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    Abrasion Resistant Cast Iron Handbook

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    Abrasion Resistant Cast Iron Handbook

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    Abrasion Resistant Cast Iron Handbook

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    Clodomiro Barril Club de Amigos de la Cueca

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    Abrasion-Resistant Cast Iron Handbook George Laird Richard Gundlach Klaus Rohrig Abrasion-Resistant Cast Iron Handbook George Laird Richard Gundlach Klaus Réhrig 01. Introduction to AR Cast Irons | 02, Solidification of AR Cast Irons 03. Heat Treatment of AR Cast Irons 04, Alloying for Hardenability 05, Morphology, Microstructures and Properties 06. Quality Control, Inspection and Specifying 07, Production Practices 08. Abrasive and Repetitive-mpact Wear Performance 09. Corrosive/Abrasive Wear Performance 10. Applications Appendices Glossary Index ‘See next page for complete Table of Contents > Contents Foreword vi Preface About the Authors xv Acknowledgments xvi ABS Special Irons Committee 5-D Contributors. IMOA and NiDI Chapter 1 Introduction to AR Cast Irons 1 + Why AR Cast Irons are Known as“White” Irons 1 + Classification of AR Cast Irons 2 Pearlitic or Chilled AR Cast Irons 2 fard or Ni-Cr AR Cast lrons. 3 fard 4 AR Cast Irons 5 High-Cr AR Cast Irons 6 Specialty AR Cast Irons 7 Chapter 2. Solidification of AR Cast Irons 9 + Binary Fe-C Systems (Fey & M3C AR Cast Irons) 9 Carbon Equivalency 10 Binary Phase Diagram 11 Eutectic FesC/MsC Growth Morphology 12 FesC/MsC Carbide Formation 13 Ternary Fe-Cr-C Systems (M,C; AR Cast Irons) 13 Ternary Phase Diagram 13 Eutectic Reactions and Carbide Formation 14 M,C; Eutectic Growth Morphology. 21 M,C; Carbide Formation 21 + Determining Solidification Temperatures 22 + Effect of Fluidity on Solidification 23 (Alloy Composition, Superheat, Melt Cleanliness) + Structures Formed During Solidification 26 (Macrostructure, Microstructure) ‘+ Alloy Segregation 28 + Alloy-Specific Notes on Solidification 31 (Pearlitc and Ni-Hard 1 and 2 AR Cast Irons, Hard 4 AR Cast Irons, High-Chromium AR Cast Irons, Specialty AR Cast Irons) + Effect of Tramp Elements on Solidification 35 (Phosphorus, Sulfur) + Inoculation for Better Solidification 36 Chapter 3. Heat Treatment of AR Cast Irons 39 + Phase Transformation 39 (Equilibrium Diagrams, Transformation Diagrams) + Nickel-Chromium (Ni-Hard 1 and 2) White Irons 42 As-Cast Microstructure 42 Recommended Heat Treatments 43 + High-Chromium and Chromium-Molybdenum White Irons 45 As-Cast Microstructure 45 Heat-Treated Martensitic White Irons 46 Recommended Heat Treatments 50 + Practical Guidelines for Heat Treatment 53 ‘Chapter 4. Alloying for Hardenability 55 +Hardenability Concepts 55 Phase Transformation 55 Kinetics of Phase Transformation 55 'M, Temperature and Retained Austenite 56 + Alloying for As-Cast Hardenability 56 ‘Nickel-Chromium (Ni-Hard) Irons. S6 High-Chromium White Irons 56 + Alloying for Hardenability in Heat Treatment 57 Selecting Alloy Compositions 57 Correlation of Composition With Section Size 60 Lean Alloy Approach 62 Chapter 5. Morphology, Microstructures and Properties 63 + Carbide Constituents 63 MsC Carbide Morphology 63 M,C; Carbide Morphology 65 MzC¢ Carbide Morphology 69 Mo,C Carbide Morphology 70 MC(VC) Carbide Morphology 71 NOC Carbide Morphology 72 ‘TiC Carbide Morphology 72 + Graphite Constituents 74 + Metallic Matrix Constituents 74 ‘Austenite Morphology 74 Ferrite Morphology 77 Martensite Morphology 77 + Nanocomposite Phase Morphology 81 Pearite Phase Morphology 81 Bainite Phase Morphology 82 + Metallic Matrix Microstructures 83 MaC Eutectic Carbide Category 83 M,C; Eutectic Carbide Category 89 Specialty Eutectic Carbide Category 100 ‘Abrasion-Resistant Cast Iron Handbook Chapter 6. Quality Control, Inspection and Specifying 105 * Quality Controt 105 ‘+ Inspection 105 Chemical Analysis 105 Material Properties Testing 106 Hardness Testing 106 Microstructure Testing 107 + Specifying 109 International Standards 109 Heat-Treatment Specification 109 Hardness Specification 109 General Specification Advice 110 Chapter 7. Production Practices 111 (Chemical Composition, Melting, Molding, Gating, Fisering, Pouring, Cleaning/Fnishing, Heat Treating, Welaing, Machining) + Fully White Pearlitic AR Cast Irons 111 + Chilled AR Cast Irons 113, i-Hard 1 and Ni-Hard 2 (Ni-Cr) AR Cast Irons 115 + High-Chromium AR Cast Irons 123 Chapter 8. Abrasive and Repetitive-Impact Wear Performance 127 + Abrasive Wear Classification 128 Hardness and Abrasion Resistance 128 Abrasive Wear Field Trials Vs. Laboratory Testing 131 (Pin-On-Disk, Boyes/Avery, DSRW) Qualitative Understanding of Field Wear Vs. Laboratory Testing 134 Designing Microstructures for ‘Abrasion Resistance 135 (Matrix Structure, Carbon Content, CVF, Carbide Size, Carbide Morphology & Hardness) + Repetitive-Impact Wear Classification 144 Repetitive-Impact Field Trials Vs. Laboratory Testing 145, (Ball-On-Ball, Ball-On-Block) Qualitative Understanding of Field Wear Vs. Laboratory Testing 147 Designing Microstructures for Repetitive-tmpact Resistance 148 (Matrix Structure, CVF, Carbide Size, ‘Carbide Morphology) ‘Abrasion-Resistant Cast Iron Handbook Chapter 9. Corrosive/Abrasive Wear Performance 151 + Corrosion/Abrasion Relationship 151 Corrosion Resistance 151 Oxidizing/Reducing Environments 151 Chromium Threshold 152 * Behavioral Studies 154 Passivation Behavior 154 Synergistic Behavior 155 Microstructural Behavior 156 + Measuring Wear Rates 157 Ball Mill Wear 157 Slurry Wear 159 Chapter 10. Applications 165 ‘+ Choosing the Proper AR Cast Iron 165 ‘Discussion of Applications 165 (Over 40 photes) Appendices 175 ‘A-Hardness of Minerals, Iron Phases and Carbides 177 B-Mechanical & Thermophysical Properties 177 ‘C-General Mechanical & Wear Properties 183 D-Hardness Measurements 194 E-Standards 198 F-Sample Preparation for Metallography 203 G-Calculation of Superheat 205 H-Fluidity Measurements 206 Glossary 211 Index 219 Foreword Historical Review of A special contribution by John Dodd ‘This review was conceived as a means of bringing together technical data on the production and properties of alloyed white irons, which has been derived from many years of experience, a vast amount of research and many in-plant investigations by more than a generation of metallurgists. Much of this information has been considered as proprietary by foundrymen who have pioneered improvements in the technology and, obviously, wished to preserve their market- ing advantage. ‘The AFS Special Irons Committee 5-D, which has spon- sored this publication, playedamajorroleinthe collection and, {dissemination of sound technical information on the highly alloyed irons since its inception in 1976. The committee also, servedasa forum formetallurgists and others with aparticular interest in this area of abrasion-resistant castings, as well as, provided the opportunity to socialize with kindred spirits. ‘Norman Lillybeck (now retired, then with John Deere) de- serves recognition as the father ofthe Special Irons Commit- tee, He felt that the high-alloy irons were not getting the attention they deserved by the AFS Gray Iron Research ‘Committee 5-H and organized a long-delayed vote to create the Special Irons Committee. Abrasion-resistant castings are tested more severely than ‘many other castings, since much of the casting is worn away in service. Differences in performance are easily noted, and ‘one supplier can be compared with another. Premature failure by fracture or excessive wear can readily be assessed and, related to the initial cost. Over the years, three Factors have been the driving force for continued technical innovation: (1) improving resistance to fracture; (2) inereasing resistance {o abrasive wear; and (3) achieving these goals at an accept- able cost. ‘The high-alloy white irons currently being produced by capable foundries are now working under impact conditions, that would have been unthinkable some 30 years ago. Re- ‘duced wear rates have allowed substantial reductions in mai tenance costs in crushing and grinding operations, which have ‘more than paid for any of the extra alloy costs. ‘There are many pitfalls for foundries just beginning the production of these vastly improved high-alloy white irons ... also for long established foundries in which the loss of experienced personnel has downgraded hard-earned expertise, ‘The following summary of the salient features in the development of the alloy irons is perhaps the easiest way to understand these irons and the potential pitfalls, which are seldom emphasized in the published literature. This approach also shows how the alloys were developed in a continuing process, over the years. Even long-established alloy irons, like Ni-Hard, can be improved, as the late Gordon Cox demonstrated some S0 years after its introduction. Improve- ‘ments in properties are likely to continue; we can expect ‘modifications to the carbide structure to improve toughness and the introduction of even harder carbides to increase abrasion resistance, ‘The role of major alloy suppliers in the development of alloy irons eannot be overemphasized. The Electro Metallur- gical Company in Niagara Falls, New York supported the development of the high-chromium irons for some 40 years from 1918, and the Climax Molybdenum Company (head- {quartered in Greenwieh, Connecticut) continued this support for a further 25 years from 1960. The International Nickel ‘Company (or INCO) in New York provided strong marketing ‘and development support, worldwide, for the Ni-Hard irons from 1928 for about 50 years. Eventually, the need tocompete against new low-cost sources of alloys did not allow a margin ‘on the price of alloys for the continued support of the foundry industry by the major alloy suppliers. Development of Abrasion-Resistant Alloy Irons Like many other technologies, the development of the abra- sion-resistant white irons has occurred in clearly defined phases. The aims of higher abrasion resistance and better toughness at an acceptable cost have been the guidelines for development of white irons. Low-Alloy White Irons Before the invention of the high-alloy white irons, low-alloy chilled or pearlitic white iron was used for a vast number of applications—from plough shares to rolls in rolling mills—to resist wear and abrasion. There seems tohave been noconnec- tion between this huge low-alloy iron industry usage and the development of the high-alloy irons. The Electro Metallurgi- ccal Company, in whose research laboratories the remarkable properties of the firsthigh-alloy chromium irons were discov- cred, was, however, a supplier to the low-alloy iron industry, also used many low-alloy iron components in the crushing of ferroalloys and recognized the value of its high-chromium alloy iron discovery. High-Chromium Alloy White Irons ‘Thehigh-chromium white irons were discovered inthe course ofresearch around 1915, The discovery was made by Frederick Becket, an English metallurgis in the Niagara Falls Research Laboratories of the Electro Metallurgical Company. His ob- jective was to develop new tool steels, based on chromium, ‘This work was intended to offset possible shortages of critical alloys in the manufacture of tool steels during the first-world war, and was not aimed at improving the low-alloy white irons. Becket would seem to have invented the very first highly alloyed iron and, in 1916, described its characteristics and applications in U.S. Patent 1,245,552, High-carbon high- ‘chromium alloys produced inthis investigation were found to bbe less brittle than the unalloyed white irons and were ex- tremely hard; they also had excellent heat and corrosion resistance, ‘The development and promotion of these 25-30% chro- ‘ium irons were a major breakthrough in east iron technol- ogy. It seems likely that this work stimulated the research program mounted by INCO a few years later to find appli tions for nickel in abrasion-resistant cast irons, ‘NicHard AR Cast Iron In the mid 1920s, research initiated by INCO to increase the ‘market for nickel led to the second important new abrasion- resistant white cast iron: Ni-Hard, Paul Merica, James Vanick and Thomas Wickenden of INCO discovered that acombina- tion of nickel and chromium added to a cast iron would produce a structure of martensite and austenite with a high resistance to abrasion and wear in the as-cast condition. This alloy was then promoted very strongly, worldwide, for more than half a century under the “INCO” trademark of Ni-Hard Unlike the chromium irons that required electric melting, Ni- Hard could be produced in the cupola furnace. This class of iron had relatively good castability and became, for many years, the most widely produced abrasion-resistantcastironin the world. Further Development of High-Chromium Irons From 1920 onward, the Electro Metallurgical Co. (now a unit ‘of Union Carbide and Carbon Corp. in New York City) used arange of 15-35% chromium, 1.5-3.0% carbonalloysintheir ‘own works, to reduce maintenance costs in crushing and sinding operations and in high-temperature applications. [n addition, they promoted these new alloys, worldwide, to increase their market for ferrochromium, ‘The high-chromium irons could not be melted easily in the ‘cupola furace, due to the high affinity of chromium for ‘carbon. Thus, their production was largely restricted to found- ties with electric melting furnaces, and this undoubtedly hindered their market penetration. As electric melting became ‘more common, large tonnages of the high-chromium alloys ‘were produced and used in the as-cast condition, i¢., without any heat treatment. They were found to be less brittle than the [Ni-Hard irons and were often more resistant to abrasion. The higher-chromium irons also proved to be particularly usefulin Pumps, where a combination of corrosion resistance and abrasion resistance is necessary Large tonnages of the high-chromium ions were produced around the world, particularly inthe form of small- to me= 7 + MxC then proceeds. This reaction is fixed at a single composition (4.42% C) and a single temperature (1147C/2097F). In the ternary Fe-Cr-C system, hypocutectic irons reject ‘both Cand Cr during solidification. As the austenite dendrites ‘grow during the solidification process, the remaining liquid ‘becomes enriched in C and Cr, and its representative point is pushed diagonally toward the eutectic valley, Once the liquid reaches the eutectic valley, it will solidify over a range of temperatures. In ternary systems, the eutectic reaction does ‘not occur at a fixed temperature, nor do the two solidifying pphases (y+ MyC3) have a fixed composition. That is, as the liquid reaches the cutectc, it starts to form eutectic colonies. ‘AS the alloy continues to solidify, the remaining eutectic liquid moves down the eutectic valley, decreasing in tem- perature. ‘The reason that the solidifying austenite dendrites reject both C and Cr has to do with complex interrelationships between the substitutional Cr atoms and the interstitial C atoms within the FCC crystalline structure of the austenite ‘dendrite. Simply put, as the Cr content goes up, the C content of the austenite dendrites goes down. —S-P o B (Chromum, wt pet ce Carbon, wt pet ‘Fig. 2.10. Majority of AR cast irons have compositions that fall ‘within the shaded regions lying on the austenite liquidus ‘surface. 18 (Ternary Systems, continued) Figure 2.11 shows vertical sections through the ternary Fe- ‘Cr-C phase diagram at constant Cr contents increasing from 0 10 20% Cr. (AtO% Cr we are looking atthe austenite field from the binary Fe-C phase diagram in Fig, 2.9.) For clarity, this representation has been limited to the austenite field of the solidus surface. The size of this field shrinks with increasing Cr and disappears at 20%. Consequently, Cr is considered to promote the formation of ferrite, since the austenite field shrinks while the ferrite field expands, As the alloy’s Cr content increases, the solidus line moves ‘o the left and the C content, above which a eutectic reaction takes place, decreases more and more, while the temperature Of the eutectic reaction increases continuously. The solidus linemoving tothe left signifies that, when the Crcontentof the alloy increases, the C content of the austenite dendrite de- creases over the full range of proeutectic solidification, ‘The slight initial decrease of the eutectic temperature shown in Fig. 2.11 reflects the use of the graphite eutectic (equilibrium) temperature at 0% Cr, which is higher than the carbide eutectic (metastable) temperature at 0% Cr. Other- wise, ignoring the 0% Cr eutectic temperature, the eutectic {temperature rises as the Cr content is increased. Hence, as one ‘moves up the eutectic valley, the eutectic austenite will have ‘more and more Cr and less and less carbon, Forhypereutectic irons, carbides are the first phase to form ‘upon solidification, As these Cr- and C-rich carbides form, the remaining liquid israpidly depleted of Cand Cr. Forexample, as MjC and M,C; carbides form, they require approximately 68 and 8.9% C, respectively. With respect to Cr, the MxC carbide has a maximum Cr solubility of about 15% Cr, while the MC, carbide is theoretically unlimited; however, in most high-Cr irons, the M;C; carbide will contain no more than about 60% Cr. Considering the very high carbon and chromium contents ‘of the carbides (called primary carbides since they are formed prior to eutectic solidification), itis entirely understandable that the remaining liquid is quickly depleted of C and Cr

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