Types of Errors in Digitization

Errors on digitized maps are classified into the geodetic, machine, cartographic, manuscript,
positional and attribute errors.

1. Geodetic Errors 
Geodetic errors are due to the odd choice of a projection system. Generally, earth features are in
3 Dimensions. But the features on the map are in 2 Dimensions. So the projection system leads
to inaccuracy. Improper projection leads to inaccurate placement of elements on the map.
Therefore making the map and the digitized features do not overlap each other appropriately.

2. Machine Error 
Machine error occurs due to the digitizing tablet or the software used to digitizing the elements.
It is an inherent error that cannot be removed but can only be minimized. Sometimes it may
occur when converting the maps from analog to the digital formats.

3. Cartographic Errors 
Cartographic errors arise due to existing mistakes that are present in the source map itself, and it
can be transferred into the digital map.
Incorrect interpretations or drafting of the elements in the maps are also one of the reasons for
these errors. 

4. Manuscript Errors 
Manuscript errors occur based on the quality of the source maps. Hard copy maps shrink with
time. Any stretching, warping, wrinkling, or traces of folding of the original map might affect
the digitization process. It may lead to irregular shape, area & coordinates of the digitized
features. It can’t be completely rectified.
5. Positional Errors
Positional Error happens when an element is not captured correctly or carelessness of the
digitizer, and it can be completely rectified. 
Positional Error is categorized as Dangling Nodes, Switchbacks, knots, and loops, Overshoots,
and Undershoots, Silvers, and Overlaps.

Dangling Nodes
Dangling nodes occur in polygon & polyline. In digitized polyline, which hasn’t met, or there is
any gap between the nodes. In a digitized polygon, it happens when a polygon doesn’t connect
back to it.

Switchbacks, Knots & Loops

These errors occur due to unpracticed digitizer. With the wrong movement of the cursor/ puck,
the line being digitized ends up with extra vertices/nodes. In the case of additional vertices,
switchbacks are formed in line with a bend. With knots and loops, the line folds onto itself,
creating a polygon. Also known as a weird polygon. It also occurs in both polygon & polyline.

Overshoots and Undershoots

When a digitized line does not connect properly, overshoots and undershoots errors occur.
During Digitization, a snap tolerance or snap distance (snap tolerance or the snap distance is the
measurement of the diameter from the point of the cursor) is set by any digitizer. 
The main reason for undershoots and overshoots error occurs is due to the snap distance being
set too low, or the digitizer does not set the snap tolerance. It occurred both in lines & polygons.

Silvers
Silvers errors occur due to improper snap tolerance values. Because of this, gaps formed
between two adjoining polygons. Setting the snap tolerance value properly it can be avoided
entirely. It occurs only in polygons.
 Overlap
Overlap errors are formed between two adjoining polygons, which overlap each other. It is due
to the improper snap tolerance value, and it can be avoided by setting the proper tolerance value.
It occurs only in polygons.

The five GIS data input techniques

There are five common GIS data input techniques. Which technique you choose will depend on the
application, your budget, and the type and complexity of the data involved.

1. Digitizing tablet
A digitizer is a special table with a grid of fine wiring behind the face.

 You place your map on the digitize and then secure it with removable sticking tape.
 In your digitizing software, you then specify a coordinate system
 Then you digitize the bounding coordinates of the map.
 After the setup phase, you trace the map features using a magnetic pen (puck). The map features get
sent to your computer as a GIS map.

Digitizing using a digitizing tablet can be carried out in the following modes:

 Point mode: single points are recorded at one time.

 Stream mode: one point each is collected at regular breaks of time and distance.

Digitizing can be very time-consuming and so its expensive.  However, once digitized, GIS maps
can be used over-and-over. That’s one way digitizing becomes cost effective.

Digitizing can take time to learn and to master. It can be a real pain!

2. Heads up digitizing
A second manual digitizing technique is known as heads-up digitizing. To be honest, the other
digitizing techniques in this post are geared towards industrial-scale digitizing. For example, whole-
of-country map bases.

For small digitizing projects, heads-up digitizing is my preferred option. I use this GIS data input
technique all the time in my GIS consultancy. It is where you…
1. Scan a map to create a digital version of it. For small maps, the flatbed scanner sitting on the desk
next to you is good enough. You will need to scan bigger maps at an office centre.
2. Place the scan into a coordinate system. You do this using a GIS process called georectification.
Simplistically this involves matching features on the scanned map to identical features on a GIS
map.
3. On-screen digitize using the georectified map as a backdrop. Use the georectified scanned map
as a backdrop on your computer screen and then trace the features on the scan with your mouse. The
features will automatically be in a coordinate system, and so, once attributed, a GIS map.

Sounds simple, but there are many tricks that you can use to shortcut the process while at the same
time improving the quality of the end product. Tricks like ensuring you’re using the correct
coordinate system, copying features from other GIS maps, setting up your scan so that the
georectification process is quicker and more accurate, and giving yourself a tidy edge to digitize
against.

I show you how to use the qgis georeferencer to georeference a scanned paper map and then on-
screen digitize from it
I show you all these tricks and more using QGIS in my QGIS 3 georeferencing and digitizing
course…

3. Automatic scanning
This is where a scanner captures the spatial data automatically. Scanning devices can capture spatial
data at a very high speed. However, these scanners are often quite expensive and are rarely able to
recognize text and symbols. Scanned data also requires a large amount of editing, which is done
manually, therefore it can be more time consuming.

Automatic scanning can also be very quick when the map being scanned is a single map theme eg.
just roads or just watercourses (but not a map with a mix of themes such as roads, rail, watercourses,
etc.)

Scanners are expensive and its better to outsource this task. The final scans are only as good as the
original map. Low quality scans might need to be on-screen digitized rather than going through
feature auto-recognition.

4. Entry of coordinates via coordinate geometry

Coordinate geometry is a means of entering explicit measurements of features from some known
monument. This data is entered based on surveys. It involves manually entering X & Y coordinate
information, and distances, can be very expensive in terms of labor. It is rarely used for natural
resource applications in GIS and is mostly used for producing detailed cadastre maps.

5. Conversion of existing digital data

This involves the process of converting data from CAD systems to a GIS or topological form. Most
software vendors of GIS provide a data exchange format where users can write their own data
conversion routes.

GPS is also another means of data conversion.