African government as well as the international community have over the
past decades entered into several commitments related to transport, and in particular
the need to curtail the contribution of gaseous emissions by the transport sector to the
atmosphere. As an example, the latest sustainable development goals (SDGs) recog-
nize explicitly the central role that sustainable transport will play in climate change
adaptation and mitigation measures (Banister 2011; Chevallier 2015; Wilbanks et al.
2012). Both “national and international policies, frameworks, legislation, norms
and standards have in common the need and goal of transforming the transport
sector albeit among many other sectors to ensure that the future is sustainable”
(Schwanen et al. 2011; Viitanen and Kingston 2014). An important message from
the chapter is that industry, society and communities all have shared co-responsibility
for shaping a modern and post-modern transport agenda in which green economy,
growth and transport will play an increasingly influential role (Dewar and Todeschini
112 J. Chakwizira
2017; Minchener 2012). Indeed, the transport governance sector approach needs to
permeate all sectors and areas of the economy so that barriers linked with frag-
mented spatial and transportation approaches can be dismantled and reversed (Death
2014; Turok 2012). Such new thinking presents exciting opportunities for developing
better human settlements and enhanced transportation governance systems that are
robust and adept to better guiding global and country decision-making processes
and investments towards green focused development in which transportation plays a
pivotal role (Hickman et al. 2010; Lawhon and Murphy 2012). Again, it should be
re-emphasised that the shift towards green transport is a process and not an event. In
this regard, the gained momentum towards green transport friendly interventions in
the country require further refinement and promotion through adequate budgetary,
financial, evaluation and monitoring systems (Mtembu and Pillay 2017; Wentworth
2014). However, the challenge of developing transport policies, framework, legis-
lation, norms and standards for sustainable development is to orient and adapt the
transport sector and allied sectors towards a balanced approach to sustainable trans-
port development. Many of the measures required to achieve this balance are not
new, the main difficulty is effective implementation (Aoyi et al. 2016; Schäffler and
Swilling 2013). The approach to achieving sustainable development of the climate
change resilient and competitive transport sector requires a combination of solutions
(Brent 2016; Gupta and Laubscher 2017; Lember et al. 2011; Zikhali et al. 2016).
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Chapter 8
Conclusion
John Ogony Odiyo, Peter Bitta Bikam, and James Chakwizira
Abstract Transition to green economy and transport is crucial to reduce environ-

mental problems such as greenhouse gas emissions and climate change in South
Africa. However, the challenges associated with the transition present opportunities
for innovation and mitigation within the green economy and transport sector. Green
economy and transport sector initiatives have the potential to address economic and
environmental challenges and open new sources of growth.
Keywords Transition · Green economy · Transport sector · Environmental

problems · Climate change
8.1 Introduction
The green economy in the transport sector theme is an opportune theme within the
context of the SDGs, national, provincial and local growth and development imper-
atives. This chapter provides a synthesis to the book while also engaging in reflexive
thinking with respect to the future of the green economy and transport sector gener-
ally. Through this approach, the authors seek to stimulate further engagement and
conversations beyond this book publication. The intention is to sustain the conversa-
tion and build further work and projects that advance the green economy and transport
sector theme contextually and holistically.
J. O. Odiyo
Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, Limpopo,
South Africa
P. B. Bikam
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
e-mail: 26878208@nwu.ac.za
J. Chakwizira
Urban and Regional Planning, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86178-0_8
8.2 Synthesis
The transition to green economy and transport is crucial to reduce environmental

problems such as greenhouse gas emissions and climate change in South Africa.
However, there are multiple, interconnected, and complex challenges associated with
the transition. These complexities and interdependencies present opportunities for
innovation and mitigation within the green economy and transport sector. According
to (see p. 10 in Kanianska 2017) in order to advance green economy and transport
transition paradigms, action and measures, the following should be in place:
• Implement and manage innovations and solutions that support economic pros-
perity and human well-being;
• Stimulate resource-efficient, low-carbon economic and social development;
• Safeguard people from environmental health risks.
The chapters of this book by situating the green economy and transport sector
in the context of South Africa and in particular, Limpopo Province have explored
the impacts of growth and development on the green economy and transport sector.
Invariably, the green economy and transport sector initiatives have the potential to
address economic and environmental challenges while at the same time opening new
sources of growth.
Generally, growth and development efforts that are anchored on the foundations
of the green economy and green growth strategy, indicators and tools have innate
potential to respond to the SDGs as well as a raft of national, provincial and local
development initiatives. While these green economy and strategy compliant systems
have origins that can be traced from the United Kingdom, Asian, Pacific Region
as well as further work that was crystallised through Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) (Morgera and Savaresi, 2013 p. 14–16),
over time these concepts have assumed global and glocal relevance that makes them
applicable worldwide. In this regard, the green economy and transport green strategy
approach provides a ‘lens’ for re-examining the current economic growth paradigm
whilst at the same time offering an actionable policy framework for policy and
decision makers, practitioners, researchers and academics in developed, emerging
and developing economies.
Acknowledging that there is no “one-size-fits-all” prescription for implementing
strategies and interventions for green economy and transport sector growth, the chap-
ters in the book have utilized a thematic focus that provide mechanism for actions
and fulcrum movement in steering green economy and transport transition further.
Indeed, greening the growth path of an economy and the transport sector depends
on policy and institutional settings, transportation modes and technologies, level of
development, skills and knowledge transfer, resource endowments and environmental
pressure points (see p. 4 in Meadowcroft 2012). Given the unique and differenti-
ated South African apartheid driven historical legacy, the chapters have portrayed
how the emerging green economy and transport sector faces different challenges
and opportunities, with implications for livelihoods, climate change, environmental
8 Conclusion 121
sustainability, and economic diversification opportunities. This suggests that contex-

tual green economy and transport sector solutions are strategic in measures aimed at
addressing growth and development realities of any setting.
The book is anchored on a multi-disciplinary approach as a practical way to
tackling the green economy and transport sector. Considering that sustainable devel-
opment and transportation is broad as argued by proponents such as Sauvé, Bernard
and Sloan (2016), see p. 40 in Vigar (2017), see p. 28 in Lang et al. (2012) the book has
therefore focused on different themes in sustainable development and transportation
in South Africa that include:
• Conceptualization of green economy and transport sector,
• Technology innovation in the green economy,
• Vehicle management, emission control and maintenance,
• Regulatory framework in the transport sector, policies and standards, and
• Skills and knowledge transfer.
Consequently, the chapters in this book have highlighted the numerous changes
and the wide range of influences that impact and are impacted by the green economy
and transport sector. The adopted framework of analysis was anchored on a sectoral
and case study based approach that identified the challenges, opportunities and
prospects for climate change, sustainable development and transportation which
may enable South Africa to advance and develop in a sustainable, inclusive and
resilient manner. It is against this background that this book sought to explore the
issues articulated above and contributed chapters demonstrate how such matters have
influenced the green economy and transport sector of South Africa. Reflecting on
the post-apartheid South Africa from a climate change, sustainable development
and transportation perspective, the following key objectives were answered by the
chapters in the book:
• Identification of existing and emerging paradigms relating to the transition towards
a green economy in the transport sector.
• Exploration of how paradigms in green economy and transport sector impact on
human settlements, livelihoods and skills development in the quest of creating
inclusive, resilient and sustainable development.
• Analysing the opportunities and challenges that are associated with the transition
towards a green economy in the transport sector making use of Limpopo province
as a case study.
• Theorizing the green economy and transport sector transition in post-apartheid
South Africa.
• Advancing proposals on a national green economy and transport sector agenda and
policies that will contribute to the creation of inclusive, resilience and sustainable
communities in South Africa.
8.3 Research and Policy Directions
Attuning practice and theory through applied research that provides pathways for
anchoring the green economy and transport sector strongly is important. This can
be approached from multiple perspectives considering multiple dimensions to the
green economy and transport sector theme. Indeed, a multi-lever and governance
over-arching approach that brings together government, non-governmental sectors,
industry, and academia is one way of furthering growth and development in any area.
The impact of the 4th Industrial revolution as well as digital movement impacting
on the transport sector as well as green economy cannot be under-estimated. A triad
approach in which academia, industry and community co-investigate, co-develop
and manage projects and programmes for enhanced green economy and transport
sector development is fundamental. Research and policy directions in general should
focus on efficacy with respect to developing transport sector specific and non-specific
transport complementary skills in some areas of the under-listed topics, namely:
• Technology innovations in green transport,
• Vehicle management and emission control and maintenance,
• Skills and knowledge transfer for transitioning into the green economy, and
• Regulatory frameworks, policies, norms and standards.
However, while the chapters in the book highlight the importance of a skills and
development strategy for the transport sector, it is critical to highlight that balance
between and among other non-transport sectors of the economy is vital. This is to
ensure that the value add of the skills development work in the green economy and
transport sector is not compromised by the lack of readiness and structural alignment
from the sectors whose growth and development is enabled by the transport sector
service function.
8.4 Future Thoughts
Green economy in the transport sector provides both an approach and framework for
analysing growth and development strategies and policies in any setting. The move-
ment towards circular economies, connected and digital systems are all predicated
on low carbon economies. Finding space for strongly embedding green economy and
transport value chains through innovation and shifts in production and consumption
systems is vital. The role that multi-disciplinary and transdisciplinary research and
development partnership and collaboration between state and non-state sectors can
play is immense. Future thinking and agenda should seek to better align, (re)structure
and (co)locate the green economy and transport sector theme within the wider context
8 Conclusion 123
of industry, academia, community and the wider development practitioners landscape

research and development agenda for improved efficiencies and effectiveness.
References
Kanianska R (2017) Green growth and green economy, vol 2016. Banská Bystrica, Blianum, pp. 11–
20
Lang DJ, Wiek A, Bergmann M, Stauffacher M, Martens P, Moll P, Swilling M, Thomas CJ (2012)
Transdisciplinary research in sustainability science: practice, principles, and challenges. Sustain
Sci 7(1):25–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-011-0149-x
Meadowcroft J (2012) Greening the state. Comparative environmental politics: Theory, practice,
and prospects, 63–87
Morgera E, Savaresi A (2013) A conceptual and legal perspective on the green economy. Review
of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law 22(1):14–28. https://doi.org/10.
1111/reel.12016
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economy: Alternative concepts for trans-disciplinary research. Environmental Development
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npol.2017.04.013

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John Ogony Odiyo · Peter Bitta Bikam ·

James Chakwizira Editors

ISBN 978-3-030-86177-3 ISBN 978-3-030-86178-0 (eBook)

Such investigation should assist in the development of clear evidence-based objec-

During the research findings workshops held in Johannesburg (Gauteng province),

Vanderbijlpark, Gauteng, John Ogony Odiyo

climate change, environmental sustainability and economic diversification opportu-

Vanderbijlpark, Gauteng, John Ogony Odiyo

About the Editors

Peter Bitta Bikam is a registered professional town planner SACPLAN town

James Chakwizira is a registered professional planner with the South African

(SAPI), a Corporate Member of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering

Peter Bitta Bikam Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of

AKAP Attitudes, Knowledge, Awareness and Practices

IDC Industrial Development Corporation

SAPIA South African Petroleum Industry Association

Fig. 1.1 Elements required to optimise green transport economy . . . . . . . . 4

Table 1.1 Areas covered in the case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

John Ogony Odiyo, Peter Bitta Bikam, and Rachel Makungo

Abstract This book provides policy framework on “towards a Green Economy in

J. O. Odiyo · R. Makungo (B)

© The Author(s) 2022 1

1.2 Strategic Objectives

• Environment, climate change and the green economy,

1.3 The Approach to the Policy Recommendations

Ensure access to green transport

Reduction in km travelled per capita

Use of renewable energy sources

Integrated land use planning

Efficient and environmentally friendly transport

Provision of pedestrian and cycling lanes

Fig. 1.1 Elements required to optimise green transport economy

Skills Lever II: Transport modes and the green economy,

1.4 Case Study

Fig. 1.2 Transition towards a green economy in the transport sector

of predominantly rural communities and hence transition to green economy will be

Fig. 1.3 Municipalities covered in the case study

Table 1.1 Areas covered in

Jason Samuel Ogola

Abstract To identify and evaluate possible impacts of climate change on transporta-

Keywords Climate change · Transportation system · Green economy ·

2.1 Science of Climate Change

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992

© The Author(s) 2022 9

• Johannesburg Summit 2002—the World Summit on Sustainable Development

2.1.1 Sources of Greenhouse Gases

Fig. 2.3 Carbon dioxide

2.2 Impacts of Climate Change in South Africa

2.3 Climate Change and Its Impacts on the Transport

Fig. 2.4 Contributors to greenhouse gas emissions in South Africa

Table 2.1 Summary of research priorities—coastal/marinea

Table 2.2 Summary of research priorities—coastal/rail and roada

Table 2.3 Summary of research priorities—interior/rail, road and pipeline

Fig. 2.5 Floods in Kwazulu Natal in 2017 (https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/live-mas

and alternative sources of energy to mitigate against climate change. Transportation

2.4 Strategies to Reduce GHG Emissions in the Transport

Nthaduleni Sam Nethengwe

Keywords Transport modes · Green economy · Implementation strategies ·