PHYS30392 Cosmology

Week 5 Notes

5 Solutions for the Scale Factor

We are now at the stage where we can apply the Friedmann equation to study the behaviour of the scale factor in
different cosmological models. Here, we will start by considering flat models before studying models with curvature
then models with dark energy.

5.1 Flat Models

We start with a model in which the universe is flat (κ = Ωκ = 0) and contains only non-relativistic matter (ρ =
ρm , P ≈ 0). We thus have Ωm = 1. This is commonly known as the Einstein-de Sitter model. The Friedmann
equation simplifies to
da H0
=√ . (1)
dt a
This has a simple solution; if we define t = 0 when a = 0 (Big Bang), we can integrate to an arbitrary value of t
to get a(t) = (3H0 /2)2/3 t2/3 .Then, writing t = t0 when a = 1 (present day), the current age of the universe in this
model is t0 = 2/(3H0 ) and we can write a(t) = (t/t0 )2/3 . Note the current age is two thirds of the Hubble time,
1/H0 .
Another interesting model is when we make the same assumptions as above but instead assume the universe only
contains radiation (or relativistic particles). From our discussion of the fluid equation, we know that the pressure
term also contributes to the energy density, resulting in ρr ∝ a−4 . The Friedmann equation now simplifies to
da H0
= , (2)
dt a
which yields the solution a(t) = (t/t0 )1/2 where the current age of the universe is now t0 = 1/(2H0 ).
Both scenarios are unrealistic; we know that our Universe contains both matter and radiation. In this case, the total
density can be written as ρ = ρm + ρr . Assuming that the two components do not interact, we still have ρm ∝ a−3
and ρr ∝ a−4 . We also still have a flat universe, so we can write

Ωm + Ωr = 1. (3)

The Friedmann equation for our two-fluid mixture is then

 
2 2 Ωm Ωr
H = H0 + 4 . (4)
a3 a

In practice (see below) we have Ωr  Ωm , i.e. ρr  ρm at a = 1. However, since ρr decreases with increasing
a at a faster rate than ρm , there will exist an epoch in the past when ρm = ρr (i.e. the two terms in the above
equation are equal). We call this the epoch of matter radiation equality, aeq = (1 + zeq )−1 = Ωr /Ωm . Solving the
Friedmann equation for this is tricky (we get a parametric solution) but away from the transition we must have
limiting behaviour of the radiation and matter cases, i.e.
• when a  aeq , we have ρ ≈ ρr and a(t) ∝ t1/2 ;
• when a  aeq , we have ρ ≈ ρm and a(t) ∝ t2/3 .
In cosmology, we refer to each of these time periods as the radiation-dominated era and matter-dominated era,
respectively. So, when does the transition between these two eras occur? From the CMB we measure Ωr h2 ≈
4.2 × 10−5 (this includes 3 massless neutrino species) and Ωm h2 ≈ 0.14. This gives aeq = Ωr /Ωm ≈ 3 × 10−4 , or
zeq ≈ 3, 300. The temperature of the CMB at that time is then Tγ (zeq ) = TCMB (1 + zeq ) ≈ 9, 000 K, assuming a
present-day value TCMB = 2.725 K.

1
 5.2 Models with Curvature
Let us now consider models with non-zero curvature, i.e. κ 6= 0. Recall the effective curvature density parameter
is defined as Ωκ = −κc2 /(H02 R2 ) at the present day (a = 1). We will neglect radiation for now, given that it only
dominates at early times, so our solution will be valid for a  aeq .
The Friedmann equation can be written as
 
Ωm Ωκ
H2 = H02 + (5)
a3 a2
 
Ωm 1 − Ωm
= H02 + , (6)
a3 a2

where we have used the condition Ωm + Ωκ = 1 in the second line. To find the solutions for a(t), we need to treat
the positive and negative curvature cases separately:

5.2.1 Open universe

An open universe has κ = −1 and Ωm < 1 (i.e. ρm < ρcr ). From the above Friedmann equation we can see that
both terms on the RHS must be positive (and never zero for finite a) so an open universe that is initially expanding
will continue to expand at all times (ȧ > 0). Similar to the case with matter and radiation, we see that such a
universe will transition between a matter era and a curvature era when aκ = Ωm /|Ωκ | ≡ Ωm /|1 − Ωm |. For example,
if Ωm = 0.3 then Ωκ = 0.7 and aκ ≈ 0.43 (zκ ≈ 1.33). Note we have aκ  aeq so our assumption to ignore radiation,
at least to calculate a(t) for times when curvature effects are important, is reasonable. Also note, when a  aκ , the
dynamics will be driven by the curvature term and we see that the expansion rate, ȧ, will become constant and thus
a ∝ t. This is the long-term fate of an open universe.
To solve the
√ Friedmann equation
p for a(t) in this model, it is first useful to change to a new time variable θ such that
a dθ = H0 1 − Ωm dt = Ωm H02 /aκ dt. We will also define θ = 0 at the Big Bang when a = 0 and t = 0, and θ will
increase with both t and a. We then rewrite the Friedmann equation in terms of θ as
theta = ln(a) ? da da dt p
= = aκ a + a2 . (7)
dθ dt dθ
Re-arranging this equation for θ (noting that θ = 0 when a = 0), we can write
Z a
da
θ(a) = √ . (8)
a 2
0 κa + a

To solve this, first complete the square in the denominator, writing

"  #
2
2 a2κ 2a 4a
aκ a + a = +
4 aκ aκ
" #
2
a2κ

2a
= +1 −1 . (9)
4 aκ

Then we use the substitution cosh u = 1 + 2a/aκ , leading also to sinh u du = (2/aκ ) da. We thus have
Z a Z u s Z u
da aκ 4 sinh u du
√ = = du, (10)
a2κ cosh2 u − 1
p
0 aκ a + a2 0 2 0

and we thus have θ = u and can re-arrange our definition of u such that a(u) ≡ a(θ) to write
aκ
a(θ) = [cosh θ − 1] . (11)
2

2
We can now also solve for t(θ) by integrating our original equation for dθ i.e.
Z t r Z θ
aκ
t(θ) = dt = a(θ) dθ
0 Ωm H02 0
s Z θ
a3κ
= [cosh θ − 1] dθ
4Ωm H02 0
s
a3κ
= [sinh θ − θ] . (12)
4Ωm H02

This is known as a parametric solution; for a fixed value of θ we calculate both a(θ) and t(θ), then vary θ until we
get the desired values of a and/or t. Note that, at early times (a  aκ , or θ  1 here), we have (using the series
expansions for sinh and cosh), a ∝ θ2 and t ∝ θ3 , so a ∝ t2/3 . This is the expected Einstein-de Sitter result i.e. for
the matter-dominated era.
Exercise: show that the expected scaling, a ∝ t, is recovered for a  aκ (θ  1).

5.2.2 Closed universe

A closed universe has κ = +1 and Ωm > 1 (ρm > ρcr ). This means Ωκ < 0 and so it is better to write the Hubble
parameter as
 
Ωm |Ωκ |
H 2 = H02 − (13)
a3 a2
 
Ωm Ωm − 1
= H02 − , (14)
a3 a2
which makes it clear that, in a closed universe, the curvature term has the opposite sign to the matter term.
Consequently, there exists an epoch when the RHS is zero i.e. the universe stops expanding (H = 0), at ata =
Ωm /(Ωm − 1). We call this the turn-around time, since the universe will start contracting afterwards (i.e. at a > ata
we will have ȧ < 0). This leads to a point in the future when a → 0, known as the Big Crunch.
√
To get the exact solution, we follow the same steps as for an open universe, but instead use a dθ = H0 Ωm − 1 dt =
p
Ωm H02 /ata dt, so the Friedmann equation becomes
da p
= ata a − a2 . (15)
dθ
We need to integrate this to get θ(a), i.e. Z a
da
θ(a) = √ . (16)
0 ata a − a2
We complete the square by writing
" 2 #
a2ta

2 4a 2a
ata a − a = −
4 ata ata
" 2 #
a2ta

2a
= 1− 1− . (17)
4 ata

We now use the substitution cos u = 1 − 2a/ata , with sin u du = (2/ata ) da. Again, we find that θ = u but the
parametric solution is now in trigonometric (rather than hyperbolic) form
ata
a(θ) = [1 − cos θ] (18)
s2
a3ta
t(θ) = [θ − sin θ] . (19)
4Ωm H02
Inspection of these results for a and t reveals three key epochs:

3
 1. θ  1: at early times (a  ata ) we have, as before, a ∝ θ2 and t ∝ θ3 so we recover the Einstein-de Sitter
scaling a ∝ t2/3 .
2. θ = π: here, a is at its maximum value, ata = Ωm /(Ωm − 1), as expected (by definition).
3. θ = 2π: here, a = 0 and we have the Big Crunch. This happens when t = 2tta .

5.3 Models with Dark Energy

To recap, we have so far considered models with radiation, matter and curvature. If all components are non-zero,
the relevant Friedmann equation is  
Ωm Ωr Ωκ
H 2 = H02 + + . (20)
a3 a4 a2
We also know that Ωr  Ωm which means that radiation was only the dominant component (and thus driving the
expansion) at early times (a ∝ t1/2 ). At later times, the matter term dominates (a ∝ t2/3 ), then eventually the
curvature term dominates (the ultimate fate of the universe depends on this - open universes expand forever; closed
universes will stop expanding and eventually collapse).
Now, recall the accelaration equation: both matter and radiation result in ä < 0 i.e. the universe decelerates with
time (curvature does not explicitly appear in the equation). However, we observe our Universe to be currently
accelerating, which requires a rather strange equation of state with P < −ρc2 /3 i.e. w < −1/3.
We call such models dark energy models. The simplest model introduces a cosmological constant, Λ. 1 In this case,
we can think of Λ as a fluid with a constant energy density, i.e. from the fluid equation we require, for ρ̇ = 0, the
fluid to have a negative pressure P = −ρc2 , i.e. w = −1. In other words, as the universe expands, the density of this
component is unchanged.
Let us write this density as
Λc2
,ρΛ = (21)
8πG
where Λ is the cosmological constant (note it has dimensions of L−2 ). Now, if we add on this density ρ → ρ + ρΛ
(where ρ is the density of matter and radiation) and P → P − ρΛ c2 , the Friedmann equation becomes
8πG κc2 Λc2
H2 = ρ− 2 2 + (22)
3 a R 3 
2 Ωr Ωm Ωκ
= H0 + + + Ω Λ , (23)
a4 a3 a2
where we have defined (yet another version of the constant) ΩΛ = Λc2 /(3H02 ). Setting a = 1 we get the condition
Ωr + Ωm + Ωκ + ΩΛ = 1.
Adding the extra density and pressure terms associated with Λ into the acceleration equations, we also get
Λc2
 
ä 4πG 3P
=− ρ+ 2 + , (24)
a 3 c 3
which shows that we can have ä > 0 if the Λ term is larger than the matter/radiation term.
What about the solution, a(t)? Let us simplify matters by assuming that Ωκ = 0, i.e. the universe is flat. Inspection
of Equation 23 tells us that, regardless of how small ΩΛ is, it will eventually drive the expansion of the universe
(since the matter and radiation terms are positive and decrease as a increases). In the era of Λ domination, the
Friedmann equation can approximately be written as
da p
= ΩΛ H0 a, (25)
dt
which yields an exponential solution p 
a(t) ∝ exp ΩΛ H 0 t . (26)
1A cosmological constant was originally introduced by Einstein for a very different reason, to stop space expanding.

4
In other words, at earlier times, matter and radiation are slowing down the expansion, but their influence diminishes
with time as they become diluted with the expansion. Eventually, the (very diffuse but constant density) dark
energy becomes the dominant component and acts like anti-gravity, causing the universe to expand at an ever faster
(exponential) rate.
We have no idea what dark energy is. However, it is included in our cosmological model for two main reasons:
1. It produces late-time, accelerated expansion of space, in good agreement with distance measurements from
standard candles;
2. Various observations (CMB, galaxy surveys etc.) favour a flat universe (Ωκ ≈ 0) with low matter density
(Ωm ≈ 0.3); dark energy provides the missing energy density.
Dark energy raises two profound problems that challenge our current understanding of the Universe:
1. Why are Ωm and ΩΛ so similar (same order of magnitude) today? In the past, we would have ρm  ρΛ . This
is known as the Timescale Problem.
2. What is the origin of Λ? Quantum gravity models predict a constant vacuum energy density with ρΛ ∼
c5 /(~G2 ), a number that turns out to be around 10120 times larger than we need for cosmology. This is known
as the Cosmological Constant Problem.
The currently-favoured model, ΛCDM, assumes the simplest case as described above, i.e. a cosmological constant
with w = −1 and ΩΛ ≈ 1 − Ωm ≈ 0.7 (recall the radiation density is negligible today). An important goal for present
and near-future cosmological surveys is to constrain the value of w and look for evidence of it deviating from w = −1,
and potentially varying with the scale factor i.e. w(a).