Module 1 Geology - AJCE 1

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY- MODULE 1 Dept.
of Civil Engineering, AJCE
Syllabus:
Relevance of Geology in Civil Engineering, Surface Processes of the earth- a) Weathering of
rocks-Types of weathering, Processes of Origin of Products of weathering like sand, clay,
laterite and soil, soil profile, Soil erosion and soil conservation measures. Engineering
significance of weathering. b) Geological processes by rivers. c) Landslides-types, causes and
controlling measures, Coastal Processes-Geological work by waves and currents and coastal
protection measures
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition and Content
• The word Geology is derived from two Greek words,
•  GEO = Earth
•  LOGOS = Science
• Geology is the science which deals with the physical structure and substance of the earth, their
history, and the processes which act on them.
• Geology deals with the composition of Earth materials, Earth structures, and Earth processes.
• It is also concerned with the organisms of the planet and how the planet has changed over
time.
• Engineering geology is the bridge between geology and engineering.
• It applies geology to civil and mining engineering practices.
• Its purpose is to ensure that geological factors are considered in planning, designing,
constructing, and maintaining engineering works and developing groundwater
resources.
• Geology is the science that studies the Earth as a planet.
• It deals with the origin, age, and structure of the Earth, as well as the evolution,
modification, and extinction of physical features such as mountains, plateaus, plains,
valleys, basins, caves, and coastal, marine, and submarine forms.
• It also studies the materials making up the Earth and the nature and functioning of the
surrounding atmosphere.
• The study of water bodies, including surface and underground bodies, forms an
important part of geology.
• Geology includes the study of the interaction between the atmosphere, lithosphere, and
hydrosphere, including the processes involved and results produced due to such
interaction.
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY- MODULE 1 Dept. of Civil Engineering, AJCE
• Geology also includes the study of various physical, dynamic, and physico-chemical
processes operating on or within the Earth and the agents and forces involved in such
processes.
• Geology is considered one of the fundamental basic sciences like Physics, Chemistry,
and Biology.
Geology is the scientific study of the Earth, its materials, processes, and history. It
includes a wide range of sub-disciplines that are closely related and interdependent.
Here are some of the major branches of geology:
• Petrology: This branch of geology studies the composition, structure, and origin of
rocks.
• Mineralogy: This branch of geology studies the physical and chemical properties of
minerals and their occurrence in nature.
• Geophysics: This branch of geology studies the physical properties of the Earth,
including its gravitational, magnetic, electrical, and seismic properties.
• Structural Geology: This branch of geology studies the deformation and structure of
rocks and how they have been affected by tectonic forces.
• Sedimentology: This branch of geology studies the processes and products of

sedimentation, including the formation of sedimentary rocks.
• Stratigraphy: This branch of geology studies the layers of rocks that make up the Earth's
crust and how they have been formed and changed over time.
• Geochemistry: This branch of geology studies the chemical composition and behavior
of Earth materials, including minerals, rocks, and fluids.
• Paleontology: This branch of geology studies fossils and the evolution of life on Earth.
• Environmental Geology: This branch of geology studies the interactions between

humans and the Earth, including the effects of natural hazards, pollution, and climate
change.
2. SCOPE / RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
The basic objects of a course in Engineering Geology are twofold:
(a) It enables a civil engineer to understand engineering implications of certain conditions

related to the area of construction, which are essentially geological in nature.
(b) It enables a geologist to understand the nature of geological information that is absolutely
essential for a safe design and construction of a civil engineering project
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It is obvious, therefore, that a civil engineer is neither expected nor required to undertake
himself geological investigations of the area before designing and implementing the
construction plans of a major civil engineering project. He must be, however, capable to
understand and critically discuss a geological report of the area prepared by an experienced
geologist and derive maximum useful information pertaining to the project in question.
The scope of engineering geology is best studied with reference to major activities of the
profession of a civil engineer which are:
 Construction,
 Water Resource Development,
 Town and Regional Planning.
Fig 1.1 Scope of Engineering geology
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2.1 Geology in Construction Jobs
In all types of heavy construction jobs such as buildings, towers, tanks, dams and reservoirs,
highways and bridges, traffic and hydropower tunnels, embankments and retaining structures,
lining of irrigational and navigational canals and water bodies, laying of pipelines for oil, gas
and water transport, platforms and aerodromes and so on, full geological information
about the site of construction (or excavation) and about the natural materials of construction is
of paramount importance. This information has full relevance in all thethree aspects of
each construction: planning, designing and execution.
(a) Planning
Following geological information is greatly useful in proper planning of an engineering project:
(i) Topographic Maps. Such maps give details of relief features and are essential to
understand relative merits and demerits of all the possible sites for the proposed structure.
The presence and nature of slopes, size, contours and depth of valleysand gorges and
rate of change of elevation in various directions can be easily computedfrom such maps. A
broad choice to demarcate the area for construction can he made at this Stage.
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(ii) Hydrological Maps. These maps give broad details about the distribution ad geometry
of the surface water channels and also the occurrence and depth contours of ground water
below the surface of the earth. Such data is of great importance in proper planning of
many engineering projects. This is because surface water and groundwaterare most
important factors that influence the stability and cost of engineering structures in many
ways.
(iii) Geological Maps. Petrological characters and structural disposition of rock types as
developed in the proposed area are depicted in geological maps. It is from thesemaps
and sections drawn across them in different directions an engineer can obtain much useful
information regarding fracturing and displacement that the site rocks might have
undergone in the past. These maps also give an idea about the availability or otherwise
of the materials of construction in the area. Further, these maps guide him in locating
and limiting the exploratory operations (test holes etc.) for subsurface investigations in the area
of interest.
(b) Design :
Some of the geological characters that have a direct or indirect bearing upon of a proposed
project are:
(i) The existence of hard bed rocks and their depth from and inclination with the surface.
(ii) The mechanical properties along and across the site of the proposed project; among these
properties, special mention must be made of their compressive strength, shear and transverse
strength, modulus of elasticity, porosity and permeability, resistance to decay and
disintegration.
(iii) Presence, nature and distribution pattern of planes of structural weakness (joints, faults,
folds, cleavage, schistosity and lineation etc.) and also that of seams or zones of weak materials
(as shear zones, fault zones, clay bands, schistosity zones etc.)
(iv)The position of ground water table in its totality including points of recharge and
discharge and variations during different periods of the year.
(v) Seismic character of the area as deciphered from the seismic history and prediction about
future seismicity.
(c) Construction
 During the actual execution of a civil engineering project, geological knowledge is

of great value to an engineer in the selection and proper use of right type of materials of
construction derived from the natural bedrocks, soils and banks and beaches.
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 The engineer responsible for the quality control of construction materials will derive
enormous benefit from his geological background of the natural materials such as sands,
gravels, crushed rocks and soils.
 Properties of all of these materials are best understood when studied in a proper
geological perspective.
 Similarly, for construction in geologically sensitive areas as those of coastal belts,

seismic zones, and permafrost regions, knowledge of geological history of the area is of great
importance.
 In the coastal areas, behaviour of rocks towards waves, currents ad marine

environment must be fully understood both at the planning stage and more so during execution
of the work. Special type of construction may become essential in these areas.
 It is true about construction in seismic regions where weight of the construction

material becomes a critical factor because the construction has to be well balanced and
essentially light weight as far as possible. Architectural fancies are to be avoided or else very
carefully designed and constructed.
 Construction in permafrost regions (where soil remains permanently frozen up to a

certain depth all the time), presents its own problems that can be solved only by proper
understanding of the ground below.
2.2 Geology in Water Resources Development
 Exploration and development of water resources have become very important areas
of activity for scientists, technologists and engineers in all parts of the world.
 In fact water is fast becoming most sought after necessity for survival of mankind
on the globe.
 Geological information is of fundamental importance in exploration and exploitation

of water resources of a region from surface and subsurface reserves of water.
 The water resource engineer has to understand the water cycle in all essential details.
 Water cycle, as we know, is the name given to the sum-total of processes of

evaporation of water from the hydrosphere, its precipitation in the form of rain and snow, and
its falling and/or flowing back into the rivers, lakes, seas and oceans and into underground
water bodies and soil.
 Study of water cycle is an essential pre-requisite for effective planning and execution
of major water resource development programmes on national and regional levels.
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 The water bearing properties of rock bodies, the aquifers as they are called, as well
as host of other factors that influence storage, movement and yield of water from aquifers are
essentially geological problems.
 They require thorough geological knowledge about the make-up and disposition of
strata for designing a dependable water supply project.
2.3 Geology in town and regional planning
 Town planner is concerned essentially with land utilization in as best and as aesthetic
manner as possible for developing cities and towns for meeting social needs in different areas.
 In this effort, his primary aim is to derive maximum benefits from the natural
environment with minimum disturbance.
 To achieve these twin objectives, he must possess a broad perspective of the nature
and properties of all the elements making the environment of the area under study.
 The materials making the land (rocks, soils, vegetation, water bodies etc.) and the
roles played by each of them in the evolution of the natural landscape has to be understood.
 He must be capable of fully understanding the state of equilibrium the surface features
have already achieved with the prevailing environment on the whole and also their intricate
relations with each other. This will help him to decipher the trends of change with time.
 In the developing countries and also in the developed countries to some extent,
population pressure consistently necessitates gradual advances over the virgin lands within and
outside the perimeters of the existing towns and cities.
 These lands are to be used for providing additional housing colonies, community
buildings, commercial centers, water supply projects, link roads, metros, industrial centers
and so on.
 Whether a particular site is suitable for an identified project from engineering point
of view is the job of a civil engineer to decide which he would do in consultation with an
engineering geologist.
 But firstly and primarily it is the town planner equipped with the geological
knowledge who must take the decision regarding allocation of lands for different requirements
keeping in mind that every meter of land that is taken out from the natural system for any
construction activity is going to effect the System as a whole.
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 The construction area so developed must not introduce a major element of

disequilibria in the natural set up. As far as possible, it should add to the harmony of the
landscape.
3. WEATHERING
Weathering is defined as the process of decay and disintegration of rocks under theinfluence
of certain physical and chemical agencies of the atmosphere.
 The decayed and disintegrated product remains generally at or near the parent rock
body because the weathering agencies do not involve themselves in the removal of the end
products to any significant distances.
 Examples: Rocks exposed to frost action at higher altitudes in cold and humid
climates disintegrate into small sized fragments that remain strewn over the slopes.
 Similarly rocks exposed to heating temperatures of the Sun in deserts gradually

disintegrate into smaller pieces that remain lying on or close to the parent rock
3.1 Types of weathering
 Physical weathering [temperature, wind]

 Chemical weathering [water]
 Biological weathering [vegetation and organism]
3.1.1 Physical weathering:
 It is also called mechanical weathering

 It is a natural process of in-situ disintegration of rocks into smaller fragments and particles
through essentially physical processes without a change in their composition
 .
Mechanical (Physical) Weathering

• It is a natural process of in-situ to disintegration of rocks into smaller fragmentwithout
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change in composition
• The variations in temperature and organic activity are the two important factors that bring about this
change under specific conditions
• Temperature variations cause extensive mechanical weathering of rocks exposed on the surface. This
occurs mainly by two ways viz. frost action in cold regions and thermal effects (insolation) in hot arid
regions.
• It is one of the most common geological processes of slow natural rock disintegration in allparts of
the world
•
Types of physical weathering
Frost wedging: Water gets into cracks in rocks and then freezes, causing the water to expand and
push the crack wider. When the ice thaws, the rock may split apart.
Exfoliation: This is the process of layers of rock peeling away from a larger rock mass due to changes
in pressure and temperature.
Thermal expansion: When rocks are heated, they can expand, causing them to crack or split.
Biological weathering: The roots of plants can grow into rocks and cause them to break apart.
Burrowing animals can also contribute to physical weathering.
Abrasion: This is when rocks are worn away by other rocks or sediments rubbing against them, often
caused by wind or water erosion.
Salt weathering: Salt crystals can grow in rocks and cause them to break apart, especially in areas
with high salt content and frequent wetting and drying cycles.
Pressure release: This happens when overlying rock is eroded away, causing the pressure on deeper
rocks to decrease. As a result, the deeper rocks can expand and crack.
(a) Frost Action
• In cold and humid climates, water freezes repeatedly during winter months.
• Freezing of water in various places like pots, pools, water pipes, taps, cavities, and cracks in concrete
roads is common.
• Freezing of water in pores, cavities, and fractures of rocks widens the openings and accommodates
more water to come and freeze in subsequent cycles.
• Freezing is followed by a thawing cycle, which leads to gradual disintegration of rocks due to internal
stresses.
• Frost formed fragments are angular, sub-angular and irregular in outline and remain spread over the
parent rock having flat surface or flat slopes.
• On significant slopes, frost fragments get heaved up from the crevices and cavities and then roll down
the slope under the influence of gravity, accumulating at the base as heaps, commonly called scree
deposits.
• In stabilized slopes with weaker gravity, fragments remain unevenly strewn over the surface of the
slopes.
• Slopes covered by frost-formed scree are referred to as talus slopes.
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(b) Thermal Effects (Insolation)
• In arid, desert, and semi-arid regions, rocks undergo physical disintegration due to a
phenomenon related to temperature.
• Rocks expand on heating and contract on cooling, inducing volumetric changes in them.
• Even though rocks are bad conductors of heat, prolonged exposure to direct heating by the Sun
induces appreciable volumetric changes in them.
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• In arid and semi-arid regions, the difference between day and night temperatures and between
average temperatures in summer and winter is quite considerable.
• Rocks in some deserts, such as Kara Qum, are exposed to as high temperatures as 70-80°C in
summer and are cooled down to -10°C in winter.
• Repeated variations in temperature experienced by a body of rock radially break it into smaller
pieces, especially in the top layers, by the development of tensile stresses from alternate
expansion and contraction.
Exfoliation.
• In thick rock bodies or layered rocks, upper layers are affected most by temperature variations.
• Upper layers may peel off from the underlying rock mass due to the effect of temperature
variations.
• Chemical weathering often accompanies the peeling off of upper layers, especially at margins
and boundaries of the separated layers.
• Curved surfaces develop due to chemical weathering at the margins and boundaries of the
separated layers.
• The phenomenon of peeling off of curved shells from rocks under the influence of chemical
weathering is known as exfoliation.
3.1.2 Chemical weathering
• Chemical weathering alters rocks in the crust through chemical decomposition caused by atmospheric
gases and moisture.
• Moisture containing active gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen play a role in
the process.
• The process involves chemical reactions between rock surfaces and atmospheric gases to establish a
chemical equilibrium.
Five processes are mostly responsible for chemical weathering
 Solution
 Hydration and hydrolysis
 Oxidation
 Carbonation
 Colloid formation
(a) Solution
• It is the process by which rock is dissolved in water
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• Some rocks contain one or minerals that are soluble in water to some extent, e.g. Rock salt,
gypsum and calcite.
• Some minerals are not soluble in water. The solvent action of water for many common
minerals is enhanced when carbonated. For example limestone which is not soluble in water is
soluble in carbonated water.
(b) Hydration and Hydrolysis
These two processes indicate the direct attack of atmospheric moisture on individual minerals of a rock
that affect its structural make up.
When the surfaces of many crystals (having partially unsatisfied valences) come in contact with polarized
water molecules, any one of the following reactions can occur:
I. The ions tend to hold the polarized side of water molecule and form ahydrate. This process of
addition of the water molecule is called hydration. For example:
CaSO4 + 2H2O CaSO42H2O
(Anhydrite) (Water) (Gypsum)
Anhydrite gets slowly converted to gypsum by hydration as shown above.
II. The process in which exchange of ions occur whereby water enters into thecrystal lattice of
mineral, is called hydrolysis.
K + AlSi3O8 + H+ H Al Si3 O8 + K+
(Orthoclase) + (Ion from water) Silicic acid like structure + Potassium ion
Weathering of Orthoclase (K + AlSi3O8) occurs as shown above.
(b) Oxidation
• Iron bearing minerals in the rocks are prone to oxidation and reduction. The effects are
observed from colour changes produced in iron bearingrocks. For example:
• Ferrous iron (Fe++) is oxidized to ferric iron (Fe +++) when exposed to air rich inmoisture. Ferric
iron is oxidized to stable ferric hydroxide.
• Iron oxide in rocks and minerals reduces to elemental iron in presence ofdecaying vegetation, which
supplies carbonaceous content causing reduction
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(c) Reduction
Reduction. In specific types of environment, such as where soil is rich in decaying vegetation
(swamps), minerals and rocks containing iron oxide may undergo a reduction of the oxides to
elemental iron. In this case the decaying vegetation supplies the carbonaceous content causing
reduction.
The effects of oxidation (and to some extent of reduction) weathering are easily observed from
the colour changes produced in iron bearing rocks. Those rocks in which the iron has been
oxidized to ferric state show a marked brown colour, especially in oxides, hydroxides and
hydrates. But where the oxidation has reached only the ferrous state, the typical colors
developed in the rocks are various shades of green, blue and grey
(d) Carbonation
It is the process of weathering of rocks under the combined action of atmospheric carbon
dioxide and moisture, which on combination form a mildly reacting carbonic acid. The acid
so formed exerts an especially corrosive action over a number of silicate bearing rocks. The
silicates of potassium, sodium and calcium are particularly vulnerable to decay under
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conditions of carbonation. A typical example is that of felspar orthoclase, a very common

and important constituent of many igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, which
decomposes according to following reaction:
(e) Colloid formation
The processes of hydration, hydrolysis, oxidation and reduction operating on the rocks and
minerals under different atmospheric conditions may not always end in the formation of stable
end products. Often they result in splitting of particles into smaller particles- the colloids-
characterized by atoms with only partially satisfied electrical charges. Formationof colloidal
particles is especially common in the weathering of clay minerals, silica and iron oxides.
Spheroidal weathering
It is a complex type of weathering observed in jointed rocks and characterized with the breaking
of original rock mass into spheroidal blocks. Both mechanical and chemical weathering are
believed to actively cooperate in causing spheroidal weathering. The original solid rock mass
is split into small blocks by development of parallel joints due to thermal effects (insolation).
Simultaneously, the chemical weathering processes corrode the borders and surfaces of the
blocks causing their shapes roughly into spheroidal contours.
3.1.3 Biological Weathering
Role of Plants and Organisms Plants and organism also contribute towards mechanical
disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks of the crust.
Plants. Hydrogen ions (H +) are known to be released at the roots of plants during their growth
and metabolism. These ions are capable of replacing K+, Ca++ and Mg++ ions from theminerals
and rocks surrounding the root system and make them available for use in plant growth. But in
this process, the original minerals and rocks around the root system start undergoing
decomposition and disintegration. Root systems of conifers and other big trees creep into pre-
existing cracks in the nearby rocks. Often this results in loosening apart of the stone fragments
followed by their rolling down slope.
Man himself is known to be the greatest destroyer of rocks. He has been breaking them since
the very beginning for one purpose or other and making their use in a variety of ways. All the
above processes of decay and disintegration of rocks by living things are or grouped as organic
weathering.
3.2 Factors affecting weathering
 Nature of rocks
 Climate prevailing in that area
 Physical environment
(a) Nature of rocks
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Rocks vary in chemical composition and constitution. Some rocks are easily affected
by weathering processes in a particular environment whereas others may get only slightly
affected and still others may remain totally unaffected under the same conditions. Thus of
granite and sandstones exposed to atmosphere simultaneously in the same or adjoining areas
having hot and humid climate, the sandstone will resist weathering to a great extent because
they are made up mainly of quartz (Si02) which is highly weathering resistant mineral.
Granites, on the other hand, are likely to undergo a lot of chemical decay due to carbonation,
hydration and hydrolysis. Hence, chemical composition of the rock is an important factor in
determining the stability or otherwise of a rock in a given environment.
(b) Climate
The process of weathering is intimately related to the climatic conditions prevailing in anarea.
Same types of rocks exposed in three or more types of climates may show entirely different
trends of weathering. Thus cold and humid conditions favour both chemical and mechanical
types of weathering, whereas in totally dry and cold climates. Neither chemical nor mechanical
weathering may be quite conspicuous (due to absence of moisture). Similarly,in hot and humid
climates, chemical weathering processes predominate whereas in hot and dry climates (the arid
areas) mechanical breakdown due to expansion and contraction of the rocks at the surface may
be more pronounced.
(c) Physical Environment
The topography of the area where rocks are directly exposed to the atmosphere also affects
the rate of weathering to a good extent. Rock forming bare cliffs, mountain slopes devoid Of
vegetation and valley sides are more prone to weathering than same rocks exposed and/or under
vegetable cover. This is because in the first in level lands in case the slopes assist in theremoval
of weathering end product faster and make fresh rock susceptible to weathering.
In the second case the weathered product accumulates over parent rock and slows down the
further destruction.
3.3 Products of weathering
The weathering products are commonly classified into two main types:
a) Eluvium: It is the end product of weathering that happens to lie over and above the
parent rock. It may consist of fragmentary material resulting from rock disintegration
or fine powdered material resulting from chemical decomposition or a mixture of
both. The eluvium may form a thin or thick layer depending on the duration for which
weathering has been operative on the parent rock. When the cover is sufficiently thick,
the parent rock is always traceable at some depth below.
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b) Deluvium. It is that category of end product of weathering that has been moved to some
distance after its formation due to weathering processes. It is invariably associated with
weathering of slopes and forms heaps of various thickness and gradeat the base of
slopes. Gravity and rain-wash are the main agents involved in removal of the
weathering products after their formation.
c) Regolith. The term regolith has been broadly used to express all the weatheredmaterial,
eluvium or deluvium that covers the parent rock or is lying close to it. It forms deposits
of huge thickness in suitable environment. In most cases, weathering of rocks becomes
slow after the formation of weathered layers at the top. This is because the atmospheric
agencies, the moisture and gases, cannot penetrate effectively down into the rocks
through the overlying cover.
4. SOIL PROFILE
The soil profile is defined as a vertical section of the soil that is exposed by a soil pit. A soil pit
is a hole that is dug from the surface of the soil to the underlying bedrock.
It is defined as the record of behaviour of the material with depth below the surface up to which
the effects of weathering can be easily established. The emphasis is both on the depth as well
as quality of effects.
In a typical Soil Profile, following four weathering zones (horizons) are commonly recognized
Zone O
Zone A.
Zone B.
Zone C.
Zone D.
The thickness of different zones in a soil profile is quite variable ranging from a fraction of
meter to many meters. At places, zone A may be completely absent, having been removed after
its formation, as on slopes. At other places this zone may extend downwards for quite
considerable depths, as in level lands or valleys.
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SIGNIFICANCE OF HORIZONS
A Horizon: An A horizon is a mineral horizon. This horizon always forms at the surface and
is what many people refer to as topsoil. Natural events, such as flooding, volcanic eruptions,
landslides, and dust deposition can bury an A horizon so that it is no longer found at the surface.
A buried A horizon is a clear indication that soil and landscape processes have changed some
time in the past. Compared to other mineral horizons (E, B, or C) in the soil profile, they are
rich in organic matter, giving them a darker color. The A horizon, over time,is also a zone of
loss – clays and easily dissolved compounds being leached out – and A horizons are typically
more coarse (less clay) compared to underlying horizons (with the exception of an E horizon).
Additions and losses are the dominant processes of A horizons.
E Horizon: The E horizon appears lighter in color than an associated A horizon (above) or B
horizon (below). An E horizon has a lower clay content than an underlying B horizon, and often
has a lower clay content than an overlying A horizon, if an A is present. E horizons are more
common in forested areas because forests are in regions with higher precipitation and forest
litter is acidic. However, landscape hydrology, such as perched water tables, can resultin the
formation of an E horizon in the lower precipitation grasslands, as seen in the profile below.
The dominant processes of an E horizon are losses.
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B Horizon: A B horizon is typically a mineral subsurface horizon and is a zone of accumulation,

called illuviation. Materials that commonly accumulate are clay, soluble salts, and/or iron. Minerals in
the B horizon may be undergoing transformations such as chemical
alteration of clay structure. In human modified landscapes, processes such as erosion can sometimes
strip away overlying horizons and leave a B horizon at the surface. Such erosion is common in sloping,
agricultural landscapes. A bulldozer preparing land for a new subdivision can also leave a B horizon at
the surface. The dominant processes in a B horizon are transformations and additions.
C Horizon: A C horizon consists of parent material, such as glacial till or lake sediments that
have little to no alteration due to the soil forming processes. Low intensity processes, such as
movement of soluble salts or oxidazation and reduction of iron may occur. There are no
dominant processes in the C horizon; minimal additions and losses of highly soluble material
(e.g., salts) may occur.
O Horizon: An O horizon has at least 20% organic matter by mass. Two main scenarios result
in the formation of an O horizon: saturated, anaerobic conditions (wetlands) or high production
of leaf litter in forested areas. Anaerobic conditions slowthe decomposition
process and allow organic material to accumulate. An O horizon can have various stages of
decomposed organic matter: highly decomposed, sapric; moderately decomposed, hemic; and
minimally decomposed, fibric. In a fibric O layer, plant matter is recognizable (e.g., it is
possible to identify a leaf). Sapric material is broken down into much finer matter and is
unrecognizable as a plant part. Hemic is in between sapric and fibric, with some barely
recognizable plant material present. It is possible to have multiple O horizons stacked upon one
another exhibiting different decomposition stages. Because of their organic content, these
horizons are typically black or dark brown in color. The dominant processes of the O horizon
are additions of organic matter, and transformations from fibric to sapric.
ROLE OF ACIDS IN CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical weathering is the process by which changes take place in the very chemicalstructure
of rocks themselves. Chemical weathering represents a second stage of rock disintegration in
which small pieces of rock produced by physical weathering are then furtherbroken apart by
chemical processes.
Three chemical reactions in particular are effective in bringing about the weathering of a rock:
acid reactions, hydrolysis, and oxidation. Acids form readily in the soil. One of the most
common such reactions occurs when carbon dioxide in the air reacts with water toform a
weak acid, carbonic acid. Carbonic acid has the ability to attack many kinds of rocks, changing
them into other forms. For example, when carbonic acid reacts with limestone, it produces
calcium bicarbonate, which is partially soluble in water. Caves are formed when underground
water containing carbonic acid travels through blocks of limestone, dissolves out the
limestone, and leaves empty pockets (caves) behind.
Acids produced by human activities can also produce chemical weathering. For example, the
conversion of metallic ores to the pure metals often results in the formation of sulfur dioxide.
When sulfur dioxide combines with water, it forms the weak acid sulfurous acid and,
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eventually, the stronger acid sulfuric acid. Both of these acids are capable of attacking
certain kinds of rocks in much the way that carbonic acid does.
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction by which a compound reacts with water to form one or
more new substances. A number of rock-forming minerals readily undergo hydrolysis,
especially in acidic conditions. For example, the common mineral feldspar will undergo
hydrolysis to produce a clay-type mineral known as kaolinite and silicic acid. Both of these
new compounds are much more soluble in water than is feldspar. Hydrolysis of the mineral
results, therefore, in the degradation of any rocks in which it may occur.
Oxidation occurs when the metallic part of a mineral reacts with oxygen in the air (or from
some other source) to produce a new substance that is different in structure or more soluble
than the original mineral. The spectacular red, orange, and yellow color of certain natural rock
formations—such as those in Utah's Bryce Canyon—are an indication that an oxideof iron
has been produced during the chemical weathering of the rock formations.
5. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS
Soils have been classified in a number of ways. At present many classification systems are
available, each system serving to a particular Objective. The agricultural classification 0soils
is useful for Crop scientists and is basically different from engineering classification used
by a civil engineer or the one used by a geologist. Only geological classification of soils will
be dealt with here, for obvious reasons.
5.1 Geological Classification
It is perhaps the simplest of soil classifications and divides all the soils into two main groups:
Residual soils and Transported soils. This is based primarily on the evidence whether soils
are found over and above the rocks from which these are derived by decomposition, or, these
have been accumulated in the region of their present occurrence after transportation for
considerable distances.
A. Residual Soils
Those soils that have suffered very little or no transport during or after their formation and are
found more or less covering their parent rocks are classified broadly as residual soils. Their
most important characters are summarized as below;
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(i) Thickness of such soils varies from place to place depending upon factors like climate,
lithology, topography and the extent of time for which the soil forming processes have been
operative in that region. Deep residual Soils may be either due to a rapid rate Of soil formation
or to prolonged soil forming activities without any obstruction.
(ii) Stratification. Residual soils generally show no stratification. These would show,
however, well-distinguished horizons of soil profile developing through ages by operation of
soil forming processes.
(iii) Chemical Composition. Their chemical composition is defined principally by the nature
of parent rock and the trends of chemical activity as determined by the climate of the area. The
residual soils in cold climates are often rich in humus.
(iv) Leaching. The deep residual soils of the humid areas arc often highly leached resulting
in the removal of soluble plant foods and concentration of salts harmful for fertility. Hence,
these are often infertile. The Red and Black soils Of India are examples of residual group.
B. Transported Soils
This group includes all those soils that have been deposited at places far from their parent rocks.
During transportation, soils from one place are mixed up with many types from other places
and hence result in complex, heterogeneous nature of the resulting accumulations, thereby
making it difficult to make an immediate idea about their source rocks.
Transported soils are further classified on the basis of main agent involved in their transport
and deposition as follows:
1. Colluvial Soils. These include the soils that have moved down largely under the influence
of gravity and only for short distance. Such soils commonly occur at or near the base of steep
slopes and are never well stratified.
2. Alluvial Soils. It is a major group of soils and includes such soils that have been spread out
by streams along their banks on the flood plains during repeated floods.
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These are made up of fine material and are clearly stratified. In view of their heterogeneous
composition, fine size and negligible leaching, these soils are often very fertile. The Indo-
Gangetic alluvial soils are the best example of this group.
3. Glacial soils. During the Pleistocene Ice age, great glaciers covered vast areas of North
America, Europe and Asia. When the ice melted, all the debris it carried was deposited in the
form of heterogeneous soil which has undergone series of changes subsequently. These soils
are aptly classed as glacial soils.
4. Eolian soils. Wind is a very active agent for transport of dust, silt and sand grade particles.
Wind deposited soils composed chiefly of silt and clay fractions form the loess spread over
thousands of square kilometres in China and America. The sandy soils of similar origin are also
common and form the desert and the semi desert regions of many countries.
A smaller group of soils, formed from accumulation of debris in lakes and other bodies of
standing water, is called lacustrine soil. It is rich in organic material and often classed among
the organic soils. The Karewas of Kashmir — so famous for supporting 'saffron' crops are
partly lacustarine in origin.
Volcanic Soils are Soils that have formed where there is a lot of activity from volcanos .They
are often very rich in nutrients and hold water well because of their volcanic ash content
6. ENGINEERING SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING
ADVANTAGES
 Weathering produces soil- vital for agriculture
 Weathering makes rocks porous and permeable
 Cheap building stones like laterite develop due to weathering
 Economic mineral deposits like bauxites form due to weathering
 Oxidation important phenomena in the formation of ore deposits
 Occurrence of economically important mineral deposits are related to weathering
DISADVANTAGES
 Weathering reduces the strength, durability and good appearance of rocks
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 Weathered rocks become unfit as a construction material
 Weathering due to sea waves results in coastal erosion
 Weathered rocks become weak and unsuitable for tunnelling
 Enormous loose soils formed due to weathering along steep slopes turn out to be
landslides
 Rapid silting in reservoirs reduces the capacity of the reservoir.
 Weathering is the main cause of instability of slopes.
For a construction engineer it is necessary to find out
 To what extent the area for a proposed project is deteriorated by weathering
 What would the likely effect of weathering on construction material be as proposed to

be used in the project?
GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES OF FORMATION OF SOIL
• Soil is the end product of processes of decay and decomposition of rocks

• Formation of soils is a continuous and time-dependent process
• May require hundreds and thousands of years
• Controlled by number of factors
– Climate
– Nature of parent material
– Vegetation
– Topography
– Time
Soil Forming Processes
1. Additions
2. Losses
3. Translocations
4. Transformations
• Additions: Materials added to the soil, such as decomposing vegetation and organisms
(organic matter--OM), or new mineral materials deposited by wind or water.
• Losses: Through the movement of wind or water, or uptake by plants, soil particles (sand,
silt, clay, and OM) or chemical compounds can be eroded, leached, or harvested from the
soil, altering the chemical and physical makeup of the soil.
• Transformations: The chemical weathering of sand and formation of clay minerals,
transformation of coarse OM into decay resistant organic compounds (humus).
• Translocations: Movement of soil constituents (organic or mineral) within the profile
and/or between horizons. Over time, this process is one of the more visibly noticeable as
alterations in color, texture, and structure become apparent.
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7. SOIL EROSION
Erosion work of water
1) Sheet erosion
2) Gully erosion
Sheet erosion
Sheet erosion is the uniform removal of soil in thin layers by the forces of raindrops and
overland flow. It can be a very effective erosive process because it can cover large areas of
sloping land and go unnoticed for quite some time.
Sheet erosion can be recognized by either soil deposition at the bottom of a slope, or by the
presence of light - colored subsoil appearing on the surface. If left unattended, sheet erosion
will gradually remove the nutrients and organic matter which are important to agriculture and
eventually lead to unproductive soil.
Gully erosion
Gully erosion is the removal of soil along drainage lines by surface water runoff. Once
started, gullies will continue to move by headward erosion or by slumping of the side walls
unless steps are taken to stabilize the disturbance.
Gully erosion occurs when water is channeled across unprotected land and washes away the
soil along the drainage lines. Under natural conditions, run-off is moderated by vegetation
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which generally holds the soil together, protecting it from excessive run-off and directrainfall.
Repair work done in the early stages of newly formed gullies is easier and more economical
than letting the problem go unchecked for too long. Large gullies are difficult and costly to
repair.
EROSION WORK OF WIND
1) Deflation
2) Abrasion
Deflation
The act of removing the loose particles of the earth from one area and forming depressions. By
this process oasis is formed in deserts.
Fig. 4 Deflation by wind

Abrasion
Process of impact of the coarse particles in the wind against formations like rock and eroding
them. Most of the coarse materials in the wind remains in the lower 30 to 60 cm height of wind
from the ground as bed load and some coarse sand particles will be swept by rolling them on
the ground.
SOIL CONSERVATION MEASURES –
Agronomic Practices
By agronomic practice it means the protection of the top soil by special methods and schemes of crop
cultivation
USE OF VEGETATION: Crops and vegetables which cover the ground surface well and have
extensive root system reduce soil erosion. Plant canopy protect the soil from the adverseeffect
of rainfall. The grasses and legumes produce dense sod which helps in reducing soil erosion.
The vegetation provides organic matter to the soil. As a result, the fertility of soil
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increases and the physical condition of soil is improved. Following cropping systems help in
controlling soil erosion -
 Crop rotation: Crop rotation is planned sequence of cropping. Rotation of crop is an

important method for checking erosion and maintaining productivity of soil. A good rotation
should include densely planted small grain crops, spreading legume crop etc. which may check
soil erosion.
 Strip Cropping: It consists of growing erosion permitting crop (e.g. Jowar, Bajra,
Maize etc.) in alternate strips with erosion checking close growing crops (e.g. grasses, pulses
etc.). Strip cropping employs several good farming practices including crop rotation, contour
cultivation, proper tillage, stubbles mulching, cover cropping etc. It is very effective and
practical means for controlling soil erosion, especially for gently sloping land. It may be of
different types as follows:
 Contour strip Cropping: Contour strip cropping is the growing of erosion permitting
and erosion resisting crops alternately in strips across the slope and on the contour line. This
practice is useful because it checks the fast flow of run-off water increases the infiltration of
water in the soil and prevents soil erosion.
o Field Strip Cropping: Strips of crop are parallel to the general slope of the land
o Wind Strip Cropping: Strips of crop are across the direction of wind regardless of
contour.
o Buffer Strip Cropping: In this, the severally eroded portion of land is permanently
kept under grass and contour strip cropping is practices in the rest of the area.
 Cultivation of dense plant and grasses: Crops such as, ground nut, cover the surface
of the land and their roots bind the soil particles to form soil aggregates, thus preventing soil
erosion.
 Cultivation of proper crops: Cultivation of row crop in sloppy lands permits soil
erosion. In this filed, the crops particularly cereals, fodder crop etc. should be broadcasted
and the plants remain haphazardly in field. As a result, the movement of water gets obstacle
and more water is absorbed in the soil, thus reducing soil erosion. Mixed and intercropping
practice checks the soil erosion and avoids the risks of the crop failure.
 The land should not be kept without crop: There is very scope of soil erosion if there
are no crops on the land. The soil erosion decreases in different way of cropped land.
 Afforestation: Afforestation means growing of forests where there were no forests

before owing to lack of seed trees or due to adverse factors such as unstable soil, aridity or
swampness. Along with afforestation, reforestation should be undertaken which means
replanting of forests at places where they have been destroyed by uncontrolled forest fires,
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excessive felling and lopping. Mulching: Mulches of different kinds such a leaves, straws,
paper, stubbles, etc. minimize evaporation and increase the absorption of moisture and protect
the surface of the land against the beating action of rain drops. Later on they decay to form
humus which improves the physical condition of soil. Natural mulching also helps inthe
infiltration of water and the reduction of evaporation.
 Organic manure: Organic manures improve the soil structure. The crumb and granular
structure increases the infiltration and permeability in the soil and conserve the soil water.
Consequently soil erosion decreases.
 Control of grazing: Grazing increases the soil erosion. But the grazing cannot be
completely stopped in all areas. So the restricted and rotational grazing may be helpful in
checking soil erosion to some extent. The area open to grazing for sometimes should be closed
for the following year to facilitate regeneration of forests and to maintain thick ground
vegetation.
 Good tillage: Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of soil by different kinds of

implements. Tillage makes the soil loose and friable which helps in retention of water. The
special method of tillage practices should be followed for the conservation purposes. Tillage
may consist of several types of soil manipulation such as ploughing, harrowing, cultivation etc.
MECHANICAL SOIL CONSERVATION MEASURES -
Mechanical measures include various engineering techniques and structure. This practices
aim at some objective as follows:
 To divide a long slope of land into a series of shorter ones in order to reduce the velocity
of runoff water.
 To retain the water in the land for long period so as to allow maximum water to be
absorbed and held in the soil and less water flows down the slope of the land at non-erosive
velocity.
 To protect the soil against erosion by water.
The important mechanical soil conservation measures are as follows:
Excavation of ditches: These can be described as artificially created channels excavated at

suitable locations to divert the excess of water from approaching the affected areas, especially
in steeply sloping regions. These are of two types.
a) Diversion ditches: Which are excavated above the cultivated portion of a sloping area with
the view of diverting the runoff away from the field.
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b) Interception ditches: Made at regular and suitable intervals across the cultivated field. By
draining away volume of water from small strips, these ditches do not allow formation of thick
sheets of water capable of doing great damage.
Check dams: Small check dams constructed out of various materials like stones, timber and
steel etc. Have been found especially useful in combating Gullying. Such dams serve the
purpose of reducing the velocity of runoff and cause deposition of materials which ultimately
support vegetation.
Contour bunding: Contour bunding consists of building earthen embankment at intervals

across the slope and along the contour line of the field. A series of such bund divide the area
into strips and act as barrier to the flow of water. As a result, the amount and velocity of run-
off are reduced, resulting reducing the soil erosion. Contour bunding is made on land where
the slope is not very steep and the soil is fairly permeable. Contour bunds are also called level
terraces, absorption type terraces or ridge type terraces. Contour bunding works are carried out
over wide areas in many parts of India, notably in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Terracing: A terrace is an embankment of ridge of earth constructed across the slope to control
run off and to minimize soil erosion. A terrace reduces the length of the hill side slope, thereby
reducing sheet and rill erosion and prevents formation of gullies. There are different types of
terraces as follows:
Bench terracing: It consists of transforming relatively steeps land into a series of level or
nearly level strips or steeps running across the slope. The soil materials that are excavated from
the upper part of the terrace is used in filling the lower part and a small bund is also raised
along the outer edge of the terrace to check the downward flow of rainwater and also soil
erosion.
Channel terrace: It consists of making of wide but shallow channels across the slope of the
land either exactly on contour line or with a slight grade (0.1 to 0.2 per cent). In this process,
the excavated soil is placed along the lower edge of the channel in the form of low ridge.
Narrow based terrace: It consists of making a number of narrow based ridges or bunds at a
distance of 1m to 2m across the slope of the land at suitable intervals in high rainfall areas.
Broad based ridge terrace: It consists of making wide but low bunds on the contour lines by
excavating soils from both sides of terrace. This is practiced in areas where the rainfall is
relatively low.
Contour trenching: It consist of making a series of deep pit (i.e. 2ft. wide and 1ft. deep) or
trenches across the slope at convenient distance. The soil excavated from the trenches is
deposited on the lower edge of the trenches where forest trees are planted.
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8. LANDSLIDES ( MASS WASTING)
Landslide refers to refers to the downward sliding of huge quantities of land mass. It occurs
when part of a natural slope is unable to support its own weight. which occur along steep slopes
of hills or mountains and may be sudden or slow.
A true landslide is a type of mass failure in which a superficial mass fails by moving as a whole
along a definite surface of failure. The surface of failure may be planar or semi- circular in
outline. It is often characteristic of a landslide that the mass above the failure surface is unstable
whereas the material of any composition, shape and of varying degree of consolidation: loose
soil, rock fragments and whole blocks or slabs of rock.
Landslides are further distinguished into Translational Slides, Rotational Slides and rock falls
on the basis of the type of movement involved in the failure.
(i) Translational slide
the surface of failure is generally planar in character, speed of failure is quite rapid and nature
of mass involved in failing may be rock blocks, rock slabs, debris and soil cover or even a
mixture of all of them. These slides are quite frequent on slopes made up of rocks and cohesive
soils.
(ii) Rotational Slides
in such slides, the failing surface is generally curved in character and the speed of failure is
quite rapid. Because of the nature of the failing surface, the movement of the mass takes the
form of a sort of rotation, rather than translation. The material involved in failure tilts
downwards at the rear end and heaves up at the front or toe.
(iii) Rock Topping and falls
These are grouped along with slides although there may be little or no sliding involved in their
failure. In the falls, there is almost a free, a sudden and fast decent from a steep slope.
MAIN FACTORS OF LANDSLIDES
1. Natural Factors
(i) Gravity
(ii) Geological factors
(iii) Heavy and prolonged rainfall
(iv) Earthquakes
(v) Forest fire
(vi) Volcanoes
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(vii) Waves
2. Anthropogenic Factors
Human actions most notably those that affect drainage or groundwater, can trigger landslides
(i) Inappropriate drainage system
(ii) Cutting & deep excavations on slopes for buildings, roads, canals &mining
(iii) Change in slope/land use pattern, deforestation, agricultural practices on steep slopes
TYPES OF LANDSLIDES (TYPES OF MASS WASTING)
Types of Landslides
(i)Translational Slides
(ii)Rotational Slides
(iii)Rock falls
(iv) Debris Slides
(v) Rock Slides
1. Translational slides
 The surface of failure is generally planar in character
 Speed of failure is quite rapid
 Nature of mass involved in failing may be rock blocks,rockslabs,debrisetc
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2. Rotational Slides
 Failing surface is generally curved.
 Speed of failure is quite rapid.
 The movement of mass takes the form of a sort of rotation, rather than translation
 The material involved in failure moves downwards at the rear end and heaves up at
the front or toe.
3. Rockfalls
 Refers to the blocks of rocks of varying sizes suddenly crashing downwards[from

cliffs] along steep slopes.
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 Common along steep shore lines and in higher mountain regions during the rainy
season.
4. Debris slides
 Debris is an earth material generally greater than coarse sand size
 A debris slide is characterized by unconsolidated rock and soil that has moved down
slope along a relatively shallow failure plane
 Debris slides form steep, unvegetated depressions in the head region and irregular,
deposits in the toe region.
 Depressions are likely to remain unvegetated for many years.
 These depressions can be recognized by the nature of the slope, steepness of the slope
etc.
 May occur on any slope where internal resistance to shear is reduced.
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 For any potential failure surface, there is a balance between the weight of the potential
landslide ( driving force or shear force) and the inherent strength of the soil or rock within the
hillside ( shear resistance). Provided the available shear resistance is greater than the shear
force then the slope will remain stable
5. Rock slides
 A rockslide is a type of landslide caused by rock failure in which material collapses

in masses and not in individual blocks.
 The rocks tumble downhill loosening other rocks on its way also smashing everything
in its path
 Rapid downward movement of newly detached segments of bedrock.
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Mainly due to two types of causes
 Inherent causes
 Immediate cause
Inherent/Internal causes
 Effect of slope
 Effect of water
 Effect of lithology
 Effect of associated geological structures
 Effect of human factors
1. Effect of slope
 Very important factor which provides favourable conditions for landslide occurrence.
 Steeper slopes are prone to landslides due to greater gravity influence.
 Angle of repose
 Most materials are stable upto a certain angle of slope. This is called the critical angle
of slope or angle of repose.
 But hard consolidated and fresh rocks remain stable even against any slope ,unless
they are adversely affected by other lithological and structural factors
2. Effect of water
 Most important factor which is responsible for landslide occurrence.
 It adversely affects the stability of loose ground in different ways.
 Presence of water greatly reduces the intergranular cohesion of the particle of loose
ground, thereby weakening the ground.
 On hill slopes, water percolates through overlying soil zone and flow down as a thin
sheet of water above the underlying hard rocks.
 Thus acts as a lubricating medium and induces the downward movement of overlying
loose material along it’s direction of flow.
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3. Effect of lithology
 Rocks which are highly fractured, porous and permeable are prone to landslides.
 Rocks which are rich in clay, mica etc are prone to landslides, because they are easily
leached out, causing porosity and permeability.
 Thinner strata are more susceptible to sliding than thicker strata.
4. Effect of human factor
 Human beings interfere with nature by virtue of their activities and cause landslides.
 Eg: When undercutting are made along the hill slopes for laying roads/railways
 When construction works are carried on hill tops,they act as heavy loads on the loose
zone of overburden.
Immediate Causes
 Violent volcanic eruptions, fall of meteorite, occurrances of earthquakes,

tsunamis/blasting of explosives in quarrying, road cutting or mining.
EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDES
 Causes disruption of transport/blocking of communications by damaging

roads/railways etc.
 Obstruction of river flow in valleys,leading to the overflow and floods.
 Damage to sewer and other pipelines.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES OF LANDSLIDES
To counter the effect of slope
Retaining walls may be constructed against the slopes, so that the material which rolls down
is not only prevented from further fall, but also reduces the slope. Terracing of slope is another
effective measure.
To counter the effect of water
A proper drainage system is the suitable measure.
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Involves quick removal of percolated moisture by means of surface drainage and subsurface
drainage.
Not to resort to reduce the stability of existing slopes
 By not undertaking any undercuttings on the surface slope and by not undertaking any
construction of top of the hill.
 Avoiding heavy traffic and blasting operations near the vulnerable places naturally
prevents landslides
MITIGATION MEASURES
Site-Specific Mitigation Measures
1. Proper drainage management
2. Bio-engineering and Afforestation
3. Early Detection
4. Slope stability measures
LANDSLIDE HAZARD MITIGATION PROGRAMME
In order to prevent and mitigate the landslide risk, national initiatives are required or
strengthened to address the following aspects:
1. Landslide Hazard Zonation(LHZ
2. Mapping and monitoring of active landslides/vulnerable slopes
3. Early Warning Systems
4. Awareness generation
Additional advice for specific locations
Before the Disaster
 Get a ground assessment of your property
 Minimize home hazards
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 Doors/windows stick or jam for the first time, new cracks appear ,bulging ground
appears at base of a slope, ground slopes downward in one direction and may begin shifting
in that direction under your feet; faint rumbling sound increases in volume as landslide nears
 Make evacuation plans, planning at least two routes allowing for blocked and closed
roads
 Develop an emergency communication plan and ask an out-of-state relative or friend to

serve as the family contact
 Purchase flood insurance.
During the disaster
If indoors:
 Stay inside and get cover under a sturdy piece of furniture.
If outdoors:
 Try to get out of path of mudflow
 Run to nearest high ground in a direction away from path
 If rocks and other debris are approaching, run for nearest shelter such as a group of
trees or a building
 If escape is not possible, curl into a tight ball and protect your head.
 Be cautious of sinkholes.
After the landslide
 Stay away from slide area
 Check for injured and trapped persons and give first aid where needed
 Listen to battery-operated radios for emergency information
 Remember flooding may occur after a mudflow or landslide
 Check for damaged utility lines and report damage to the utility company
 Check the building foundation, chimney, and surrounding land for damage
 Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of ground
cover can lead to flash flooding.
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9. COASTAL PROCESSES
38
DEPOSITIONAL COASTAL LANDFORMS
SHALLOW WATER DEPOSITS (NETRITIC DEPOSITS)
1. Beaches
 Loose deposits made by the sea near the shore from the materials eroded from nearby
regions.
 The lower margin of the beach is beneath the waves whereas the upper margin is a
few meters above the still water.
 Waves and currents play a great part in the formation of a beach.
. 2. Spits and bars
• These are ridge shaped deposits of sand that often extends across the embayment
• A spit is formed when a sediment laden shore current transports the sediments along
the shore line.
• When there is a change in the coastline, it moves through deeper and quieter water
where it lays down much of it sediments
• This process result in an incomplete ridge in continuity with the shore but terminating
in open waters. This structure is called SPIT.
• As spit grows outwards, a change in wind direction, may result in the change of
direction of spit forming a curved end.
Bars
� When the ridge so formed closes the mouth of the embayment it is known as Bar.
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3. Tombolo
 It is a form of bar that connects a head land and an island or an island with another
island.
 Tombolo is formed where the spit continues to grow until it reaches an island
,forming a link with main land, just like bridges.
DEEP WATER DEPOSITS
 Also known as ‘pelagic deposits’

 Mainly consists of mud and oozes.
 Oozes consist of small organisms known collectively as ‘planktons’.
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Coral Reefs
� These are peculiar type of ridge like marine deposits that have been formed due to
accumulation of dead parts of certain parts of certain type of organisms.
� Corals –a type of calcium secreting organisms
� There are three types of reefs
 Fringing reefs
 Barrier reefs
 Atolls
1. Fringing reef
 Thin tabular sheets of coral accumulations that are developed along the border
(fringe) of a maintained coast or along the rim of an island.
 If they are developed along the rim of an island, they appear like a ring-shaped
deposit around the island during the low tide.
 A simple fringing reef has a steeply sloping seafront and a flat pavement surface.
2. Barrier reefs
 More common type of reefs and occur at a distance from the shore or the island
running in the form of parallel, flat topped ridges.
 A body of water “lagoon” is separating the reef from the shore or the island.
 The ridge may be continuous or broken here and there.
3. Atoll
 Atoll is essentially an annular, circular or semi-circular coral reef surrounding a
central body of water that is usually called a ‘lagoon’.
 The ring made of coral deposits may be continuous or discontinuous. more often
broken at places.
 The top of an atoll is generally flat and pavement like appearance.
 They vary in size from small ribbon like patches to extensive accumulations of 2-3
km or more.
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COASTAL MANAGEMENT
Some coastlines are under threat of erosion causing cliffs to retreat and beach material to be
lost. Others are at risk from coastal flooding. In many cases the decision has been made to try
and reduce the erosion to protect the coastline. This is called COASTAL MANAGEMENT.
Coastal Management = The attempt by people to maintain the natural features of the coast
for their own advantage
Two strategies in coastal management
1. Hard Engineering
2. Soft Engineering
HARD ENGINEERING
Hard engineering options tend to be expensive and short-term options. They may also have
a high impact on the landscape or environment.
Groynes – Wooden/concrete barriers built at right angles to the beach.
 One of the most frequently used protection types used to stabilize the coast.
 They are help build up beach material by preventing longshore drift.
 Groynes build up beaches at a small scale & are cheaper than sea walls.
 Groynes can reduce the amount of sediment downcoast, which may have an effect on
areas elsewhere (as these areas might get starved of material and their beaches get smaller).
 They also have a short lifespan.
Sea walls
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 Vertical or sloping structures, built along the shoreline in an attempt to stop erosion
 Can be constructed from any type of material- e.g. from sand-filled bags to reinforced
concrete structures.
 Often controversial as they are ugly and can be destroyed eventually.
 Waves scour at the bases of the walls & eventually undermine them, causing failure.
As a result, seawalls only provide temporary protection before needing replacement.
 They are expensive.
 The object of defence work is to dissipate wave energy (beaches do this very well)
whereas sea walls have the opposite effect- walls concentrate wave energy and reflects it
back at the sea.
 The wall receives maximum impact which weakens the structure.
Revetments
 Often situated away from the cliffs and attempt to reduce the energy of the waves
before they reach the cliffs/ coastline.
 Designed to allow sediment to pass through them, which means that longshore drift is
not hindered.
 The structures absorb the energy of the waves before they reach the cliffs. This
method prevents wave scour.
 They are also very cheap, but they do need to be replaced quite often & can be
regarded as ugly.
Rock armour (rip-rap)
 Large boulders that work in a similar way to seawalls, but they are permeable
structures.
 They are able to dissipate wave energy by absorbing the impact of the waves.
 Rip-rap structures do not suffer from the wave scour that afflict the seawalls.
 Clearly, masses of boulders are much cheaper than sea walls & are longer lasting.
43
 However, they are pretty unappealing to the eye & can reduce the recreational value
of the beach.
 They can also act as groynes & can prevent downdrift movement of sediment.
Gabions
 The principle of gabions is similar to the Rip-rap method of protection (i.e. dissipation
of wave energy etc).
 However, gabions use smaller rocks and are encased in a wire mesh; this means that
local beach material could be used, which enables the structures to blend in more with its
surroundings.
 Potential problems arise when the wire mesh breaks (risk of injury) and one could
also argue that they are pretty ugly.
 Gabions may not last for a long period of time (5-10 years)
SOFT ENGINEERING
Soft engineering options are often less expensive than hard engineering options. They are
usually also more long-term and sustainable, with less impact on the environment.
Beach nourishment
 Replacement of sand/pebbles on eroding beaches.

 The best example is the nourishment of beaches at Miami Beach where 17.7 million
m³ of sediment was dredged & moved to the beach to provide an area for recreation & also to
protect the expensive properties that were found in the location.
 The problem with beach nourishment is that one severe storm event may remove vast
amounts of the expensive sediment.
Beach reshaping
 Sand dunes and cliffs are a natural sea defence.

 They dissipate wave energy and protect the area behind from flooding.
 They are stabilised by fences or by planting grasses to hold the sand and rocks
together.
 This is cheap and effective but easily damaged by people if not maintained.
Managed retreat/ coastal realignment
 This is where in certain areas, the sea is allowed to reclaim (flood) the land that was
once covered by the sea.
 This often means that farmland is lost, but the pressure of floods are reduced because
it creates salt marshes that can be flooded and can absorb the energy.
 A natural and long-term sustainable solution.
 Does require compensation for land that is lost
44
10. GEOLOGICAL PROCESS BY RIVERS10.1
Introduction
• The running water is aptly considered as the most powerful of all the natural geological
agents of change.
• Small surface bodies of water flowing in channels of their own are called streamlets and
streams.
• Many streams flowing through a big area and ultimately joining to form a single major
channel of flow take the shape of a river.
• Streams and rivers that collectively drain out all the water received from precipitation
(rainfall and snowfall) and other sources (melt water and spring water) in a given region
form the Drainage System of that particular region.
• The region that contributes water to system so developed is called Drainage Basin.
10.2 Geological Works of Streams
The geological work of streams may be broadly divided into three well-defined phases
1. Erosion.
2. Transport
3. Deposition.
10.2.1 RIVER EROSION
• Erosion means disintegration and decomposition of the rocks and soil material by a natural
agent through mechanical, chemical and other physico-chemical processes accompanied
by removal of the disintegrated or decomposed product to far places by the same agent.
• Streams and rivers are the most powerful sub aerial agents of erosion.
• Others are wind and ice.
• The running water performs its erosive work in four ways:
a) hydraulic action.
45
b) abrasion.
c) attrition and
d) corrosion.
 Hydraulic Action: It is the mechanical loosening and removal of the material from
the rocks due to pressure exerted by the running water. The higher the velocity, the
greater is the pressure of the running water and hence greater is its capacity to bodily
move out parts of the rock
Cavitation It is a distinct and rare type of hydraulic action performed by running water.
It is particularly observed where river water suddenly acquires exceptionally high
velocity such as at the location of a waterfall. It is known that where stream velocity
exceeds 12 m/sec, the water pressure developed at the impinging points equals vapour
pressure. In other words, there is a spontaneous change from a liquid tovapour state and
back to liquid state at that point. Such a change results in virtual sucking out of the
material at the impinging point thereby creating holes and depressions that continue
deepening with the passage of time. The phenomenon of cavitation is also observed in
hydropower generation projects. Blades and other parts of turbines where water
impinges upon them at velocities above 12m/s gel badly pitted and quickly destroyed
by this process of cavitation.
 Abrasion: It is the principal method of stream erosion and involves wearing away of
the bedrocks and rocks along the banks of a stream or river by the running water with
the help of sand grains, pebbles and gravels and all such particles that are being carried
by it as load. Through the process of abrasion, river water is capable oferoding
and smoothening even the hardest rocks lying in its path, provided sufficient time is
available for the action to continue.
 Attrition: This term is used for wear and tear of the load sediments being transported
by a moving natural agency through the process of mutual impacts and collusions which
they suffer during their transport. Every part of the sediment in load in suspension or
being moved along the bed of the Stream receives repeated impacts from other particles.
Due to these mutual collusions, the irregularities and angularitiesof the particles are
worn out. These become spherical in outline
 Corrosion: The slow but steady chemical (especially solvent) action of the stream
water on the rocks is expressed by the term Corrosion. The extent of corrosion
depends much on the composition of rocks and also on the composition of flowing
water. Limestones, gypsum and rock salt bodies are soluble in water to varying
degrees. The stream may hardly corrode sandstones, quartzites, granites and gneisses
FEATURES OF STREAM EROSION
• Prolonged erosion by river and streams produces many interesting surface features.
46
• Some of these features develop, with the passage of time to major geomorphological
landforms such as valleys and escarpments.
• Following is an outline of only a few common features developed on the surface of

land as a result of river erosion.
1. Potholes
2. River Valleys
3. Escarpments
4. Waterfalls
5. Stream Terraces
1. Potholes
• These are variously shaped depressions of different dimensions that are developed in
the riverbed by excessive localized erosion by the streams.
• The potholes are generally cylindrical or bowl shaped in outline and range from a few
centimetres to many meters in diameter as well as in depth.
• These are commonly formed in the softer rocks occurring at critical location in the
bedrock of a stream.
• The formation process for a pothole may be initiated by a simple plucking out of a
protruding or outstanding rock projection at the riverbed by hydraulic action.
• This produces a small depression only at the place of plucking in the otherwise normal
bedrock.
• Some of the depressions so initiated may eventually become the spots where pebbles
and gravels of the stronger rocks are caught in eddies and thrown into a swirling or
churning motion.
• This causes a localized abrasive action on an enhanced scale within those depressions
leading to their further deepening and widening.
• In this way potholes continue to grow in size.
47
2. River Valley
• A valley may be defined as a low land surrounded on sides by inclined hill slopes and
mountain.
• Every major river is associated with a valley of its own.
• In fact, rivers are responsible for the origin, development and modification of their
valleys through well-understood process of river erosion
(a) Origin. A river valley may have a modest origin when traced backward in thegeological
history of the area. On a gentle sloping surface, river water gets collected along lower
level and flows as small streamlets. In a short time, small gullies are produced where
rainwater gets naturally collected from slopes, further erosion deepens and widens an
original gully that can accommodate bigger volumes of water.
(b) Valley deepening It is achieved by cooperative action of all the processes involved in
erosion. Deepening is obviously caused due to cutting down of the river bed.
(c) Lengthening of river Valley. A type of process headword erosion is generally held
responsible for lengthening of river valleys.
48
Stream achieved valley widening. The stream cut down more their channels and also
remove away the loose soil and rocks from the banks thereby
Gorges and Canyons
• Gorges are very deep and narrow valleys with very steep and high walls on either side.
Their length varies considerably, from a few meters to several kilometres at a stretch.
• A canyon is a specific type of gorge where the layers cut down by a river are essentially
stratified and horizontal in attitude
The Grand Canyon of Colorado is the deepest canyon in the world. Its depth varies from
900 to 1800 meters, width from to 90 meters in a length of 300 km. All the Himalayan
Rivers and especially the Indus and the Shenab have developed numerous gorges in
their inner and middle Himalayan courses.
3. Escarpments.
• These are erosional features produced by rivers in regions of alternating beds of hard
and soft rocks.
• The river easily erodes the soft layers whereas the hard layers resist the erosion and
stand projecting as ledges on the sides
• These ledges are gradually undercut by continued stream erosion.
• A time comes when a ledge is no longer able to support itself any further and hence
falls down the river giving rise to a steep slope in its place.
49
• It is this steep slope caused by falling of undercut ledge of hard rocks that is referred
to as an Escarpment.
•
4. Waterfalls.
• These are defined as magnificent jumps made by stream or river water at certain specific
parts of their course where there is a sudden and considerable drop in the gradient of
the channel.
• Many falls are easily attributed to unequal erosion of the channel rocks within a short
distance due to the inherent nature of the rocks.
• The stream literally falls (instead of flowing) from a considerable height before
acquiring normal flow again at a lower level.
• Obviously, the velocity of water at point of fall increases tremendously.
5. Stream Terraces
• These are bench like ledges or flat surfaces that occur on the sides of many river valleys.
• From a distance, they may appear as succession of several steps of a big natural staircase
rising up from the riverbank
• They may be made up of hard rock or of soft rock, but the essential thing is that they
look like steps.
50
• Some of them are clearly features of river erosion indicating that the stream has cut
down its own channel not continuously but in a series of stages.
10.2.2 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT BY RIVERS
Types of Load
 Every river receives enormous amount of material during its flow from head to mouth.
 This material includes the rock and soil particles that the river acquires by its own work
of erosion along the channel.
 The other part is the load eroded and contributed by its tributaries in the form of variously
shaped particles, sediments and fragments.
 Seen in totality, it is estimated that each year streams carry many millions of tonnes of
continental material to the oceans.
 The load, as all the material being transported in running water of a stream or river, may
thus be distinguished into following three distinct categories:
 Suspended Load
 Bed Load
 Dissolved Load
Suspended Load
• It is made up of fine sand, silt and clay sediments that are light enough to be
transported in the Stream water in a state of suspension.
• This load normally remains lifted up in the stream water and not allowed to touch the
base of the channel, due to eddies caused by turbulence in the flow.
51
Bed Load
• This fraction of the river load comprises the heavier particles of sand pebbles, gravels
and cobbles and all the other type of materials which are moved along the bed of a river
in different ways.
• Here, sediment transportation is carried out in a series of jumps.
• Rolling and sliding of the load sediments are some ether methods employed by the
streams to transport their load along their beds.
Dissolved Load
• This fraction includes particles of materials soluble in water, which the river may gain
due to its solvent action
• Numerous rivers from the land part carry calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate and
sodium chloride and other soluble salts from limestone, gypsum, anhydrite and rock
salt etc.
10.2.3 DEPOSITION BY RIVERS
• The entire load of a stream or a river will normally remain in transport unless there is a
change in one or other factor responsible for its transport.
• Thus, as, when and where there is a decrease in the load carrying capacity of stream due
to whatsoever reason, a part or whole of the load may have to be dropped down.
• The process of dropping down of its load by any moving natural agent is technically
called deposition;
• the resulting accumulation of the load material is termed the deposit made by thatparticular
agent.
• Winds, rivers, glaciers and marine water are important natural agents that make typical
deposits on the surface of the earth called aeolian deposits, fluvial deposits, glacialdeposits
and the marine deposits, respectively.
Types of Fluvial Deposits
• All those deposits that are laid down by running water are called alluvial, fluvial or
fluviatile deposits.
• These differ greatly in size. shape. and aerial extent and even in exact mode of origin.
• Following are some of the typical deposits.
 Alluvial Fans and Cones
 Flood Plains
52
 Deltas
 Channel Deposits
1. Alluvial Fans and Cones
• These are cone shaped accumulations of stream deposits that are commonly found
at places where small intermittent streamlets coming down from hill slopes enter
the low lands.
• The apex of such a deposit points up-hill and its slope may range nearly 50º
• Such a deposit is formed because the waterbody rushing down the slope with
enormous debris may suffer sudden reduction in its velocity when it reaches low
land area.
• The term Alluvial fan is used when the angle of slope is less than 10º
• The term Alluvial cone is used when the angle of slope is between 10º-50º
•
2. Flood Plains
• In the life of a stream, there may come times when it overflows its banks
• Floodwaters are invariably heavily loaded with sediments of all types.
• When these waters overflow the river and spread as enormous sheets of water in the
surrounding areas their velocity soon gets checked everywhere due to inequalities
of the ground and other obstructions.
53
• As a consequence, they deposit most of load as a thick layer of mud.
• Since such a process may get repeated after intervals, the low-lying areas
surrounding major rivers are actually made of varying thickness of flood deposits.
• These are generally level or plain in nature and extensive in area; hence they are
aptly called Flood Plains
• These are invariably very fertile and hence have supported civilizations right from
the advent of the human race.
3. Deltas
• Deltas are defined as alluvial deposits of roughly triangular shape that are deposited
by major rivers at their mouths, i.e. where they enter a sea
• The formation of a delta is explained by the fact that wherever a river enters a big
body of standing water, its velocity is suddenly checked.
• The river loses its entity and becomes a part of the Sea.
• This process results in large scale, almost total deposition of the load being carried
by the river till that point and place.
• The process deposition may continue indefinitely and the deposit being laid by it
grows in size
Three conditions necessary for the formation and growth of delta are:
• Absence of any strong sea currents or waves at the point of entrance of the river
into the sea; this is essential to prevent carrying away of the sediments brought by
the streams to deeper faraway places in the sea by the currents.
• Presence of good quantity of load in the stream at the point of entering the sea;
this is essential because if the stream has already deposited most of its load in the
plain areas in upstream parts of the course, it will have very little to deposit to
actually develop in the form of a delta; even if formed from small load, a delta
will take much longer times to grow in size
• The slope of seashore where the stream enters the seawater must necessarily be
quite gentle and wide enough allow the incoming water spread in all directions
from the point of entry. In fact the upward apex of the delta has its typical shape
mainly due to availability of such a condition.
54
4. Channel Deposits
• Many streams are forced by some natural causes to deposit some of their load
along the riverbeds. These are the so-called channel deposits
• They are of great economic use, being the source of sands and gravels quite
suitable for use as construction material.
• The channel deposits are made along the river courses especially in the flatter
regions where there are periodic changes in the velocity of a river.
• Quite often, the materials so deposited take the shape of long narrow ridges called
bars.
• Since the bars are commonly made up of sand grade material, they are also called
sand bars.
• Very often the sand bars are temporary in nature because with an increase in the
volume of water and increase in the river velocity, the bars are eroded and the
material taken downstream.
• The dried riverbeds often show a varied mixture of clays, silts, sand and gravels and
occasional
10.3 RIVER MEANDERING
• When a stream flows along a curved, zigzag path acquiring a loop-shaped course, it is
said to mender.
55
• Menders are developed mostly in the middle and lower reaches of major stream where
lateral erosion and depositions along opposite banks become almost concurrent
geological activities of the stream,
• when a stream is flowing through a channel it cannot be assumed to have absolutely

uniform velocities all across its width.
• Thus, the same river is eroding its channel on the concave side and making its
progress further inland
Oxbow Lakes
• An oxbow lake is a U-shaped lake that forms when a wide meander of a river is cut off,
creating a free-standing body of water
• In the advanced stages of a meandering stream only relatively narrow strips of land
separate the individual loops from each other.
• During high-water times, as during small floods, when the stream acquires good volume
of water, it has a tendency to flow straight, and some of the intervening strips of land
between the loops get eroded.
• The stream starts flowing straight in those limited stretches, thereby leaving the loops
or loops on the sides either completely detached or only slightly connected.
• This isolated curved or looped shaped area of the river, which often contains some water
are called oxbow lakes.
56
Incised Meanders
• In mountainous and rocky regions, streams flowing with vigorous speeds often develop
meandering courses by a process known as selective erosion.
• The rocks forming the stream channels in those areas are not of uniform hardness all
along the course.
• A stream flowing through such a sequence of rocks erodes the softer rock much more
easily and may even develop a change in its course that may involve avoiding hard
rocks again and again.
• With the passage of time such streams when viewed from the top seen flowing through
prominently meandering courses cut out or incised by them in rocky sequence.
• This type of meandering where only cutting down of the channels is involved is called
incised meandering.
• The Incised Meanders are of two types:
• Entrenched Meanders: When the walls of the valley on either side of the
meander are broadly symmetrical
• Ingrown Meanders: The symmetry in the sides around the meanders is

absent.
57
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY- MODULE 1 Dept.

of Civil Engineering, AJCE

1.1 Definition and Content

• The word Geology is derived from two Greek words,

• Engineering geology is the bridge between geology and engineering.

• It applies geology to civil and mining engineering practices.

• Geology is the science that studies the Earth as a planet.

• Sedimentology: This branch of geology studies the processes and products of

• Environmental Geology: This branch of geology studies the interactions between

2. SCOPE / RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

The basic objects of a course in Engineering Geology are twofold:

(a) It enables a civil engineer to understand engineering implications of certain conditions

Fig 1.1 Scope of Engineering geology

2.1 Geology in Construction Jobs

 During the actual execution of a civil engineering project, geological knowledge is

 Similarly, for construction in geologically sensitive areas as those of coastal belts,

 In the coastal areas, behaviour of rocks towards waves, currents ad marine

 It is true about construction in seismic regions where weight of the construction

 Construction in permafrost regions (where soil remains permanently frozen up to a

2.2 Geology in Water Resources Development

 Geological information is of fundamental importance in exploration and exploitation

 Water cycle, as we know, is the name given to the sum-total of processes of

2.3 Geology in town and regional planning

 The construction area so developed must not introduce a major element of

 Similarly rocks exposed to heating temperatures of the Sun in deserts gradually

3.1 Types of weathering

 Physical weathering [temperature, wind]

3.1.1 Physical weathering:

 It is also called mechanical weathering

Mechanical (Physical) Weathering

(b) Thermal Effects (Insolation)

3.1.2 Chemical weathering

(b) Hydration and Hydrolysis

Weathering of Orthoclase (K + AlSi3O8) occurs as shown above.

conditions of carbonation. A typical example is that of felspar orthoclase, a very common

(e) Colloid formation

3.1.3 Biological Weathering

3.2 Factors affecting weathering

(a) Nature of rocks

(c) Physical Environment

3.3 Products of weathering

B Horizon: A B horizon is typically a mineral subsurface horizon and is a zone of accumulation,

ROLE OF ACIDS IN CHEMICAL WEATHERING

5.1 Geological Classification

6. ENGINEERING SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING

 Weathering produces soil- vital for agriculture

 Weathering makes rocks porous and permeable

 Cheap building stones like laterite develop due to weathering

 Economic mineral deposits like bauxites form due to weathering

 Oxidation important phenomena in the formation of ore deposits

 Occurrence of economically important mineral deposits are related to weathering

 Weathering reduces the strength, durability and good appearance of rocks

 Weathered rocks become unfit as a construction material

 Weathering due to sea waves results in coastal erosion

 Weathered rocks become weak and unsuitable for tunnelling

 Rapid silting in reservoirs reduces the capacity of the reservoir.

 Weathering is the main cause of instability of slopes.

For a construction engineer it is necessary to find out

 To what extent the area for a proposed project is deteriorated by weathering

 What would the likely effect of weathering on construction material be as proposed to

GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES OF FORMATION OF SOIL

• Soil is the end product of processes of decay and decomposition of rocks