Materials Science & Engineering A 829 (2022) 142147

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Materials Science & Engineering A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Influences of initial microstructures on martensitic transformation and

textures during cold rolling and tensile mechanical properties in high
manganese TRIP steel
Dan-dan Ma a, Ping Yang a, *, Xin-fu Gu a, Feng-e Cui b
a
School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, 100083, Beijing, China
b
Institute of New Materials Technology, University of Science and Technology Beijing, 100083, Beijing, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The deformation-induced transformation characteristics and texture evolution of α′ -martensite during cold
High manganese TRIP steel rolling together with the tensile properties of two specially prepared initial microstructures (bimodal elongated γ
Initial microstructure grains and fine equiaxed γ grains) were investigated in high manganese TRIP steels. The results showed that the
Cold rolling
thermally induced martensite was restrained effectively by refining grains or introducing crystal defects like
Martensite transformation
Texture
dislocations, which provided a nearly full austenite phase for the subsequent TRIP process. Compared with the
Tensile properties solution-treated sample containing coarse equiaxed γ grains, the fine-grained sample revealed a better plasticity
and a higher strength due to grain refinement and progressive TRIP process. The bimodal elongated-grained
sample exhibited the highest strength and sufficient plasticity because the dislocation strengthening exceeded
the fine-grain strengthening and martensitic transformation was delayed. The transformation textures of two
kinds of samples differed in that the fine-grained sample demonstrated typical {113}<110>α from the Copper-
type γ texture and {332}<113>α from the Brass-type γ texture, whereas {001}<110>α texture occurred in the
bimodal elongated-grained sample in addition to the above two components. In the early stage of TRIP, there was
an obvious orientation dependence, and the {100}- and Copper-oriented γ grains preferentially transformed to
martensite rather than γ grains with Brass orientation.

1. Introduction austenite transformation. The TRIP process proceeds very easily in

Martensitic transformation occurs during deformation in high man­
ganese TRIP steel, resulting in excellent ductility combined with
strength [1–5], which is suitable for application to the automotive in­
dustry. The TRIP behavior of high manganese steel can be controlled in
different ways, and when the TRIP effect progresses gradually in the
large strain range during deformation, the optimal relationship of ho­
mogeneous α′ -martensite transformation along with straining can be
obtained, and the mechanical properties can be optimized [6–11].
The TRIP effect is influenced by many factors, among which the
initial microstructure (IM) is an important one. Li et al. [12,13] sug­
gested that the excellent ductility is associated with the high volume
fraction of austenite and high austenite transformation ratio in TRIP
steels. IMs generally contain about 10–70% residual austenite in the
low-alloy TRIP steels [14] or medium manganese steels [11–13], and the
presence of other phases (martensite or ferrite) also interferes with the
ultralow-carbon high manganese steel. If the volume fraction of initial
austenite is small and that of thermally induced martensite is larger,
residual austenite will transform quickly during subsequent room tem­
perature deformation, which is not conducive to further improving
ductility [15–17]. The complete γ phase can be obtained at room tem­
perature in alloys with high carbon content, which usually have high
strength [18–21]. However, during cold deformation of such alloys,
TRIP behavior is usually incomplete, and the amount of α′ -M generated
by phase transformation is limited [19,21]. Thus, neither case results in
the best performance of TRIP steel.
Moreover, various researches have pointed out the role of pre-strain
and the effect of grain size on the TRIP phenomenon [11–14,17]. They
have concluded that both pre-strain and grain refinement can improve
the strength of the sample and increase the stability of austenite.
Pre-strain at room temperature causes the austenite to transform to
martensite, leading to an increase of the martensite fraction and a

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yangp@mater.ustb.edu.cn (P. Yang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.142147
Received 16 July 2021; Received in revised form 27 September 2021; Accepted 1 October 2021
Available online 7 October 2021
0921-5093/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
D.-d. Ma et al.
decrease of the retained austenite fraction, which inhibits subsequent
TRIP and results in decreased ductility [12,13]. Similarly, the effects of
austenite state on thermally induced martensite have also been reported
in many studies [22–28]. In a study of hot deformation of austenite,
Wang et al. found that the effects of high-density defects and small size
play an important role in inhibiting martensite transformation [25].
In addition, the α′ -M texture in high manganese steel during defor­
mation was analyzed in previous studies [15,16,29–32], and it was
determined that the 60% rolled sample resulted in the main {100}
transformation texture. However, the initial texture of coarse equiaxed γ
grains before cold rolling was weak, so the {100} transformation texture
was not strong [16]. The authors have been working on strengthening
the transformation texture of different alloy materials to determine the
common features of different phase transformation texture types. If the
initial texture of γ grains is strengthened, the α′ -M texture formed during
deformation may also be strengthened. The γ texture can be strength­
ened by hot rolling or cold rolling treatment, which can be used to
strengthen the martensitic transformation texture.
In this paper, the formation of martensite was inhibited by hot rolling
treatment and annealing treatment of a cold-rolled sheet to obtain γ
grains with different morphology of ultralow-carbon high manganese
steel, and the initial γ volume fraction was increased while the strength
was increased. Through the refinement of grains and introduction of
dislocations, this work investigated whether the TRIP process can be
influenced to control the transformation texture and optimize the me­
chanical performance, providing a theoretical basis and the possibility
to achieve enhanced performance by adjusting the IM and controlling
the TRIP effect.
2. Experimental materials and methods
An Fe-0.0024C–18Mn–3Si-1.5Al (wt.%) high manganese TRIP steel
was forged to produce a microstructure composed of a dominant
Fig. 1. Orientation maps and misorientation angle distributions of two IMs: (a) bimodal elongated γ grains and (b) fine equiaxed γ grains.
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Materials Science & Engineering A 829 (2022) 142147
γ-phase, ε-M and small α′ -M, and the forged TRIP steel was divided into
two samples by wire cutting. One sample was hot-rolled to 2.5 mm with
seven passes after heating at 1100 ◦ C for 1 h. The other sample was cold-
rolled to 2.5 mm with a reduction of 80%, and then annealed at 750 ◦ C
for 30min. The thermomechanical process is shown in Fig. 1 in Section
3.1. In addition, the sample solution treated at 1050 ◦ C for 1.5 h fol­
lowed by water quenching was used to study microstructure and texture
evolution during cold rolling process in our previous study [16], and its
mechanical properties were compared in this work. The above hot rolled
plate and annealed plate were used as two initial samples to cold rolled
with a reduction of 10%, 20%, 40% and 60%, respectively. Samples with
dimension of 10 mm (rolling direction, RD) × 5 mm (transverse direc­
tion, TD) were cut out from the hot-rolled, annealed and cold-rolled
sheets and then were ground to 3000 grit sand papers. Subsequently,
the ground samples were electrolyte polished with 5% HClO4 and etched
with 4% Nital solution. The microstructure and orientation information
at sheet center were revealed using ZEISS-ULTRA 55 scanning electron
microscope (SEM) equipped with HKL-channel 5 electron backscatter
diffraction (EBSD). Besides, the samples with 14 mm (TD) × 24 mm (RD)
were used for measuring phase volume fractions and macrotextures by
D8 Advance X-ray diffractometry (XRD). The {111}, {200}, {220} and
{113} pole figures of γ-phase and the {110}, {200} and {211} pole
figures of α′ -M were measured. Topas software based on Rietveld texture
analysis of full spectrum fitting was used to calculate the volume frac­
tions of γ、ε-M and α′ -M. The static tensile test at room temperature
with strain rate of 10-3s-1 was performed using a WDW-200D electronic
universal testing machine.
3. Results
3.1. Initial microstructures and textures
Two different IMs of high manganese TRIP steel prior to cold rolling
D.-d. Ma et al.
were prepared according to the processing routes shown in Fig. 1. The
hot-rolled sample mainly contained γ phase because the formation of
thermally induced martensite was inhibited by introducing crystal de­
fects like dislocations or subgrain boundaries during heavy hot rolling
processes. Meanwhile, the microstructure of the rolling surface was not
uniform and was composed of large elongated grains (labeled as Grains
A, B, and C in Fig. 1a) and small grains with an average size of ~10 μm.
Such small grains may be caused by the deformation of austenite after
dynamic recrystallization during hot rolling. In addition, the grains were
severely deformed along the ND direction with a thickness of 2–3 μm
from the lateral direction of TD. The bimodal elongated γ grains pro­
vided dominant grain boundaries parallel to RD, thus reducing the re­
action stress due to grain boundaries during subsequent cold rolling. For
the cold-rolled and annealed sample, small equiaxed γ grains with
annealing twins and a small amount of thermally induced ε-M were
formed, and the average γ grain size was about 4 μm excluding twin
boundaries. Compared with the hot-rolled sample, the γ grains in the
annealed sample were recrystallized with lower in-grain orientation
gradients and fewer defects. It can be seen that the two IMs had signif­
icantly different characteristics (bimodal elongated γ grains and fine
equiaxed γ grains), which were expected to produce widely different
deformations, transformations, textures, and mechanical property
behaviors.
Fig. 2 shows the initial textures of bimodal elongated γ grains and
fine equiaxed γ grains determined by the XRD technique. The γ phases in
these two IMs show similar rolling textures, and both contain Copper
({112}<111>), S ({123}<634>), Brass ({110}<112>), and Goss
({110}<001>) textures. For the bimodal elongated γ grains, the hot
rolling of austenite leads to strong intensities of the Copper and S
components and a somewhat weaker intensity of the Goss texture. In
addition, a rather weak {100} texture is detectable, as seen in Fig. 2a. In
contrast, the texture intensity of the γ phase in the fine-grained sample is
weaker, and the Goss component is the strongest, while the Copper
component is the weakest, and there is no trace of the {100} texture
(Fig. 2b). In our previous paper [16], austenite showed strong Goss and
weaker Brass textures when the 60% cold-rolled sample was heated to
700 ◦ C, which are the retained rolling textures, as the direct growth of
the residual γ phase survived in cold rolling. Such a texture in the γ phase
is different to that developed by both hot rolling and recrystallization
annealing in the stable γ phase range.
Fig. 2. Initial textures in two kinds of samples shown in orientation distribution function (ODF) figures in φ2 = 45◦ , 65◦ and 90◦ sections.(a) bimodal elongated γ
phase. (b) fine equiaxed γ phase.
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Materials Science & Engineering A 829 (2022) 142147
3.2. Tensile properties comparison
To better analyze the effects of different IMs on mechanical prop­
erties, tensile tests were carried out on the two samples, and the results
were compared with that of the solution-treated sample with the
microstructure of equiaxed γ grains containing 40% martensite. The γ
grain size is about 200–300 μm (coarse equiaxed γ grains), as shown in
Fig. 3a. The engineering stress–strain curves show that the yield and
tensile strength of high manganese steel with coarse equiaxed γ grains
are 193 and 804 MPa, respectively, and the elongation after fracture is
about 40%, indicating a rather low yield strength and low yield-to-
tensile strength ratio of only 0.24. The fine equiaxed γ grains exhibit
the yield and tensile strength of about 510 and 940 MPa, respectively,
with an elongation of 47%, showing a high yield strength, better plas­
ticity, and an improved yield-to-tensile strength ratio of 0.54. The cor­
responding performance parameters of the sample with bimodal
elongated γ grains are 502 MPa, 979 MPa, and 37%, respectively,
showing also a high yield strength, an enhanced tensile strength, and a
yield-to-tensile strength ratio of 0.51. Thus the initial fine-grained
sample does not show the highest tensile strength in spite of the
smaller average grain size. The slopes of the stress-strain curves in the
elastic deformation stage of the bimodal elongated γ IM and fine equi­
axed γ IM are almost the same, which are higher than that of coarse
equiaxed γ IM (Fig. 3a). This is attributed to the lower elastic modulus of
martensite than austenite.
Fig. 3b shows the strain hardening rate curves of the three different
samples. It is observed that the strain hardening rate rapidly decreases
after the onset of plastic deformation, remains almost constant, and then
slowly increases and slowly decreases again. The rising stage of the three
curves corresponds to different strains, as indicated by the arrows in
Fig. 3b. The solution-treated sample is too soft but has a very uniform
rate of work hardening, which is a common phenomenon in high man­
ganese steel and is related to the large γ grain size [19]. The uniformity
of the work hardening rate of the bimodal elongated-grained sample is
the worst, which may be due to the inhomogeneous martensitic trans­
formation. However, it has the highest strength, and the product of
strength and plasticity reaches 36223 MPa%, while the lowest product
of strength and plasticity in the solution-treated sample is 32160 MPa%,
and the highest in the fine-grained sample is 44180 MPa%.
In summary, the fine-grained sample shows the best elongation, and
the elongated-grained sample exhibits the highest tensile strength
among the three kinds of samples. Two specially prepared samples can
D.-d. Ma et al. Materials Science & Engineering A 829 (2022) 142147

Fig. 3. Engineering stress-strain curves (a) and strain hardening rate plots (b) of three IMs in high manganese TRIP steel.

effectively increase the strength, and both the strength and elongation of transformation is accelerated. At a 20% cold rolling reduction, α′ -M
the fine-grained sample are higher than those of the solution-treated becomes the main constituent phase, and it is difficult to effectively
sample. distinguish the original γ grain boundaries (Fig. 5b). Moreover, the size
of the generated martensite is small due to the limitation of the γ grain
boundaries, and α′ -M assumes the ultrafine equiaxed morphology at a
3.3. Microstructure evolutions and deformation-induced transformation
40% cold rolling reduction (see circle in Fig. 5c), while the α′ -M formed
kinetics during cold rolling
in bimodal elongated γ grains is elongated and equiaxed, as indicated by
the arrows and circle in Fig. 4c and d. For the fine equiaxed γ IM, the
Figs. 4 and 5 show the microstructure evolution of two kinds of
lower EBSD indexing rate for the microstructure at a 40% cold rolling
samples during cold rolling. The EBSD images reveal that ε-M and α′ -M
reduction also shows that the transformed grains are fine and subjected
develop at a 10% reduction in the two kinds of samples. The total
to some deformation (Fig. 5c). Therefore, the possibility of separating
amount of ε-M and α′ -M increases with a reduction up to 60%. Finally,
the three phases from the mixed microstructure is restricted by the EBSD
the microstructure is mainly the α′ -M phase. For the bimodal elongated γ
analysis, especially in the case of high cold rolling deformation.
IM, many parallel ε-M plates are formed near the grain boundary when
Fig. 6 presents the X-ray spectra at different cold rolling reductions of
subjected to a 10% cold rolling reduction, and a small amount of α′ -M is
bimodal elongated γ IM and fine equiaxed γ IM. The volume fractions of
distributed in the ε-M plates, as presented in Fig. 4a. At a 20% cold
the γ, ε-M, and α′ -M phases in the samples with different reductions were
rolling reduction, the amount of ε-M increases, a large amount of α′ -M is
determined by fitting the X-ray diffraction spectra, as shown in Fig. 7,
formed, and α′ -M shows the typical lath morphology (white arrows in
and the effect of the texture on the intensity of the diffraction peak was
Fig. 4b). With the increase of the rolling reduction, the α′ -M grains are
corrected. For the bimodal elongated γ IM, only the {111}γ, {200}γ,
refined and become elongated along the RD, but the original γ and ε-M
{220}γ, and {311}γ diffraction lines are visible on the X-ray diagram in
grain boundaries cannot be distinguished (Fig. 4c). Finally, a lamellar
the initial state, which indicates an entirely austenitic structure of the
microstructure parallel to the RD direction is formed (Fig. 4d).
steel (Fig. 6a). This is consistent with the results of microstructure
Compared with the bimodal elongated γ IM, slender ε-M is formed
observation (Fig. 1a). At a 10% reduction, the peak intensity of the γ
within the fine equiaxed γ grains, more α′ -M laths are generated at a 10%
phase decreases rapidly, and the {011}ε and {013}ε peaks and a weak
cold rolling reduction (Fig. 5a), indicating that the ε-М→α′ -M

Fig. 4. EBSD phase maps of the steel with bimodal elongated γ IM cold rolled to 10% (a), 20% (b), 40% (c) and 60% (d). Austenite, ε- and α′ -M are represented by
yellow, red, and blue, respectively. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

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D.-d. Ma et al. Materials Science & Engineering A 829 (2022) 142147

Fig. 5. EBSD phase maps of the steel with fine equiaxed γ IM cold rolled to 10% (a), 20% (b) and 40% (c). Austenite, ε- and α′ -M are represented by yellow, red, and
blue, respectively. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Fig. 6. XRD spectra of cold rolled high manganese TRIP steel at different reductions. (a) bimodal elongated γ and (b) fine equiaxed γ.

Fig. 7. Volume fractions of the γ, ε-M and α′ -M phases in cold rolled high manganese TRIP steel at different reductions. (a) bimodal elongated γ and (b) fine
equiaxed γ.

{002}α′ peak appear. The γ phase fraction reduces to 61.37%, and the
volume fraction of ε-M increases to 34.81%, but that for α′ -M is only
3.82%, which indicates that γ→ε-М mainly occurs under low deforma­
tion. At a 20% cold rolling reduction, the {022} peak intensity of the γ
phase further decreases, and the {211}α′ and {013}α′ peaks appear. The
volume fraction of ε-M reaches the maximum of 55.23% (Fig. 7a), and
those of the γ and α′ -M phases are 12.97% and 31.81%, respectively. At a
40% cold rolling reduction, the intensity of the both γ and ε-M peaks
decreases, while the intensity of α′ -M peaks increases and the α′ -M
fraction almost reaches 54.85%. The ε-M volume fraction further de­
creases, resulting in a volume fraction of 89.16% for the α′ -M phase at a
60% cold rolling reduction. In addition to the α′ -M diffraction peak, a
weak {220}γ diffraction peak also exists.
The fine equiaxed γ IM contains a small amount of thermally induced
ε-M, in which the volume fractions of the γ and ε-M phases are 92.11%
and 7.89%, respectively. A strong {211}α′ peak is observed at a reduc­
tion of 10% (Fig. 6b), and the strain-induced α′ -M fraction is 16.19%,
which is more than that generated in the bimodal elongated γ grains at
this time. With the increase of the reduction, the intensity of the γ and
α′ -M diffraction peaks decreases and increases, respectively. Corre­
spondingly, the volume fraction of the γ phase decreases, while that of
the α′ -M phase increases (Fig. 7b). Finally, the volume fraction of the
α′ -M phase increases to 94.95%, and there exists a weak {002}ε
diffraction peak at a 60% cold rolling reduction.
In short, the general evolution features of the three phases in the two
different samples during the cold rolling are the same, that is, with the
increase of cold rolling reduction, the volume fraction of the γ phase first
decreases and then tends to be stable, and the ε-М phase first increases
and then decreases, while the α′ -M phase gradually increases. For the
bimodal elongated γ IM, the phase transformation of γ→ε-M occurs

5
D.-d. Ma et al.
rapidly and uniformly in the early stage of deformation. After a 20%
reduction, the γ phase volume fraction is basically unchanged, and
mainly ε-М→α′ -M phase transformation occurs. By comparison, γ
transforms more slowly to ε-M at 20% cold rolling reduction in the fine
equiaxed γ IM. Although the γ→ε-М phase transformation rates differ in
the two kinds of IMs, the phase transformation occurs mainly before a
20% rolling reduction in both.
Compared with the phase transformation in the γ→ε-М stage, the
ε-М→α′ -M phase transformation is worthy of attention. According to the
phase evolution in Fig. 7a, the ε-М→α′ -M phase transformation hardly
occurs in the bimodal elongated γ grains at a 10% cold rolling reduction,
and the transformation rate is relatively uniform during the subsequent
cold rolling process. However, α′ -M is rapidly formed under low defor­
mation in the fine equiaxed γ grains (Fig. 7b), and the phase trans­
formation rate decreases at higher rolling reductions. The ε-М fraction is
variable, and the ε-М→α′ -М transformation is affected by the ε-М frac­
tion. Therefore, the Rε→α′ parameter is introduced to reflect the degree of
difficulty of the ε-М→α′ -М phase transformation. The Rε→α′ values
represent the ratios of the fraction of α′ -М formed by deformation to the
total amount of martensite without counting the α′ -М formed before
cold rolling, and the higher the Rε→α′ , the easier the phase trans­
formation. The calculated result is shown in Fig. 8, indicating that the
transformation rates of ε-М→α′ -М in the fine equiaxed γ grains are al­
ways higher than those in the bimodal elongated γ grains, especially
under low deformation. The above result indicates that although the
γ→ε-М transformation is inhibited, the ε-М→α′ -М transformation is
promoted in fine equiaxed γ grains under small deformation.
3.4. Difference in transformation textures of two kinds of samples during
cold rolling
Fig. 9 shows the texture evolution of α′ -M at 10–60% reductions of
two different IMs. To avoid interference due to overlapping {111}γ and
{110}α′ -M XRD diffraction peaks, EBSD was used to determine the α′ -M
texture of 10% cold-rolled samples in the bimodal-grained sample.
When the cold rolling reduction is 20%, most of the γ phase transforms
to martensite, so the interference between γ and α′ -M phases can be
ignored, and the texture evolution of α′ -M in 20–60% cold-rolled sam­
ples is analyzed with the XRD technique.
For the bimodal elongated γ IM, it can be found that the {100}
texture (<100>//ND) of α′ -M is formed at a 10% cold rolling reduction,
Fig. 8. The Rε→α′ at different reductions reflects the difficulty of the ε-М→α′ -М
phase transformations.
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Materials Science & Engineering A 829 (2022) 142147
with a dominant {001}<110> component, as seen in Fig. 9a. At a 20%
cold rolling reduction (Fig. 9b), {113}<110>, {112}<110>, {332}<
113>, and weak {112}<131> textures are formed, derived from Cop­
per- and Brass-oriented γ grains respectively [36]. With the increase of
the rolling reduction to 40% (Fig. 9c), the sample contains similar
texture types, but the textures become sharpened. By further increasing
the rolling reduction to 60%, the texture further spreads to the {112}<
131> texture, and there is a tendency to form the texture of
<111>//ND. Moreover, the textures {112}<110> and {332}<113>
are strengthened with similar intensity, as shown in Fig. 9d.
For the fine equiaxed γ IM, α′ -M shows strong {113}<110>/{112}<
110>, {332}<113> and weak {001}<110> textures at a 10% cold
rolling reduction (Fig. 9e). With increasing the rolling reduction, the
texture components are basically unchanged, as seen in Fig. 9f and g. At
a 60% cold rolling reduction (Fig. 9h), the intensity of the {223}<110>
and {332}<113> textures increases, and among them, that of the
{223}<110> is the strongest. An important feature is that the intensity
of the {113}<110>/{112}<110> and {332}<113> textures, derived
from Copper- and Brass-oriented γ grains, respectively, increases pro­
portionally during the deformation-induced transformation, while the
rotated cube texture is weak. In summary, the dominant difference in the
transformation textures of the two kinds of samples is that the {100}
texture occurs in the early stage of TRIP in the bimodal-grained sample,
which is absent in the fine-grained sample.
To further analyze the orientation dependence and variant selection
during deformation-induced transformation, the EBSD analysis of two
different IMs at a 10% cold rolling reduction was carried out, as pre­
sented in Figs. 10 and 11. For the bimodal elongated γ IM, it can be seen
that ε-M grows as straight plates throughout the γ grains, while α′ -M
with mainly a rotated cube orientation (Fig. 10f) is easily formed at γ
grain boundaries and in thick ε-M plates (Fig. 10b). Fig. 10d and e shows
the ODFs of γ grains containing more than and less than 10% volume
fractions of α′ -M in Fig. 10a, respectively. It is seen that the γ grains with
more α′ -M mainly belong to the cube component, while the γ grains that
are less transformed mainly belong to the Brass component. This shows
that the cube-oriented γ grains transform to martensite most easily and
less α′ -M is generated in the austenite grains with the Brass orientation.
In addition, examples of the γ grains with Cube, Copper, S, and Brass
orientations during their transformation were selected for further ana­
lyses, as shown in Fig. 10g–j, respectively. It is found that the γ grain
with scattered {001}<100> orientation can easily form 3 ε-M variants
and 1 α′ -M variant with the {001}<110> orientation (see arrows in
Fig. 10g), while γ grains with other orientations produce 3 ε-M variants
and 3 α′ -M variants (see arrows in Fig. 10h–j), indicating a strong variant
selectivity during phase transformation. Moreover, most α′ -M at this
early transformation stage show a near {100} orientation, demon­
strating the effects of the low elastic modulus and low deformation
resistance. In summary, {100}α variants can always be observed in γ
grains with all kinds of orientations.
Although the two strong transformation texture components in the
fine-grained sample are not the {100} texture (<100>//ND), the local
EBSD data show the frequent appearance of {100}α′ variants. Fig. 11
shows an example of variant selections in γ grains with different ori­
entations at a 10% cold rolling reduction. Fig. 11a and b illustrate the γ
orientation distribution in Euler angles and three-phase distribution in
different colors, respectively. Fig. 11c shows the γ orientations mainly
with Copper and Brass orientations, and Fig. 11d and e indicate the
ODFs of γ grains containing more than and less than 20% α′ -M in
Fig. 11a, respectively. It is seen that the γ grains with more α′ -M mainly
belong to the Copper-type component but do not contain the Brass-type
orientation, while those with less contain the Brass texture component.
This shows that the γ grains with the Brass orientation do not easily
transform into martensite and Copper-oriented γ grains preferentially
transform to α′ -M. Moreover, due to the small γ grain size, ε-M is a
relatively large plate or block and can rapidly transform into α′ -M with
the appearance of a short lath. It is noted that near {100}α′ variants can
D.-d. Ma et al.
Fig. 9. ODF figures in φ2 = 45◦ section in the cold rolled state of high manganese TRIP steel. (a–d) 10%, 20%, 40%, 60% rolling reductions for bimodal elongated γ
IM, respectively. (e–h) 10%, 20%, 40%, 60% rolling reductions for fine equiaxed γ IM, respectively.
form in γ grains with nearly all kinds of orientations. Fig. 11g shows that
the dominant {100} α′ -M variant forms in the {100}-oriented γ grain.
There are <111>60◦ and <110>50◦ misorientations between variants,
which is related to having the maximum mechanical work and the
minimum strain energy and interface energy, respectively [33]. When
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Materials Science & Engineering A 829 (2022) 142147
Fig. 10. EBSD analysis of bimodal elongated γ IM at
10% cold rolling reduction. (a) orientation map
(Euler angles-γ, band contrast-other); (b) phase dis­
tribution map. (c) φ2 = 45◦ ODF of all γ grains in (a);
(d) φ2 = 45◦ ODF of γ grains with a higher α′ -M
volume fraction of over 10% in (a); (e) φ2 = 45◦ ODF
of γ grains with a lower α′ -M volume fraction of
below 10% in (a); (f) φ2 = 45◦ ODF of all α′ -M grains
in (a). Euler angle maps of γ grains with different
orientations and their orientations shown in pole
figures: (g) {001}<010>; (h) {110}<112>, (i)
{112}<111> and (j) {123}<634>.
fine γ grains are subjected to deformation, the reaction of the sur­
rounding grains is strong, resulting in few single system slips, more α′ -M
variants, and significant strain accommodation. As shown in Fig. 11h–j,
1 ε-M variants and 6 α′ -M variants are formed in the Brass-, Copper- and
Goss-oriented γ grains. Among them, {100}α′ variants can always be
D.-d. Ma et al. Materials Science & Engineering A 829 (2022) 142147

Fig. 11. EBSD analysis of fine equiaxed γ IM at 10%

cold rolling reduction. (a) orientation map (Euler
angles-γ, band contrast-other); (b) phase distribution
map. (c) φ2 = 45◦ ODF of all γ grains in (a); (d) φ2 =
45◦ ODF of γ grains with a higher α′ -M volume frac­
tion of over 20% in (a); (e) φ2 = 45◦ ODF of γ grains
with a lower α′ -M volume fraction of below 20% in
(a); (f) φ2 = 45◦ ODF of all α′ -M grains in (a). Euler
angle maps of γ grains with different orientations and
their orientations shown in the pole figures: (g)
{001}<010>; (h) {110}<112>; (i) {112}<111>; (j)
{110}<001>.

observed in the {100} pole figures. It is seen that with the γ orientation
deviating from {100} to others, the size and number of {100}α′ variants
become smaller and fewer, but {100}α′ variants still appear.

4. Discussion

4.1. Effect of initial microstructures on TRIP effect

In this paper, we designed two kinds of samples, one containing the

bimodal elongated γ grains with a large number of defects and another
consists of the fine equiaxed γ grains. The purpose was to obtain a full
austenite phase IM by introducing dislocations or refining grains, to
control the following phase transformation in deformation to obtain
better properties.
Therefore, the phase transformation kinetics of fine equiaxed γ and
bimodal elongated γ IMs during cold rolling were analyzed and the re­
sults were compared with coarse equiaxed γ obtained by solution
treatment, as shown in Fig. 12. The differences among the above three
IMs are reflected in the following three aspects. (1) The density of in­
ternal crystal defects: after hot rolling, elongated γ grains are likely to
provide perfect dislocations, which can be decomposed into partial
dislocations, eventually forming ε-M under cold deformation. However, Fig. 12. Comparison of martensitic transformation in three different IMs dur­
when the dislocation density increases, the partial dislocation ing cold rolling.

8
D.-d. Ma et al.
movement is hindered and the density of partial dislocations is reduced,
which can exert the opposite influence and inhibit the formation of
martensite. (2) The shape and size of γ grains: both reflect the effect of
the grain boundary. On the one hand, refining grains increases austenite
stability. On the other hand, multiple slips can easily occur near grain
boundaries in fine grains, and this significant grain boundary reaction
leads to stress concentration and accelerates the martensitic trans­
formation. (3) The volume fraction of thermally induced martensite: it
influences the total volume fraction of γ before deformation, which can
transform during the subsequent TRIP process.
First, the effect of the IMs on the ε-M transformation is discussed. The
smaller grain size in the fine-grained sample and the larger dislocation
density in the bimodal-grained sample both increase the stability of
austenite and inhibit martensite formation. The high density disloca­
tions show a greater hindrance effect, which is demonstrated by the
higher strength and lower plasticity of the bimodal-grained sample.
Moreover, the fine-grained sample contains more thermally induced
ε-M. It shows that the bimodal-grained sample has a greater inhibition
effect on thermally induced martensite. In addition, the bimodal elon­
gated γ grains morphology reveals dominant grain boundaries parallel
to the rolling direction, thus low interaction from grain boundaries,
whereas the stress concentration can easily be generated due to the
greater number of grain boundaries in the fine equiaxed γ grains, thus
accelerating the γ→ε-М transformation. These factors ultimately result
in a slightly faster TRIP process in the fine equiaxed grains than in the
bimodal elongated grains. In addition, compared with the coarse equi­
axed γ grains described in details in Ref. [16], the γ→ε-М transformation
is not inhibited in the fine equiaxed γ and the bimodal elongated γ
grains. This is mainly because the IMs of both samples contain over 90%
γ phase, which provides a more austenitic matrix for the subsequent
TRIP effect and accelerates the martensitic transformation. There is 40%
thermally induced martensite in the coarse equiaxed γ grains, and the
γ→ε-М and ε-М→α′ -M transformations both occur under cold defor­
mation, which also explains the faster formation of α′ -M.
By referring to the Rε→α′ in Fig. 8 and phase distributions in Figs. 4
and 5, it can be found that compared with the γ→ε-М transformation,
the fine-grained sample has a greater promoting effect on the ε-M→α′ -M
transformation than the bimodal elongated-grained sample. The steel
exhibits a γ→ε-М→α′ -M transformation sequence. Thus, the ε-M
behavior affects the α′ -M transformation. It is generally believed that
α′ -M is easily formed at the intersection of ε-М plates and in larger ε-M
plates [25]. However, the factors influencing the formation of α′ -M in
the two IMs are very complicated. We will carry out detailed research on
this topic in the future. At present, the following hypotheses are made:
(1) There is a certain amount of thermally induced ε-М, and
deformation-induced ε-М transformation is faster in the fine-grained
sample, resulting in more formed ε-М and accelerating the formation
of α′ -M. (2) The α′ -M formation is related to the shape and size of ε-М.
The ε-M with a large plate or block morphology is formed in the
fine-grained sample, while more ε-M appears as thin plates in the
bimodal elongated-grained sample.
4.2. Difference in transformation textures in two specially prepared
samples and its influencing factors
One of the main purposes of this study is to examine the difference in
transformation textures in two specially prepared samples. According to
the macrotextures determined using XRD shown in Fig. 9, the main
difference is that the strong {001}<110> texture occurs in the bimodal
elongated-grained sample but not in the fine-grained sample after
completion of transformation, whereas {112}<110> and {332}<113>,
which come from the Copper- and Brass-type textures in austenite
respectively [36], exist in both samples. In particular, the dominant
{100} texture is present in the early stage of transformation in the
former. The initial textures in the two samples are similar, as seen in
Fig. 2. No {100} texture is present, and only a very weak trace of cube
9
Materials Science & Engineering A 829 (2022) 142147
texture seems to exist in the bimodal-grained sample. When a compar­
ison is made to the transformation texture of the solution-treated sample
with coarse equiaxed γ grains as described in Ref. [16], it is seen that the
{100} transformation texture (<100>//ND) is the main texture
component because of the more {100}-oriented grains in the initial
sample before cold rolling. Similarly, the {100} texture also presents in
the early stage of transformation in the bimodal elongated-grained
sample in this study, although the initial rolling texture restrains its
intensity. The {100} transformation texture in the fine-grained sample is
negligible. However, Fig. 11 shows its presence in different oriented γ
grains, such as Copper-, Brass- and Goss-oriented grains. This indicates
the easiness of {100} variant formation during rolling. Detailed obser­
vation shows that as the austenite grain deviates from {100} orientation,
the grain size of {100} variants within this γ grain becomes smaller. We
believe that <100> is the soft direction with the lowest elastic modulus
and can reduce deformation resistance, thus this kind of grain orienta­
tion nucleates preferentially. If the cube texture is strong in austenite,
the {100} texture will be strong in α′ -M during the TRIP process. Of
course, the {100} texture in final products of structural materials is
detrimental and should be avoided.
4.3. Relationship between mechanical properties and TRIP process
As shown in Fig. 3, the solution-treated sample with coarse equiaxed
γ grains demonstrates an excellent, nearly constant work hardening rate
and the high elongation of 40%. However, its yield strength of only 200
MPa and yield-to-tensile strength ratio of below 0.30 are too low for a
structural material. We hope to increase the yield strength and delay
phase transformation by refining grains or introducing dislocations to
optimize the mechanical performance.
The results show that the strength and yield-to-tensile strength ratio
of both samples can be improved by grain refinement and dislocation
introduction, and the strength-plasticity product can be effectively
improved. Interestingly, the bimodal elongated samples with larger
grain size have higher strength and lower plasticity, while the fine-
grained samples show lower strength and higher plasticity. This in­
dicates that dislocation strengthening exceeds fine grain strengthening.
In addition, the change of work hardening curves in Fig. 3b indicates the
different strain hardening stages. Souza Filho et al. [37] reported a
similar strain-hardening rate behavior in Fe–17Mn-0.06C-1.43Al–2Si
TRIP steel. A similar feature was also found in
Fe-17.6Mn-0.042C-1.71Al-3.22Si TRIP steel [30] and Fe–17M­
n-1.5Al-0.3C TRIP/TWIP steel [18]. It is pointed out that the rising stage
of the strain hardening rate is mainly caused by the formation of
α′ -martensite, that is, the ε-M→α′ -M transformation occurs. The corre­
sponding strains of the samples with coarse equiaxed γ, fine equiaxed γ,
and bimodal elongated γ, respectively, increase successively in this ris­
ing strain hardening stage, as shown by the arrows in Fig. 3b. It is
suggested that the ε-M→α′ -M transformation in these two samples is
delayed compared with that in the coarse equiaxed γ grains, and it is
more significant in the bimodal elongated γ grains. This also shows that
the hindrance effect of introducing high dislocation density by hot
deformation on TRIP at room temperature is greater than that of grain
refinement. Moreover, the fine-grained sample has a more uniform
strain hardening, indicating that its martensitic transformation process
is more uniform, as can be seen from Fig. 3b, which is the result that we
expected.
Therefore, the bimodal elongated γ IM shows the highest strength
and sufficient plasticity. On the one hand, the existence of initial high-
level dislocations significantly increases the yield strength and exceeds
the effect of fine grain strengthening in the fine-grained sample. On the
other hand, the martensitic transformation is delayed, which gives rise
to a high elongation. However, the later phase transformation is too fast,
resulting in a reduction in overall plasticity. While the fine-grained
sample do not significantly delay deformation-induced martensitic
transformation, it has a more uniform TRIP process, leading to a higher
D.-d. Ma et al.
elongation. According to previous investigations [30,38], it is consid­
ered that high elongation is connected with relaxation of stress con­
centration by the formation of strain-induced martensite, which leads to
good stress/strain accommodation. Souza Filho et al. [37] pointed out
that larger deformations are accommodated in α′ -martensite by the
rearrangement of dislocation tangles into cells and the dislocation
density in α′ -martensite saturates from ε = 0.51 as a result of dynamic
recovery. Thus, the fine equiaxed γ IM without a high level of disloca­
tions shows the best elongation and the highest product of strength and
ductility compared with the other two samples.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, two kinds of IMs of high manganese TRIP steel were
specially prepared to restrain thermally induced martensite formation
before a room temperature TRIP process, namely bimodal elongated γ
grains obtained by hot rolling and fine equiaxed γ grains obtained by
cold rolling and then transformation annealing. Their phase trans­
formation kinetics and texture evolution during cold rolling were
investigated, and their tensile properties were compared with those of
coarse equiaxed γ grains obtained by solid solution treatment. The main
conclusions obtained are as follows:
(1) The two specially prepared samples both showed a higher yield
strength, tensile strength and product of strength and elongation
compared with the solution-treated sample. In particular, the
bimodal elongated-grained sample revealed the highest tensile
strength, while the fine-grained sample exhibited the highest
elongation and the best product of strength and elongation. Thus,
these two processing methods were selected for acquiring
improved mechanical properties.
(2) The highest elongation and the best product of strength and
elongation of fine-grained sample were ascribed to the grain
refinement to prevent thermal martensite formation and the
progressive TRIP process with more interaction of grain bound­
aries. The bimodal elongated-grained sample had the highest
strength and sufficient plasticity due to the high density of
dislocation defects introduced by hot rolling and the delayed
martensitic transformation.
(3) Kinetically, it was determined that the phase transformation in
the fine-grained sample during room temperature rolling was
faster than that in the bimodal elongated-grained sample. This
was because the hindrance effect of introducing a high disloca­
tion density by hot deformation on TRIP was greater than that of
grain refinement and the strong effect of more grain boundaries
initiated martensitic transformation. The bimodal elongated-
grained sample showed high ε volume fraction of 60%
compared with the 30%–40% ε phase induced during cold rolling
in the fine-grained and solution-treated samples.
(4) The difference in the transformation textures of the two kinds of
samples was that the fine-grained sample demonstrated typical
{113}<110>α from the Copper-type γ texture and {332}<113>α
from the Brass-type γ texture, whereas the {001}<110> texture
occurred in the bimodal elongated-grained sample in addition to
the two components with higher intensity. Stronger orientation
dependence of transformation and stronger variant selection
were observed in the latter than in the former and it originated
from cube-oriented and Brass-oriented austenite in the early
stage of transformation.
Data availability
The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot
be shared at this time as the data also forms part of an ongoing study.
10
Materials Science & Engineering A 829 (2022) 142147
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Dan-dan Ma: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data
curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Ping
Yang: Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Funding acquisition,
Supervision. Xin-fu Gu: Writing – review & editing, Visualization,
Investigation. Feng-e Cui: Resources, Project administration.
Declaration of competing interest
We declare that we have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work
reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foun­
dation of China (No.51771024).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.142147.
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