Prokaryote-single cell

Eukaryote-multi cell
Ribosomes synthesise proteins
Ribosomes are found on RER
The rough endoplasmic reticulum produces a protein
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum helps synthesise and concentrate substances
Lysosomes break down toxins
Gongi body does final modifications to communication proteins/ribosomes to go outside
Small non-polar molecules can go through the phospholipid layer and water
And carbon dioxide and water
Larger molecules need carrier and channel proteins
Active transport needs energy as it goes against the concentration gradient
Passive transport does not need energy as it follows the concentration gradient
Osmosis
Passive transport- does not require energy and goes with the concentration gradient
Active transport- uses energy and goes against the concentration gradient.
Phospho lipid- hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic tail- fatty acid tail
Apoptosis is programmed cell death
Apoptosis is caused by malfunction of the cell
Plasmolisis is when the cell shrivels in a hypertonic solution
Hypertonic-high solute concentration and low solvent- e.g very high concentration salt
solution
STEM CELLS
Multipotent cells- can develop into a number of specialised cells
Pluripotent- can become many cell types
Multipotent- can become any type of cell
Mitosis takes place in somatic cells
Type 1 diabetes- is inherited- caused by immune cell attacking beta cells that produce
insulin. Constant insulin injections and controlled carbohydrate intake
Type 2 diabetes-caused by factors like diet, occurs later in life. Glucose become resistant to
insulin. Control carbohydrate intake and potential injection of insulin
Caspases
Immune cells activate apoptosis via the extrinsic pathway
Death receptor protein receives the kill signal
The intrinsic pathway is caused by my mitochondria's stress
Mitochondria releases signal for cell death
4 stages of apoptosis
Initial cell damage
Once damaged, cell begins to shrink
Activates caspases
Digestion of cell orgennels
Cytoskeleton collapses
Belbbing occurs of the remains
White blood cells clean up the remails
Nephron
Glomerelous-
Bowman's capsule-
Proximal convoluted tibial-
Loop of Henle-
Distal convoluted tibial-
Collecting duct

High ADH when not enough water

Low ADH when too much water

Beta cells- insulin

-alpha cells- glucagon
Glucose enters and exits cells via channelling and carrier proteins
Hyperthyroidism- When too many thyroid hormones are produced
Glucose regulation
HISTONE PROTEINS
Types of allele combination
Gkyco lipids

Enzymes, glands and substrate

Amylase- breaks down carbs-salivary glands

Maltase breaks down carbs-intestine
Lipase-break down fats-pancreas
Pepsin-break down proteins -stomach
Trypsin–breaks down protein-Pancreas

stimulus-high temperature
receptor-Thermo receptor
modulatorHypathamas
effectorSweat gland
response-Sweat secreted

Glomerulus-tiny blood vessels that start the filter of the blood, remove waste

Bowman's capsule-FILTRATIONdouble walled cup shape structure that surrounds the

glomerulus

Proximal convoluted tibial- REABSORBTION OF IONS, AMINO ACIDS, GLOCOSE AND

WATER, SECRETION OF AMMONIA AND TOXINSa first curved-like structure that
reabsorbs water and nutrients from the urine

Loop of Henle-REABSORB WATER, SECRET URINEbig curve connecting proximal tibial

and distal tubal.

Distal convoluted tubule- OPTIONAL REABSORBTION WATER, SECRETS IONS AND

TOXINSconnects loop of Henle to the collecting duct and the urine system
Collecting duct-OPTIONAL REABSORBTION WATER, SECRETION OF WATER, IONS,
AMMONIA AND TOXINS waste passes through here after filtered and urine is passed to the
ureters
Gluyogen- sored glucose
Glucagon- hormone to trigger glycogen
Hyperglycemia-too much blood sugar
Hypoglycemia- not enough blood sugar

and recyclable substances are released back into the bloodstream

Carrier protein and Channeling protein
Hypotonic- high solute concentration
Hypertonic- low solute concentration
Isotonic- same solute concentration
There are 92 chromatids after protein synthesis, but you count chromosomes by the
centromere
Therefore 46 centromere
Will separate later
Prophase-DNA condenses into chromosomes, centrioles move apart, nuclear membrane
dissolves
Metaphase chromosomes get lined up in the middle/equator
Anaphase-Chromosomes get pulled apart toward either pole of the cell, nuclear membrane
starts to reform
Telophase constrictions occur, nuclear membrane fully appears
Cytokinesis-full separation into daughter cells
Constrictions are separating cells
Haplois-46 chromosomes,23 pairs
Diploids-92 chromosomes,46 pairs\
Binary fission- how prokaryotes reproduce
-single circular DNA
Asexual reproduction
Copies itself
1 parent
No genetic variation
-very fast

APOPTOSIS
Checkpoints are used to find cancerous cells
G1-check cell size
Check DNA rep
Check for damage
Ensure enough energy and oxygen
G2-Check if the DNA rep correctly
Check energy for mitosis
Metaphase-Ensure spindle fibres have formed correctly
Check that chromosomes are on the equator
Apoptosis
Both pathways require the activation of caspase
Programmed death
 1. Enzymes destroy the DNA and nucleus
2. Plasma membrane form blebs
3. Detackes from cytoskeleton
4. Blebs contain dead bits
5. White blood cell clean-up derbies
Caused by damage to the cell, mitochondrial stress or end of the natural lifespan
intrinsic/mitochondrial pathway- activated by the response to cell stress, triggered by
deprivation of cell growth factors, DNA damage, damage to the cell membrane or low
oxygen levels.
Dependent of cytrokrome C
Extrinsic pathway/death receptor cell-external signals from the immune system. May be
caused by infections or external damage
Cancer is uncontrolled cell replication
They divide rapidly
Continue to divide with DNA damage

Stomach
Gastric juices
Digestion
Liver- secretes bile
Gall bladder- stores bile
Pancrease- pancreatic juices-
LIPASE
PROTEASE
AMALAYSE
Glucose enterers the bloodstream from the villi in the small intestine via direct diffusion

Thermo receptors- heat

Nociceptors-pain
Baroreceptors-pressure
Chemoreceptors-chemicals
photoreceptors-light
Negative feedback counters stimulus
Positive feedback promotes stimulus

The thyroid controls lots of homeostases

E.g
1. stimulus-Change in factor(temperature)
2. receptor-Hypothalamus
3. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone(TRH)
4. Modulator-Anterior pituitary gland
5. Release thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH)
6. effector-Thyroid gland
7. Response-release of T3 and T4
T3 and T4 inhibit the secreting of TRH and TSH-NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP
Healthy people only release when needed
Xylem- water- only up
Phloem- Food, sugar, glucose- up and down everywhere
Root and Shoot system

Water diffuses into the root with the concentration gradient

Xylem is much stronger as the pull up against gravity
Have thick cellulose lining
Capillary action- Higher gas pressure is down at the roots, low pressure up top. Therefore
sucks the water up
Adhesion-water sticks to other things
Cohesion-Water sticks to itself
The combination of these factors and the polar nature of water allow the Xylem to get water
up
Stoma- factors affect stoma opening, like light, wind, temperature
Transpiration, excess water loss due to evaporation
Adhesion, Cohesion and capillary action are called transpiration pull

Photosynthesis
Phase 1/ light phase/ light dependent phase-THYLAKOIDS
Sunlight excites the electrons which split H2o into H and O-O is waste- H is used in the
making of glucose- Hydrogen is taken by stoma in the form of NADP that is carried by
NADPH.
Phase 2/dark phase/light-independent phase/ Calvin cycle-STOMA
Take in carbon dioxide, fixes carbon dioxide and when the hydrogen from the light phase
comes, they are formed into C6H2O6(glucose)
Plants are green as they absorb all light colours except for green and reflect green
The dark phase uses ATP and hydrogen from light phase

Light intensity and temperature can limit photosynthesis

If photosynthesis plateaus, then there is another factor that is limiting it
In temperature, the temperature is too high, then photosynthesis becomes zero and the
enzymes denature