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J Mechmat 2011 12 003
J Mechmat 2011 12 003
Mechanics of Materials
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mechmat
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: We put forward a thermodynamic approach for analyzing fatigue failure in a composite
Received 3 March 2011 laminate. We show that fatigue is an irreversible progression of increasing entropy that
Received in revised form 15 December 2011 accumulates until it reaches a critical value called the fracture fatigue entropy (FFE) at
Available online 24 December 2011
the onset of failure. Extensive series of fatigue tests are carried out that involve load-con-
trolled tension-tension, and displacement controlled fully-reversed bending fatigue with
Keywords: three different stress ratios as well as constant- and variable-loading. The role of hysteresis
Fatigue
energy in the entropy generation is investigated. FFE values are calculated based the exper-
Fracture
Woven Glass/Epoxy laminate
imental data obtained for temperature and hysteresis energy of a woven Glass/Epoxy (G10/
Thermodynamic entropy FR4) laminate. The concept of tallying entropy accumulation and the use of FFE are useful
for determining the fatigue life of composite laminates undergoing cyclic loading.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0167-6636/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mechmat.2011.12.003
114 M. Naderi, M.M. Khonsari / Mechanics of Materials 46 (2012) 113–122
Using the definition of Helmholtz free energy, 3. Material and experimental procedure
W = u h s, the energy balance and the entropy produc-
tion Eqs. (2) and (6) can be rewritten as (Naderi et al., The material studied is Glass/Epoxy (G10/FR4) which is
2010) an unbalanced woven fabric composite with plain weave
and aligned configuration and consists of a continuous fil-
qðW_ þ hs _ ¼ r J q þ w
_ þ hsÞ ð7Þ ament glass cloth with an epoxy resin binder. The plain
woven glass fabric is stacked in 15 and 24 layers with
_ þ hsÞ
w qðW _ J q rh two different thicknesses of 3 and 4.85 mm. Each woven
c_ ¼ P0 ð8Þ layer has two unidirectional layers stacked in [0°/90°]. This
h h h2
type of a composite offers high tensile and flexural
By introducing the specific heat capacity, c, and the Fou- strength (see Table 1) and thus finds use in a variety of
rier’s heat conduction law (Jq = k r h) into Eqs. (7) and applications such as electrical equipment, aerospace struc-
(8), one can obtain the general form of the heat conduction tures, and rocket structural components. Specimens are
equation and entropy production inequality as follows prepared with on- and off-axis stacking sequences. In on-
(Naderi et al., 2010 ; Voyiadjis and Faghihi, 2011).): axis stacking, the warp and weft directions are aligned
with the load direction. The former is called lengthwise
kh;ii þ w ¼ qch_ ð9Þ (0°) while the latter is called crosswise (90°). In off-axis
stacking, the angle between the warp and the load direc-
w ed k tion is (a = 15°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 80°, in this study); See
c_ ¼ þ þ 2 h;i h;i P 0 ð10Þ Fig. 2a. Fig. 2a also presents a schematic diagram of the
h h h
experimental setup for tension–tension fatigue test. The
where k is the thermal conductivity. apparatus used is MTS 810 servohydraulic single actuator.
Eq. (10) consists of a combination of three terms: the Sinusoidal fatigue loads are defined in Multipurpose Test-
Ware (MPT) software which controls the fatigue test and
mechanical dissipation due to permanent deformation
c_ mech ¼ wh , internal variable evolution due to, for example, applies with a frequency in the range of 5–15 Hz and a load
damage energy c_ int¼ ehs and the thermal dissipation due ratio of 0 and 0.1. Constant and variable loads are applied
to heat conduction c_ cond ¼ hk2 h;i h;i . in both the on-axis (0° and 90°) and the off-axis (15, 30,
The fracture fatigue entropy (FFE), cf, can be obtained by 45, 60 and 80°) directions. Variable loading tests include
integrating Eq. (10) up to the time tf when failure occurs both high-to-low and low-to-high sequences.
(Naderi et al., 2010): Fig. 2b shows the specimen dimensions used in a fully
reversed bending fatigue test. The apparatus is a compact,
Z tf
w ed k bench-mounted unit with a variable-speed motor, vari-
cf ¼ þ þ 2 h;i h; i dt ð11Þ
able-throw crank connected to the reciprocating platen,
0 h h h
with a failure cut-off circuit in a control box, and a cycle
Eq. (11) reveals that the cyclic hysteresis energy (w) is a counter. The variable throw crank is infinitely adjustable
crucial parameter for determining FFE. In metals, w—the from 0 to 50.8 mm to provide different levels of stress
so-called cyclic plastic energy—is a function of fatigue amplitude.
parameters such as cyclic strain hardening, fatigue ductil- Test conditions are summarized in Table 2. Tension–
ity coefficient, and fatigue strength coefficient. To estimate tension fatigue tests are carried out with a total of 62 con-
the FFE for a metallic component, one can make use of the stant loads and 16 variable loads (high-to-low and low-to-
cyclic plastic energy formula such as the Morrow’s equa- high) with 3 and 4.85 mm-thick specimens in the range of
tion (Morrow, 1965) for w. Theoretical procedure and 2–10 kN load amplitude. For the bending fatigue tests, 16
experimental verification of thermodynamic fracture en- constant amplitude loads with the 3 mm-thick specimens
tropy was recently reported by the authors (Naderi et al., are performed.
2010; Naderi and Khonsari, 2010). However, in composite The instrumentation includes a high-speed, high-reso-
materials, the hysteresis energy variation is much more lution infrared (IR) thermography used to record the tem-
complicated than their metal counterparts and, to the best perature evolution of the specimen during the entire
of our knowledge, there are no expressions available to experiment. The IR camera is a MIKRON M7500 with tem-
relate cyclic hysteresis energy to composite fatigue proper- perature range between 0 °C and 500 °C, resolution of
ties. It should also be pointed out that in metals, internal 320 240 pixel, accuracy of ±2% of reading, sensitivity/
variables evolution represent only 5–10% of the entropy NETD of 0.08 °C at 30 °C, and image update rate of 7.5 Hz.
generation owing to mechanical dissipation and is often Before fatigue testing, the surface of the specimen is coated
negligible (Clarebrough et al., 1955a,b; Halford, 1966). with black paint to increase the thermal emissivity of the
However, in composite materials, the evolution of internal specimen surface.
variables represents nearly 30–50% of mechanical entropy
generation (Gamstedet et al., 2002). Due to the importance
of internal variable term, the effect of damage energy on 4. Results and discussion
the fracture fatigue entropy must be considered. However,
in this work, only the experimentally-determined hystere- A series of tension–tension and bending fatigue tests
sis energy is used for evaluating the FFE. The detailed of are performed under constant and variable amplitude
this approach is described in Section 4.1.1. loading. All tests are conducted until fracture occurs to
116 M. Naderi, M.M. Khonsari / Mechanics of Materials 46 (2012) 113–122
Table 1
Mechanical properties of G10/FR4.
Tensile strength (MPa) Flexural strength (MPa) Elastic modulus in flexure (GPa)
Lengthwise Crosswise Lengthwise Crosswise Lengthwise Crosswise
275 240 380 310 18 15
Fig. 2. (a) and (b) Specimen geometry and schematic diagram of the experimental setup in tension–tension fatigue test and specimen geometry in bending
fatigue test (all dimensions are in mm).
Table 2
Fatigue test conditions.
Fatigue test Frequency (Hz) Specimen thickness (mm) Number of tests Load amplitude
Constant load Variable load
Tension–tension 5, 10, 15 3, 4.85 62 10 2–10 (kN)
Bending 10 3 16 – 20–50 (mm)
determine the fatigue fracture entropy (FFE) associated 4.1.1. Hysteresis energy
with each specimen. In the following sections the results Fig. 3 shows the area within the hysteresis loop—the so-
of tension–tension and bending fatigue tests are discussed. called strain energy—increases during a series of tension–
tension fatigue tests. The hysteresis area of each cycle is
4.1. Tension–tension fatigue obtained using a MATLAB™ code that utilizes the experi-
mental load and displacement data between loading and
In the following sections, we present the results of unloading paths. Typical experimentally-determined hys-
experimentally-obtained hysteresis energy and tempera- teresis curves at 5% of the total life, 50% of the total life,
ture evolution that are necessary for thermodynamic anal- and just before failure are also presented in Fig. 3. Exami-
ysis followed by experimental entropy generation nation of the strain energy reveals three distinct stages.
evaluation. The first stage is limited to about 5–10% of the total life;
M. Naderi, M.M. Khonsari / Mechanics of Materials 46 (2012) 113–122 117
@h
Fig. 7. Comparison of fatigue life prediction models at various load ratios h ¼ qc ð13Þ
(R = 0, and 0.1), and load/fiber angles (a = 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 80°, 90°). @t t¼ðt Þþ
(a) Accumulated fracture energy concept. (b) Fracture fatigue entropy
criterion.
Measuring the temperature change as a function of time
during the cooling period after stopping the fatigue test
Fig. 9. (a) Comparison of cyclic strain energy based on the MTS results and the results of measuring the cooling curve for tension–tension fatigue test at the
frequency of 10 Hz, R = 0, and 5.75 kN load amplitude. (b) Dissipated energy variation during bending fatigue of G10/FR at the frequency of 10 Hz and
displacement amplitude of 38.1 mm.
120 M. Naderi, M.M. Khonsari / Mechanics of Materials 46 (2012) 113–122
provides the right-hand-side of Eq. (13). The thermal en- 4.2.1. Validation of hysteresis energy estimation
ergy per unit volume per cycle, q, is: In order to examine the validity of Eqs. (12)–(14) for
determining the hysteresis energy, we first apply the pro-
h
q¼ ð14Þ cedure described above to a tension–tension fatigue test
f
and then compare the results to the hysteresis energy ob-
where f is the frequency of the test. tained directly using the MTS instrument.
Fig. 10. SEM images of the surface of the specimen and the fracture surface for bending fatigue test at the frequency of 10 HZ and displacement amplitude
of 38.1 mm. (a) and (b) SEM image of the surface of the specimen around 85% of total life. (c) and (d) SEM image of the surface of the specimen around 95%
of total life. (e) SEM image of the fracture cross section of woven Epoxy/Glass laminate. SEM images show different failure mechanism such as matrix
cracking, debonding between fiber strands and matrix, delamination between warp and weft fiber strand at the cross-over points, and fiber breakage.
M. Naderi, M.M. Khonsari / Mechanics of Materials 46 (2012) 113–122 121
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