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BIOTECHNOLOGY
DNA
o Code of life, holds the complete instruction set for building life, are the building
blocks of genetic material
o Code is present in the nucleus of every cell of every living organism (with few
exceptions like RBC, neuron etc). It is read by a host of machineries in the cell to
build proteins which are the building blocks of life. Proteins constitutes 55% of
the dry mass of cell
o Each nucleotide has 3 parts-
A nitrogen base
A phosphate group
Sugar molecule
o Double helix
o Sugar-phosphate backbone.
o Nitrogen bases constitute the real code of life
o Human DNA is a double-stranded structure (there are single-stranded DNA also).
o Base pair: 4 types of bases namely adenosine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
The bases join one another depending on their shapes. A - T and G - C.
o In nature only 4 lettered-DNA is found, scientists have recently created a
synthetic DNA with 8 letters.
o Mitochondrial DNA: DNA is also present in the mitochondria, other than the
nucleus. This we inherit only from our mothers

CHROMOSOMES
o DNA have arranged themselves as linear strands each of which is called a
chromosome.
o There are 2 sets 23 different chromosomes in human DNA (one set of 23
inherited from each parent). Total there are 46 chromosomes in the nucleus of
every cell of our body.
o Imprinting: Each chromosome holds the memory of which parent it is inherited
from through a process called imprinting.

GENOME
o The complete set of all DNA material or genetic material is called the genome of
that organism.

RNA
o It reads and act on the information.
o It copies the instruction and carry it to other parts of the cells to make proteins.
o Only difference in RNA (vs DNA) is an extra OH group which makes it unstable.
Thus, DNA is more permanent, RNA is not permanent.
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CENTRAL DOGMA
o It explains how genetic information flows from DNA to proteins. DNA 
transcription in nucleus  mRNA  goes outside nucleus to ribosome  tRNA
translates i.e. translation in cytoplasm (3 base letters in mRNA = 1 codon = 1
amino acid)  primary structure of protein  3D structure of protein

GENES
o Human Genome Project showed- only 1.5% of the total genome in humans was
coding for proteins which are called as genes.
o 98% of the genome is non-coding regions (‘dark area’ or ‘Junk DNA’). But, they
play a huge role in gene expression.
o Epigenetics deals with the processes that control how the genes are expressed.
Different genes are expressed in different cells that perform different function that
look differently. All this relates to gene regulation.
o 25% of all the non-coding part occur in between genes.
o The non-coding part between gene is called introns and the coding part that
mRNA is interested in are called exons.
o mRNA copies only exons and cut out all the introns called RNA splicing.
o The final mRNA after splicing of introns and joining of exons is called exome
(which represents only 1.5% of the genome).

 REGULATION DURING TRANSCRIPTION (DNAmRNA)

Promotor region: non-coding part of the genome which attract RNA polymerase
to the required coding part of the genome.
Start and Stop signal: Besides there are regions in the genome that act like traffic
signals for starting and stopping transcription.
 REGULATION DURING TRANSLATION (mRNAProtein)
Translation involves t-RNA bringing amino acids that are lying in the cell after
reading 3 letters of mRNA(codon). There should be some way for tRNA to know
when to start and stop reading codons. These are called Start Codon and Stop
Codon respectively.

MEIOSIS
o When germline cells are produced in the body of parents, the 2 sets of
chromosomes come together, cross-over and mix up randomly in process called
meiosis.
o This cross over and recombination happening across all chromosomes.
o This is what gives genetic variation to sex cells (gametes) and hence to offspring.
o This genetic variation is what gives diversity to a species which is very important
to adapt to the environment and evolution.
o When gametes come together to form a zygote during fertilization genetic
diversity of both gametes are carried.
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MITOSIS
o Process of cell division, drives growth of organisms.
o The first step of cell division is DNA replication where a copy of DNA is made.
This happens through 2-step process of unwinding and rebuilding.
o Double stranded DNA first unzips like a zip into single strands done by enzyme
helicase.
o Another enzyme DNA Polymerase synthesize each of the single strand into 2
double stranded DNA.
o In the process mistakes are made and thus we also have an inbuilt proof-reading
mechanism.

DIFFERENTIATION
o One way of classifying cells is based on their ability to differentiate. Broadly cells
are of two types, differentiated and undifferentiated.
o Differentiated cells are the building blocks of tissues and organs. They are
specialized cells that can only divide. They cannot differentiate. They are also
called somatic cells or simply adult cells. Eg: Hair cell, nail cell etc.
o Undifferentiated cells are cells that have the ability differentiate into many
different types of cells. They are classified into two types, namely embryonic
stem cells and adult stem cells.

STEM CELLS
o Undifferentiated cells are also called stem cells.
o Stem cells are classified into various types based on their potency to
differentiate.
►PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS OR EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS
o These are stem cells that are potent enough to differentiate into all types of cells.
o They can produce a clone of an entire organism.
o Such cells are found in the embryo stage of human development. (inner mass
cells)
o Thus, they are also called embryonic stem cells.
►MULTIPOTENT STEM CELLS OR ADULT STEM CELLS
o Such cells have the potential to all types of cells associated with a particular
organ or a tissue.
o They help in repair, renew and maintenance of tissues or organs in an adult
body. Thus, they are called adult stem cells.
o Eg: Intestinal stem cells (renew every 45 days), cells in bone marrow etc.
►INDUCED-PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS: IPS CELLS
o Reprograming adult cells to become pluripotent was awarded Nobel prize in
2012.
o Take any differentiated cell/somatic cell/adult cell (not adult stem cell) and induce
the 4 transcription factors, it can reverse itself into an embryonic stem cell.
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o This reprogrammed cell is called induced-pluripotent stem cell (iPS cells) or

human-induced pluripotent stem cells.
o Once you get iPS cells you can culture them in-vitro and make them differentiate
into different cell types like skin, neutrons, muscles etc.
o iPS cells hold promise in both regenerative medicine (tissue engineering/ organ
transplantation) and drug development.

SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER OR REPRODUCTIVE CLONING

o Cloning involves 3 steps
1. Take any adult cell (skin, hair, nail etc) and suck out its nucleus.
2. Take an egg cell from a donor and remove the nucleus from the
egg/oocyte. (enucleated)
3. Inject the nucleus of the adult cell in the enucleated egg. You have an
oocyte with somatic cell nucleus.
o The oocyte cytoplasm reprograms the nucleus of the somatic cell and it makes
embryonic stem cell.
o The embryonic stem cell can then be grown into an organism identical to the
person from whom adult cell was taken. (since it is the nuclear DNA that codes
for proteins)
o DISADVANTAGE- reproductive cloning is very inefficient as the nucleus from
somatic cell resists reprogramming.

STEM CELL THERAPY

o It is the use of stem cells to grow healthy adult cells in the lab to replace
damaged, defective, or degraded adult cells in the body.
o In this case there are 3 ways
1. Stem cell transplantation of a healthy donor
2. Make iPS cells and grow healthy adult cells
3. Gene-edited stem cells from ones own

TISSUE ENGINEERING/ REGENERATIVE MEDICINE/ ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION

o One major challenge of organ transplantation or stem cell transplantation is the
lack of donors due to mismatch in what is called as HLA factor.
o A group of genes that code for proteins that help our immune system to
recognize self and identify foreign bodies called HLA and every cell of our body
has about a lakh of them.
o HLA match is important in stem cell and organ transplantation.
o It so happens that HLA match is best among same-sex siblings. Even between
parents and offspring, there is no suitable HLA match.
o In short, when the HLA match is absent the immune system rejects organ
transplanted.
o To find healthy donors for stem cell transplantation, a database called National
Stem Cell Registry is maintained in India.

AUTOLOGOUS, ALLOGENIC AND XENOGENIC TRANSPLANTS

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1. Autologous: Cells from one’s own body (including stem cell therapy, iPS cells etc)
2. Allogenic: Cells from another's body but of same species
3. Xenogenic: Cells from another species.

RECENT STEPS BY INDIA IN STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION

1. Thalassemia Bal Sewa Yojna
Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation (HSCT) program was launched in 2017.
Hematopoietic Stem Cell: These are cells present in bone marrow.
They are undifferentiated stem cells capable of developing into all types of blood cells,
including white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.
Eligibility: Only patients whose monthly family income is below Rs 20,000 will be eligible
for this assistance.
2. Saviour Sibling
Bone marrow transplantation
3. Stem cell cure for blindness
Recently a medical college from Kanpur claimed the 1st cure blindness through stem
cell transplants.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
Techniques of using living organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce products
and processes useful to humans
The two core techniques enabled birth of modern biotechnology are:
1. Genetic engineering: Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material to
introduce these into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of the host
organism.
2. Bio process engineering: Maintenance of sterile ambience in chemical engineering
processes to enable growth of only the desired microbe or eukaryotic cell in large
quantities for the manufacture of biotechnological products e.g. antibiotics, vaccines,
enzymes, etc.

TOOLS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

1. Restriction enzymes: These are nucleases. There are two kinds- exonuclease and
endonuclease. Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA strand
where does endonucleases make cuts at specific positions within the DNA.
2. Separating DNA molecules: Gel electrophoresis is the technique used. It takes
advantage of the negative charge on DNA molecules by using an electric field to
provide the force necessary to separate DNA molecules based on size. DNA segments
can be visualized only after staining the DNA with a compound known as ethedium
bromide followed by exposure to UV radiation.
3. Cloning vectors: These help in easy linking of foreign DNA and selection of
recombinants from non-recombinants

Feature of a vector-
a) Origin of replication: This is a sequence from where application starts
b) Selectable marker: It helps in identifying and eliminating non transformants and
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selectively permitting the growth of the transformants. Transformation is a procedure

through which a piece of DNA is introduced into a host bacterium.
c) Cloning sites: In order to make the alien DNA, the vector needs to have very few
recognition sites for the commonly used restriction enzymes.

METHODS OF INSERTION OF DNA INTO HOST CELLS

 Microinjection- directly into the nucleus of an animal cell

 Biolistic or Gene gun- used for plants
 Isolation of the genetic material
 Cutting of DNA at specific locations
 Amplification of gene of interest using PCR
 Insertion of recombinant DNA into the host cell- using a vector where the
transformed cells produce products of genes of interest.

GENOME EDITING
It is also known as genome engineering or Gene editing
It involves inserting, deleting, modifying, or replacing DNA in a living organisms’
genome

GENOME EDITING TECHNIQUES

1. CRISPR associated protein 9 (Cas9): CRISPR is the DNA targeting component of the
system, it is made up of RNA molecules. It is engineered to attach to certain DNA bases
via complementary base pairing. Cas9 is the nuclease component that cuts the DNA
(genetic scissors)
CRISPR is nothing but the mechanism of bacterial immune system.
In short, while R-DNA involved cutting of genome blindly (like a shredder), CRISPR Cas
9 enables cutting very precisely
CRISPR sequence in bacteria acts like a torch for Cas 9 enzyme that acts like scissors.
In gene editing we use this technique to correct a harmful mutation, insert a missing
gene, augment the genome with a new gene in living organisms.
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Once the RNA-guided Cas9 enzyme cuts the DNA at a specific site, we could make the
following changes
o Inserting a new sequence
o Deleting the sequence
o Modifying the sequence
In order to do so the cell can use its natural DNA repair mechanisms (DNA polymerase)
to insert a nucleotide
or introduce a new

piece of foreign DNA.

Based on this
criterion of using foreign genome v/s altering native genome in gene editing the end
product could be transgenic or simply genetically modified.
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2. Transcription activator like effector nucleus (TALENs)

3. Zinc finger nucleases (ZFN)
4. Homing nucleases or Mega nucleuses

ADVANCEMENTS IN GENE EDITING SYSTEMS

►BASE EDITING
Advanced form of CRISPR, which is suitable for single letter editing.
While Cas9 cuts double stranded DNA target, base editing uses an enzyme to
rearrange some atoms in the base molecule of the DNA, thereby altering it.
It involves rewriting the DNA instead of cutting the target sequence and adding new
base molecules.
This makes it suitable for single-letter mutations.
►PRIME EDITING
Another advanced form of CRISPR, but unlike it which chops DNA in half, prime editing
nicks it and writes a new section of DNA in the specified region similar to base editing,
Though it is similar to base editing, it includes an additional enzyme, a reverse
transcriptase, to copy and paste new DNA sequences into the genome.
Thus, it is suitable for precise insertions, deletions, and augmentation of genome.
While base-editing is suitable for single-letter modifications, prime editing is suitable for
more extensive large edits.
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REGULATION OF GENE EDITING IN AGRICULTURE IN INDIA: (SDN1 AND SDN2)

Recently an amendment was introduced to the aforesaid regulation in order to
encourage gene editing in agriculture.
Accordingly, gene editing techniques using native genome is allowed in India. However,
gene editing technique using foreign genome is not allowed.
The gene editing techniques called SDN 1 and 2 (Site-Directed Nuclease) fall under the
former category are allowed under the Rules under EPA, 1986.
Other techniques like SDN 3, 4 and 6 fall under the latter category and therefore are not
allowed in India.
In effect, transgenic crops using gene editing are not allowed under the Environment
Protection Act.
ICAR is using SDN 1 and 2 to produce rice varieties which are drought-resistant, salinity
resistant and high-yielding.

ADVANCEMENTS IN GENOME SEQUENCING

 Short-read: Earlier approach to sequencing was called short read method where the
genome was chopped into small fragments which could be reassembled like a jig-saw
puzzle. This approach is also called whole-genome sequencing. In this approach we
read 150 bases at a time. Reading short segments of the genome was time consuming
and labour intensive. Besides codes of many fragments looked same making it difficult
to tell them apart.
 Long-read: With the use of nanotechnology, we could read longer sequences of the
genome. We now can read 2.3 million base long sequence at once.
 Next generation sequencing: Use of computers read multiple fragments at the same
time in an automated process. Making whole-genome sequencing relatively faster,
accurate, automated and cheap.

IMPORTANT GENOME SEQUENCING EFFORTS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

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HUMAN GENOME PROJECT

Launch in 1990
To map all the human genes
To construct a detailed physical map of the entire human genome
To determine the nucleotide sequence of all 24 human chromosomes by the Year 2005
The composition of the DNA varies across regions of the human genome
About 41% of the DNA consists of G:C base pairs.
Only 1.5% of the genome was coding for proteins. Other 98% is the non-coding part.
Findings
1. JUNK DNA
2. CONSTITUENTS OF DARK GENOME
3. NON-CODING RNA (ncRNA)
4. LONG NON-CODING RNA (lncRNA)
5. SMALL NON-CODING RNA – 2 types: short interfering and micro
6. TRANSPOSONS OR JUMPING GENES
7. RNA INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY/ GENE SILENCING

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT: WRITE: RECODING THE CODE OF LIFE

An international project launched in 2016 to synthesise a human genome from scratch.
While the original HGP aimed at “reading” the book of genome, HGP-Write aims at
writing the genome.
HGP-Write essentially helps in ‘recoding’ our genome for many applications including to
alter our susceptibility to disease, our ability to respond to drugs etc.
Recently HGP-Write is trying to ‘recode’ human genome to develop immunity to any
virus

GENOME INDIA PROJECT

Initiated by Department of Biotechnology (DBT) in 2020.
Aims to collect 10,000 genetic samples from citizens across India, to build a reference
genome.
Would aid our understanding of the nature of diseases affecting the Indian population,
and then ultimately support the development of predictive diagnostic markers.
Would open new vistas for advancing next- generation personalized medicine in the
country, paving the way for predicting health and disease outcomes.
Would support the development of targeted preventive care, as it has the potential to
help identify those population groups which are more susceptible to various risk factors
for certain diseases.
This project is led by the Centre for Brain Research at Bengaluru-based Indian Institute
of Science, which acts as the central coordinator between a collaboration of 20 leading
institutions, each collecting samples and conducting its own research.

VARIATIONS IN THE GENOME: IDENTITY MARKERS

Humans are 99.9% identical in genome to one another. But given the size of human
genome (3-billion base pairs), even a small (0.1%) proportion of variation is huge. The
variation in the base is called polymorphism. Further variations can be of many types. It
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could be single base variation, large sequence variation, variations in the way
sequences are structured etc.
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HUMAN MICROBIOME INITIATIVE OF SELECT ENDOGAMOUS POPULATION OF

INDIA
Aims at comprehensive characterization of human-associated microbes in carefully
selected endogamous population groups with diverse dietary habits including key tribal
populations which are not much influenced by modern lifestyle.
The study is investigating the influence of diet, lifestyle, geography and age on gut
microbiome using targeted metagenomic and whole metagenomic approaches.
The study would also attempt to find the association between microbial enterotypes and
three distinct Ayurvedic Prakriti types.

EARTH BIO-GENOME PROJECT

Aiming at analyzing and sequencing genomes and building a new basis for biology to
drive solutions for biodiversity preservation and human society sustainability.
It is a worldwide group of scientists who plan to sequence, classify, and characterize the
genomes of all eukaryotic biodiversity on Earth over the course of ten years.
It’s a global catalog of life on the planet.
In three phases, it hopes to sequence 1.5 million species.
Will assist in the creation of a precise genetic sequence as well as the discovery of
evolutionary relationships between the species, orders, and families that will make up
the Digital Library of Life

SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER

Technique in which the nucleus of a somatic (body) cell is transferred to the cytoplasm
of an enucleated egg (an egg that has had its own nucleus removed).
Once inside the egg, the somatic nucleus is reprogrammed by egg cytoplasmic factors
to become a zygote (fertilized egg) nucleus.
The egg is allowed to develop to the blastocyst stage, at which point a culture of
embryonic stem cells (ESCs) can be created from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst.

3-PARENT BABY
Offer mothers a way to have a child without passing on metabolic diseases caused by
faulty mitochondria.
Done by exchanging the diseased mitochondria of a prospective mother with those of a
healthy, unrelated donor: the third parent.
Apart from receiving the usual “nuclear” DNA from its mother and father, the embryo
would also include a small amount of healthy mitochondrial DNA from a woman donor.
In addition to DNA in the nucleus, some DNA is also present in the mitochondria.
The Mitochondrial DNA has only one chromosome and its codes for only specific
proteins responsible for metabolism.
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Mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother & thus it is more effective to trace
human ancestry
This is resorted to when the actual mother is suffering from an incurable mitochondrial
disease. This technique involves removing the faulty mitochondrial DNA from the actual
mother and nucleus form the mother’s egg and the resultant egg fertilizes with the
sperm cell of the father outside the body (in-vitro).

BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATION IN AGRICULTURE

Genetically Modified (GMO) Food Crops: foods derived from organisms whose genetic
material (DNA) has been modified in a way that does not occur naturally, e.g. through
the introduction of a gene from a different organism. First commercially introduced in
1996 all over the world. The Government of India approved Bt cotton as the only
genetically modified (GM) crop for commercial production in 2002.
Genetic modification is done to confer a particular trait to the plant with one of the
following properties  Increased yield of a crop
 Increased nutritional content of a crop
 Developing resistance to  Abiotic stresses like temperature, salinity or herbicide-
resistant  Biotic stresses like insect-resistant crops
Bt toxin: is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus Thuringiensis (Bt).The toxin gene
has been cloned from the bacteria and been expressed in plants to provide resistance
to insects without the need for insecticides. B. thuringiensis forms protein crystals during
a particular phase of their growth. These crystals contain a toxic insecticidal protein. The
toxin is coded by a gene cryIAc named cry. There are a number of them, for example,
the protein encoded by the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control the cotton bollworms, that
of cryIAb controls corn borer.
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DMH-11: the commercial release of the GM mustard Dhara Mustard Hybrid 11 (DMH
11) created by Delhi University is pending since the GEAC has urged that thorough
safety assessment data on environmental biosafety, particularly effects on beneficial
insect species, be generated first. It is a genetically modified hybrid variety of the
mustard species Brassica juncea. The transgenic mustard DMH - 11 was developed in
2002 using genetic material isolated from non-pathogenic soil bacteria. Three genes,
Bar, Barnase and Barstar, were extracted from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens to produce
the hybrid seed. DMH 11’s Glufosinate resistance is due to an enzyme expressed by the
Bar (Bialaphos resistance) gene.
Bt Brinjal: is a transgenic brinjal developed by introducing the cry1Ac gene from the
Bacillus thuringiensis soil bacterium into Brinjal. This brinjal has been genetically
modified to withstand insects like the Brinjal Fruit and Shoot Borer (Leucinodes
orbonalis). Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company created Bt Brinjal (Mahyco).
Golden Rice: is a new form of rice that contains beta- carotene (provitamin A), which the
body converts to vitamin A as needed and
gives the grain its golden colour. It
produces two new enzymes that finish the
beta-carotene expression in rice grains.
Terminator Seed Technology: the genetic
alteration of plants to make them produce
sterile seeds is known as Terminator seed
technology. Suicide seeds are another
name for them. Genetic Use Restriction
Technologies is Terminator’s official name,
as used by the UN and scientists
(GURTs).

REGULATIONS OF GMS IN INDIA:

The Environment Protection Act of 1986 notified the rules governing the management of
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their products in 1989, with guidelines
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provided later. “Rules for the manufacture, use, import, export & storage of hazardous
microorganisms, genetically engineered organisms or cells, 1989” under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) functions in the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC). As per Rules, 1989, it is
responsible for the appraisal of activities involving large- scale use of hazardous
microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial production from the
environmental angle. The committee is also responsible for appraisal of proposals
relating to release of genetically engineered (GE) organisms and products into the
environment including experimental field trials. There are six authorities in total to deal
with various areas of the regulation:
1. Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee,
2. Institutional BioSafety Committee,
3. Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation,
4. Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) under MoEF is the final approval
authority for allowing GM crops in fields including field trials. It also includes approval for
commercial cultivation of GM crops. GEAC is also responsible for certification of GM
organisms
5. State Biotechnology Coordination Committee
6. The District level Committee
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India regulates manufacture, storage,
distribution, sale and import GM food in India

BIOFORTIFICATION
Process of improving the nutritional value of food crops by increasing the density of
vitamins and minerals in the crop, which can be accomplished by traditional plant
breeding, agronomic methods, or biotechnology. These genetically changed and
nutrition-added crops, dubbed biologically fortified or biofortified, vary from commercially
available fortified foods in that additional nutrients are genetically entrenched rather
than chemically supplied. Example: Iron-biofortification of rice, beans, sweet potato,
cassava and legumes

RNA INTERFERENCE (RNAI)

It’s a gene-silencing technique
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Uses double-stranded RNA to prevent protein production in target cells.

RNAi takes place in all eukaryotic organisms as a method of cellular defense. This
method involves silencing of a specific mRNA due to a complementary Double stranded
RNA (dsRNA) molecule that binds to and prevents translation of the mRNA (silencing).

BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATION IN MEDICINE

Genetically Engineered Insulin: Insulin used for diabetes was earlier extracted from
pancreas of slaughtered cattle and pigs, caused some patients to develop allergy or
other types of reactions to the foreign protein. Two DNA sequences corresponding to A
and B chains of human insulin were prepared and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli
to produce insulin chains. Chains A and B were produced separately, extracted and
combined by creating disulfide bonds to form human insulin.
Gene Therapy: Is a technique for treating genetic problems that includes replacing
faulty genes with healthy ones. It is a way of introducing DNA into human cells that is
done artificially. Gene therapy can be divided into two categories:

APPLICATION IN BIOENERGY
Biofuels derived from biomass are renewable and sustainable energies with the
potential to replace fossil fuels.
Biotechnology can help to speed up the selection of varieties that are more suited to
biofuel production – with increased - o Biomass per hectare, o Increased content of oils
(biodiesel crops) or o Fermentable sugars (ethanol crops), or o Improved processing
characteristics that facilitate their conversion to biofuels.
Utilization of microbial fuel cells is found to be useful for sustainable bioenergy
synthesis via completing the wastewater treatment processes with electric energy
synthesis
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ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
Refers to the use of procedures to safeguard and restore the environment’s quality

GENE SILENCING
Gene silencing is the regulation of gene expression in a cell to prevent the expression of
a certain gene.
When genes are silenced, their expression is reduced.
When genes are knocked out, they are completely erased from the organism’s genome
and thus, have no expression.
Applications of Gene Silencing
• Specific gene silencing using RNAi in cell culture.
• Cancer treatments
• RNA interference has been used for applications in biotechnology.
• Useful in epigenomic analysis and clinical application of molecular diagnosis.
• Neuro-degenerative disorders treatment
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COLOUR CLASSIFICATION OF BRANCHES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

• Gold biotechnology or Bioinformatics: Computational Biology addresses biological
problems using computational techniques.
• Red Biotechnology: Biopharma relates to medicine and veterinary products.
• White Biotechnology: Industrial Biotech to design more energy efficient, low resource
consuming products.
• Yellow Biotechnology: Biotech in the Food Industry.
• Grey Biotechnology: Environmental applications to maintain Biodiversity
• Green Biotechnology: Emphasizes on Agriculture interests.
• Blue Biotechnology: Based on use of marine resources.
• Violet Biotechnology: Deals with law, ethical and philosophical issues of biotechnology.
• Dark Biotechnology: Associated with bioterrorism and biological weapons

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVE FOR BIOTECHNOLOGY

1. National Biotechnology Development Strategy: The Department of Biotechnology
(DBT), Government of India, announced the First National Biotechnology
Development Strategy in September 2007.
In 2015, DBT announced The National Biotechnology Development Strategy-
2015-2020 and later in 2020 for National Biotechnology Development Strategy
2021- 2025.
Key elements of Strategy-II are as follows
• Empower, scientifically and technologically, India’s incomparable human
resource;
• Create a strong infrastructure for research, development and commercialization
for a robust bioeconomy;
• Establish India as a world class bio-manufacturing hub for developing and
developed markets.
2. BIRAC: Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC) is a not-
for-profit Section 8, Schedule B, Public Sector Enterprise, set up by the
Department of Biotechnology (DBT). It is an Interface Agency to strengthen and
empower the emerging Biotech enterprise to undertake strategic research and
innovation, addressing nationally relevant product development needs.

BIRTH OF R-DNA
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It is a form of DNA constructed in the laboratory. It is generated by transferring selected

pieces of DNA from one organism to another.
Viruses get into the host cell and convert it into virus producing factories. To do this they
get into the host cell nucleus, insert their genome in the genome of host cell. The
discovery of the action of a virus, that was affecting bacteria, led to development of R-
DNA technology.
In order to do this the virus (bacteriophage) had to do the following
1. Identify a place to cut the bacterial genome
2. Cut it
3. Paste itself
4. Make the new genome express itself in the bacterial cell.
The basic steps in R-DNA are as follows:
- Identify the organism that has the gene of interest (one that expresses for
desired trait, say production of Vitamin A in daffodil)
- Identify the target organism (To fortify rice with Vit A to make it Golden Rice)
- Take the organism that has the desired trait and cut it into pieces like a shredder.
(daffodil genome)
- You can use enzymes restriction enzymes to cut a genome. (but this is cutting
blindly, we did not know where we were cutting)
- Insert these pieces into a vector (vehicle to carry the genome to target organism)
- Find the vector with gene of interest (this is like finding the needle in a haystack,
very tedious)
- Take the vector with gene of interest and multiply into colonies of the vector
(gene that expresses for Vit A): This is called C-DNA library or gene library.
- Take the colony of vector with gene of interest and insert it in rice genome.
(Pasting) This is done by an enzyme called DNA integrase (similar to what virus
was doing).
- The resultant rice with gene from daffodil will be a recombinant DNA. This is how
golden rice is made using R-DNA technology
Plasmid- it is a small circular piece of DNA found in bacterial cells that is physically
separated from chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. Bacterial use
plasmids to transfer anti-biotic resistance to the same generation. Alternately we can
use bacteriophages (virus that infects bacteria), artificial chromosomes of yeast and
bacteria as vectors in r-DNA technology.
Scope:
-Human insulin, was the 1st therapeutic proteins to be genetically cloned in E.coli using
R-DNA technology
 21

-Mono-clonal antibodies are made using R-DNA technology

-Production of vaccines against Hepatitis B

- Backbone of hepatitis and HIV diagnostic tests.

-Protein therapies such as human insulin, interferon and human growth hormone

-Produce clotting factors for treating haemophilia.

CAR-T CELL THERAPY

To stop uncontrolled mitosis, cells have adapted themselves to a process called
apoptosis which is also called programmed cell death.
This process starts by severe damage to DNA which is signaled to cell after which the
whole cell destroys itself. The left-over cell mass, after death, are eaten by phagocytes
(cell-eating cells).
Cancer is a condition of unrestrained cell growth and division due to absence of
apoptosis/programmed cell death. Cancer occurs when some disruption of the DNA in a
normal cell interferes with the cell’s ability to regulate cell division. DNA disruption can
be caused by chemicals that mutate DNA or by sources of high energy such as X rays,
the sun, or nuclear radiation, even infection by viruses. The cancer-causing mutations
seem to affect two different types of genes: those that stimulate cell growth and those
that restrain it.
CAR T cell therapy involves genetically modifying our immune cells called T-cells to
attack and kill cancer cells. Normally during an infection one type of T-cells attack and
kill pathogens. Now because the cancer cells are not foreign cells B cells cannot
recognize them as foreign bodies and hence cannot present it to the immune system (T-
cells) as enemy cells. Alternately if we can genetically alter T-cells to recognise the
cancer cells, it will kill it. This is what CAR T-cell therapy does.
Under this, T-cell is genetically modified, using CRISPR system, to recognize the image
of cancer cell (chimeric antigen receptor).

GENE THERAPY
Gene therapy is a method of treating a medical condition by altering the organism at
genetic level.
Gene therapy involves
 Correcting a defective gene (permanent)
 22

 Altering gene expression (temporary) o Translation o Transcription

TYPES OF GENE THERAPY
 Gene replacement
 Gene silencing
 Gene editing
 Gene addition/augmentation (CAR-T cell therapy)
GENE DELIVERY
 Vectors could be
 Viral o Retrovirus o Adenovirus o AAV
 Non-viral o Naked DNA Further delivery could be in-vivo or ex-vivo.
GENE THERAPY: APPLICATIONS
 Haematological diseases (Haemophilia, Thalassaemia)
 Eye Diseases (Corneal diseases)
 Degenerative Neurological Diseases
 Immunological Diseases (SCID, HIV)
 Rare Diseases
 Oncology
 Dermatology
 Metabolic diseases
 Nucleic acid vaccines Eg: m-RNA Vaccines

SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY: FUTURE OF BIOENGINEERING

In 2022, DBT in a paper mooted the need for a National Policy on Synthetic Biology.
Synthetic biology is the construction of novel biological systems to produce useful
products. It is a novel field in biology that work bottoms-up as opposed to top-down
approach of biotechnology. This has been made possible as a result of the development
 23

of bioinformatics which has opened the gate for producing novel products by mimicking
nature
Photosynthesis: As we understand the design of plants at the molecular level, we will be
able to design similar systems to do the same artificially. This is what we do in artificial
leaf.
1ST ARTIFICIAL CELL: SYNTHIA
In 2010, world’s first artificial with a synthetic chromosome (Synthia) was created
In 2016, an artificial cell with smallest known genome was ever created (473 genes)
called syn 3.0.(Synthia 3.0)
SYNTHETIC BASES: A 8-LETTER DNA: HACHIMOJO
Japanese scientists have produced an 8-letter DNA instead of 4-lettered one the nature
has produced. 4 out of 8 were natural (AGCT) and 4 artificial ones (SBPZ). This could
have potential benefits in DNA Data storage.
SYNTHETIC E.COLI
This is the latest synthetic genome we have created till date.
Potential applications-
 Producing synthetic algae for high-efficiency photosynthesis that can be used in
CCUS technology.
 Synthetic microbes as agents of bioremediation: Eg: There are plastic eating bacteria
we know of. However they are suitable only for certain kinds of plastics. If we can mimic
the process with synthetic genome, we can have novel organisms that can be used for
bioremediation.
 Can replace Genetically Modified biologics like insulin.
 Antibiotics are now being made by engineering a completely artificial gene sequence
to code for a protein (polypeptides). These are known to kill E.coli, Staphylococcus
aureus etc
 Anti-malarial polypeptide is made using an artificial sequence.
 T-RNAs made to express have found to kill Leishmania a protozoa that causes Kala
Azar a vector-borne disease caused by sandfly.
BIOPRINTING
It is the combination of additive manufacturing and tissue engineering to produce
artificial tissues and organs. Under this process we use biomaterials like cells and
biomolecules to fabricate tissue-like materials. 3-d printed biomaterials that either made
 24

of cells or bio-compatible materials are increasingly used for regenerative medicine. Eg:
3-d printed cornea, heart, liver, kidney, skins

XENOBOTS
These are robots constructed out of living cells including stem cells to make robots to
perform specific actions.
Latest developments:
 Xenobots made out of frog embryo cells are already being demonstrated.
 Reproduceable Xenobots have already been created.
 Potential applications include:
1. Environmental cleanup: Xenobots can be programmed to identify and remove toxic
pollutants from the environment, such as microplastics or oil spills particularly in
inaccessible areas.
2. Medical applications: Can act as drug delivery vehicles.
3. Agriculture: can be used to monitor soil health and crop growth

DISEASES IN NEWS
 25

GM TECHNOLOGY

 Recently the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) issued Guidelines for Safety

Assessment of Genome Edited Plants, 2022 easing norms for research into
genetically modified (GM) crops. Guidelines exempts Genome Edited plants
falling under the categories of Site directed nuclease (SDN)1 and SDN2, from
Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of hazardous Microorganisms/
Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, Rules, 1989, under the Environment
(Protection) Act (1986)

 Guidelines for Safety Assessment of Genome Edited Plants, 2022

o Aim: Provides regulatory framework and scientific guidance on data requirement
in context of research & development of Genome Edited Plant.
o Scope of Guidelines: Limited to plants and products thereof developed using
genome editing techniques employing site-directed nucleases (SDN).
o Guidelines Notified by: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
 26

o Exemption: Researchers who use gene-editing technology to modify plant

genome from seeking approvals from Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee
(GEAC).
o Significance of guidelines: Accelerate genetic improvement of crops, increasing
farmer’s income, roadmap for sustainable use of genome editing

 Network Project on Functional Genomics and Genetic Modification in Crops was

launched by ICAR in 2005. Genome editing technology and Transgenic
Technology: o Genome editing is manipulation of genome of organism itself by
knocking out or replacing targeted gene which resulting in individuals with
intentionally selected and desired traits. o In Transgenic technology genome of
an organism is altered by introduction of one or more foreign DNA sequences
from another species by artificial means

 GEAC has recommended the environmental release of transgenic hybrid

mustard Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11 (DMH-11).

Commercial use: under Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR)

supervision and will be subject to Seed Act, 1966.
Developed by: Delhi University’s Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants.
Process used: Crossing Indian mustard variety ‘Varuna’ (barnase line) with an
East European ‘Early Heera-2’ mutant (barstar) o Contains two alien genes
isolated from a soil bacterium called Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. ✓ First gene
(‘barnase’) codes for a protein that impairs pollen production and renders the
plant into incorporated male sterile. ✓ Second is the ‘barstar’ gene that blocks the
action of the barnase gene. ✓ Resultant progeny is both high-yielding and
capable of producing seed/ grain

 Haryana government issued NOC to conduct field trials on BG-2 RRF, herbicide-
tolerant and insect resistant variety of BT cotton. So far, India has allowed
commercial use of BG-1 and BG-2 GM cotton while BG-2 RRF approval is
pending at various stages. o BG-2 RRF can provide protection against pest
attack such as American Bollworm.
 27

SITE-DIRECTED NUCLEASE (SDN) TECHNOLOGY

SDN or sequence specific nuclease (SSN) refers to the practice of cleaving DNA
strands to affect the subsequent genome editing.
SDN technology takes advantage of targeted DNA break and host’s natural repair
mechanisms to introduce specific small changes at the site of the DNA break.
Main SDN technologies: Zinc-Finger Nucleases (ZFNs) and Transcription Activator Like
Effector Nucleases (TALENs).
Depending on the nature of the edit, the process is divided into three categories — SDN
1, SDN 2 and SDN 3. Both SDN1 and SDN 2 do not involve alien genetic material and
the result is indistinguishable from conventionally bred crop varieties. SDN3 process
involves genes of foreign origin.
 28

SDN-1 and SDN-2 do not produce new plant varieties that fall under the scope of the
GMO legislation. In SDN-3, the newly developed plant falls under GMO legislation only
if foreign DNA exceeding 20 base pairs is inserted.

CRISPR-CAS 9
CRISPR is a genetic code or sequence found in bacteria. Formed due to the activity of
the previous bacteriophages that had infected them. Bacteria uses CRISPR sequence
to remember each specific virus that attacks them by incorporating virus DNA into their
own bacterial genome. This gives the bacteria protection when a specific virus tries to
attack again.
CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9): A bacterial RNA-guided endonuclease that once
activated will make special enzymes that seem to have co-evolved with CRISPR.
There are the 3 key elements of CRISPR-Cas9 work:
o Guide RNA: A piece of RNA that locates the targeted gene. This is engineered in a
lab.
o Cas9: The “scissors” that snip the undesired DNA out.
o DNA: The desired piece of DNA that is inserted after the break.

CHIMERIC ANTIGEN RECEPTOR T (CAR-T) CELL THERAPY

Research is funded under National Biopharma Mission (NBM) by Biotechnology
Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC). BIRAC is a Public Sector Enterprise,
 29

set up by Department of Biotechnology (DBT) as an Interface Agency to strengthen

emerging Biotech enterprise.
About CAR-T therapy- It is a way to get immune cells called T cells to fight cancer by
editing them in the lab. o T cells are a type of white blood cell that attacks foreign
pathogens. T cells are taken from patient’s blood and are edited by adding a gene for a
man-made receptor (called CAR). CAR is special receptor, created in the laboratory,
that is designed to bind to certain proteins on cancer cells. CAR is then added to T cells.
This helps them better identify specific cancer cell antigens. These changed T cells
called CAR- T cells. CAR-T cells are then given back to the patient.
Benefits of CAR-T therapy
o While existing treatments work towards increasing life of patients, CAR-T technology
holds promise of curing certain types of cancers.
o Unlike chemotherapy, CAR-T is administered only once to a patient.
o Short treatment time needed and more rapid recovery

GENOME SEQUENCING
IndiGen programme- Aims to undertake whole genome sequencing of 1000 Indian
individuals representing diverse ethnic groups from India. Funded by Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
Genome India Project - Aims to collect 10000 genetic samples from citizens across
India to build a reference genome. By Department of Biotechnology.
Human Genome Project - International research effort to determine the DNA sequence
of the entire human genome. It began in 1990 and completed in 2003. It was
coordinated by National Institutes of Health, USA and Department of Energy, USA
 30

GENOMIC SURVEILLANCE

CLONING
Monozygotic twins are natural clones
Three different types of artificial cloning
• Gene/DNA cloning: Transfer of a DNA fragment from one organism to a self-replicating
genetic element, such as a bacterial plasmid.
• Reproductive cloning: Transferring nuclear material isolated from a somatic cell into an
enucleated oocyte (egg cell). o Then this oocyte is stimulated to divide, forming an
embryo with the same genome as the nuclear donor. This process is called Somatic
Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT). o This process was used to create Dolly sheep, the first
mammal cloned.
• Therapeutic cloning is like reproductive cloning till the production of the embryo. The
produced embryo is then grown in the laboratory.

INDIAN BIOLOGICAL DATA

Recently, Indian Biological Data Center (IBDC) was inaugurated at Faridabad, Haryana.
 31

About IBDC- First national repository for life science data in India
Established at: Regional Centre of Biotechnology, Faridabad in collaboration with
National Informatics Centre (NIC).
Storage: Digitised data will be stored on a four-petabyte supercomputer ‘Brahm’.
Supported by: Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
Data sharing: As per FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) principle.
FAIR Data Principles were proposed by a consortium of scientists and organizations to
support the reusability of digital assets.
Also contains genomes sequenced by the Indian Sars-CoV-2 Genomic Consortium
(INSACOG).
Under IBDC, currently, two sections have been developed. These include: o Indian
Nucleotide Data Archive (INDA) shall archive data generated from publicly funded
research projects in India and provide internationally accepted data accession numbers
(digitised genetic makeup of humans, plants, animals, and microbes). o Indian
Nucleotide Data Archive – Controlled Access (INDA-CA).
Data access types of IBDC: Open access/time-release access and Restricted access.
Maharashtra Cabinet approved the Gene Bank Project - It is a type of biorepository to
preserve plants (by collecting seeds, plants, tissue cultures) and animals (by collecting
sperm and eggs). At National level, several such facilities are established such as:
o National Gene Bank at National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Pusa (It is
world’s 2nd largest refurbished gene bank).
o National Animal Gene Bank at National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal.
o Indian Seed Vault at Chang La (Ladakh).
 32

BIOLOGICAL REGULATORY RESEARCH APPROVAL PORTAL (BioRRAP)

Department of Biotechnology has developed BioRRAP to track the regulatory approvals
for a research proposal on a single portal.
BioRRAP provides a single route to direct the applicant to regulatory agencies
providing requisite approval relevant to the biological research.
BioRRAP ID generated through this portal is linked with the portals of various
regulatory agencies.
This will provide more credibility to such biological research and will strengthen
interdepartmental synergies and increase efficacy in functioning of agencies regulating
various aspect of biological research.
MOLECULAR MOTOR
Scientists have built a molecular-scale motor using the DNA origami method (involves
folding of DNA to create 2D and 3D objects at nanoscale).
Molecular motors are a class of proteins that drive intracellular movement by converting
chemical energy to mechanical work.
Some of the examples of molecular motor’s role in our bodies are muscle contraction,
mitosis (cell division) etc.

STEM CELLS
Third patient was reported being cured of HIV after a stem cell transplant (SCT).
A bone-marrow transplant (also called SCT) from people carrying a specific HIV-
resistant genetic mutation called CCR5-delta 32 genetic mutation was used.
HIV mainly attacks CD4 immune cells (type of white blood cell) in human body, thereby
reducing a person’s ability to fight off secondary infections.
CCR5 receptors on surface of CD4 immune cells act as a doorway for HIV virus.
A bone marrow transplant is a procedure that infuses healthy blood-forming stem cells
into body to replace bone marrow that's not producing enough healthy blood cells.
It can be autologous (use cells from your own body) or allogenic (use cells from a
donor).
About stem cells- Special human cells that can develop into many different cell types.
Provide new cells for the body as it grows and replaces specialized cells that are
damaged or lost. Two unique properties that enable them to do this: o They can divide
repeatedly to produce new cells. o As they divide, they can change into the other types
of cells that make up the body.
 33

Status in India -Fall under definition of ‘Drug’ as

per the Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1940.
Categorized as ‘Investigational New Drug or
Investigational New Entity when used for
clinical application.
Various guidelines released so far
o Draft Guidelines for Stem Cell
Research/Regulation (2002)
o Guidelines for Stem Cell Research and
Therapy (2007)
o National Guidelines for Stem Cell Research
(NGSCR)- 2017 ✓ As per these guidelines,
only bone marrow/hematopoietic SCT for blood
disorders (including blood cancers and
thalassemia) is permitted in compliance with
NGSCR 2017.
Some hospitals providing SCT in India are
AIIMs, New Delhi, Tata Memorial Centre,
Mumbai etc

MITOCHONDRIAL DNA
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) profiling is a method used by forensics scientists to
examine biological items of evidence from crime scenes to determine mtDNA sequence
from samples such as hair, bones, and teeth.
Typically, these items contain low concentrations of degraded DNA, making them
unsuitable for nuclear DNA examinations.
mtDNA is circular, double stranded, and inherited maternally.o It is found in
mitochondria - a subcellular organelle located within the cell and functions to produce
energy (powerhouse of cell) for various tissues of body.
Mitochondrial division is disassociated from cellular division and is stimulated by energy
demand, i.e. cells with greater energy requirement have greater number of these
organelle. Also, it has high copy number as most human cell contain hundreds of
mtDNA genomes copies against two copies of Nuclear DNA in nucleus. High copy
number increases the likelihood of recovering sufficient DNA from samples even if they
are highly degraded by environment or time.
 34

INTERNET AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY
NETWORK
A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network devices,
peripherals, or other devices connected to allow data sharing.
Web refers to the World Wide Web (WWW), the internet’s core information retrieval
system, also known as Syntactic web or read only web. Mostly, Web 1.0 was limited to
searching info and reading what’s already there. There was little user interaction or
content contribution. It was disorganized and overwhelming, and soon it came
to be dominated by AOL, CompuServe, early Yahoo and other portals. These online
service providers were gateway to Web 1.0. (HTML 1.0)
Web 2.0 is the current version of the web with which we are all familiar, while Web 3.0
represents its next phase that will be decentralized, open, and of greater utility.This
phase was characterised by enhanced user experience and made
internet interactive. Also known as Social Web or readwrite web. It enabled users to
participate in content creation on social networks, blogs, sharing sites and
more. Search engines (Google) and social media platforms (Facebook, Twitter) driven
by user generated content disrupted media, advertising and retail industries. Web 2.0’s
business model relies on user participation to create fresh content and resultant
data being sold to third parties for marketing. Facilitated by HTML 2.0.
Web 3.0 is built upon the core concepts of decentralization, openness, and greater user
utility, services will run on blockchain. It is a decentralized internet that runs on a public
blockchain, which is also used for cryptocurrency transactions.
It will be permissionless and democratic. In a Web 3.0 universe, people will control their
own data and will be able to move around from social media to email to shopping using
a single personalized account, creating a public record on blockchain of all that activity.
All data will be interconnected in a decentralized way
Key features of Web 3.0 are: Ubiquity, Semantic Web, Artificial Intelligence and 3D
Graphics.
Examples of Web 3.0: Most recent example of Web 3.0 are the NFTs or non-fungible
tokens.
Any information that users share on Web 2.0 is stored with a cloud service provider
whereas in Web3, all services are built on top of a blockchain.
Cloud is controlled by internet giants and is centralized. In blockchain, data is distributed
across networks and no single entity owns the information.
METAVERSE AND WEB 3.0
Metaverse is about creating digital avatars and interacting with others in virtual spaces.
It does not have to be on a blockchain. The whole point of Web 3.0 is decentralisation.
 35

EXAMPLES OF WEB 3.0

Indian TikTok rival Chingari recently shifted from a Web 2.0 model of incentives for
content creators to a Web 3.0 model and is building its token called ‘$GARI’ on Solana
blockchain.

DARK NET AND DEEP WEB

The darknet is a computer network with limited access that is mostly used for criminal
operations on the internet, such as drug sales and the sale of personal information- not
accessible through the normal search engines, provide anonymity to source of web-
content.
The total web content on the internet is broadly classified
into three broad categories:
1. Surface Web
2. Deep Web
3. Dark Web
The darknet is part of the larger “deep web,” which is a network of encrypted Internet
material that is not searchable through regular search engines.
The darknet is a subset of the deeper web. All unindexed sites that don’t show up when
you conduct an Internet search are considered part of the deep web.
Not all acts related to the deep web are illegal. Most of the time, regular search engines
are unable to find these pages.
Common examples of web content on deep web include financial data, back account
details, emails,
personal data etc. that are password protected and only way to access these webpages
is through login.
DARK NET/DARK WEB
Key features:
o No webpage indexing by surface web search engines.
o Virtual traffic tunnels via randomized network infrastructure.
o Inaccessible by traditional browsers due to its unique registry operator.
o Further hidden by various network security measures like firewalls and encryption .

Dark Net uses a specialized network of computers called relays through which the
information passes. Commonly, information on Dark Net passes through at least 3 relay
computers between the source and destination.
 In addition, dark net uses network technology that hides the locations of these relay
computers (IP address) to ensure anonymity of the users.
 Dark net can be accessed through TOR Browser (Anonymity Network).
FEATURES OF DARK NET
 36

While webpages on Darknet are hidden from a search engine, they can be accessed
and downloaded by
anyone who has the exact IP address of the webpage.
Dark net does not provide any protection against malware, virus attack etc
Since data is routed through many relay computers between source and destination,
communication and
downloading of webpages on the dark net is slow.
Used for both legitimate and illegitimate activities.

1. Legitimate activities of Dark Net

 Using Dark Net is per say is not illegal.
 By virtue of its ability to provide anonymity, dark net is used by human right activists,
free internet activists, media personnel etc. in countries where there are severe
restrictions, censorship on internet usage like that in China, Iran, Saudi Arabia etc.
 Also used by whistleblowers to maintain anonymity. Ex Edward Snowden.
 In the aftermath of glaring revelations on surveillance by USA’s security agency NSA,
number of users of the dark net has increased, as users are seeking privacy.
2. Illegitimate activities of Dark Net
 Increasingly, Dark net has turned into a platform for various nefarious activities
including illegal weapon sales, drug trafficking, child pornography, data theft, data leaks,
cyber terrorism, hacking, organized crimes, money laundering etc.
 As the location of users on Dark net is hidden due to hidden IP address, it is not
possible to trace the location of the users of Dark Web.
 Instances:
o Silk Road is a dark net website used for purchasing drugs online.
o Data of about 100 GB including Aadhar Cards, passports, PAN Cards etc. were
leaked on dark net.
THREATS OF DARK WEB
METAVERSE
Augmented reality: “The real-time usage of information in the form of text, visuals,
audio, or other virtual upgrades merged with real-world objects”
Virtual reality (VR) is a computer-generated simulation in which a person may interact
with an artificial three- dimensional world with the use of electronic equipment such as
special eyewear with a screen or sensors-equipped gloves. The user can enjoy a
realistic-feeling experience in this simulated artificial world.
Metaverse: It is a network of always-on virtual environments in which numerous
individuals may interact with one another and digital things through virtual
representations of themselves. A metaverse is a mixed reality environment that
combines augmented and virtual reality.
 37

BASICS OF COMPUTERS
Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information.
The term hardware refers to the physical components of your computer such as the
system unit, mouse etc.
The software is the instructions that make the computer work. Software is held either on
your computer’s hard disk or in DVD ROM.
Types of Memory: Computer memory is of two basic types – Primary memory (RAM and
ROM) and Secondary memory (hard drive, CD, etc). Random Access Memory (RAM) is
primary-volatile memory and Read-Only Memory (ROM) is primary non- volatile
memory.
How Computer Memory Is Measured?
Bit: All computers work on a binary numbering system, i.e. they process data in one’s or
zero’s. This 1 or 0 level of storage is called a bit.
Byte: A byte consists of eight bits.
Kilobyte: A kilobyte (KB) consists of 1024 bytes.
Megabyte: A megabyte (MB) consists of 1024 kilobytes.
Gigabyte: A gigabyte (GB) consists of 1024 megabytes.
SUPERCOMPUTERS
These are large systems that are specifically designed to solve complex scientific &
industrial challenges. The performance of a supercomputer is measured in Floating-
Point Operations per Second (FLOPS).
The top Five Supercomputers in the world:

India has 4 supercomputers in the list of world’s top 500 supercomputers with Pratyush
& Mihir being the fastest supercomputers in India.
The first indigenous supercomputer was developed indigenously in 1991 by Centre for
Development of Advanced Computing which was called as PARAM 8000.
National Supercomputing Mission (NSM):
It was Launched in 2015
NSM is jointly steered by the MeitY and Department of S&T (DST).
 38

Implemented by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), Pune &
the IISc, Bengaluru.
Objective: to connect national academic and R&D institutions with a grid of over 70
high-performance computing facilities. These will be networked on the ‘National
Supercomputing Grid’ over the National Knowledge Network (NKN).

QUANTUM COMPUTING
Quantum computers are machines that use the properties of quantum physics to store
data and perform computations.
A classical computer performs operations using classical bits, which can be either 0 or
1. Quantum computer uses quantum bits or Qubits, which can be both 0 and 1 at the
same time. ‘Qubits’ are the units of computation in quantum computers (or quantum
bits).
They take advantage of quantum mechanics’ characteristics, which regulate how matter
behaves at the atomic level.
The laws of quantum physics are used to achieve functioning of quantum computing.
1. Superimposition: Each quantum bit (basic unit of information in a quantum computer)
can represent both 1 and 0 at the same time, which is known as superposition.
2. Quantum entanglement: Subatomic particles become “entangled” (connected) in
quantum entanglement, which means that any change in one upsets the other, even
though they are at opposite ends of the universe.
SYCAMORE: it is Google’s Quantum Computer, which recently claimed Quantum
Supremacy. Quantum Supremacy: refers to quantum computers being able to solve a
problem that a classical computer cannot.
CLOUD COMPUTING•
It is the supply of computer services over the Internet (“the cloud”), including servers,
storage, databases, networking, software, analytics, and intelligence, in order to provide
speedier innovation, more flexible resources, and economies of scale.
The Government of India has launched an ambitious programme called “GI Cloud,”
which has been dubbed “MeghRaj,” in order to utilize and harness the benefits of Cloud
Computing.
The goal of this programme is to implement a variety of components, including
governance structures, to enable Cloud adoption in government.
 39

EDGE COMPUTING
Edge computing is a distributed information technology architecture in which client data
is processed at the periphery of the network. Data is analyzed locally.

BIG DATA & DATA MINING

Big Data constitutes a large volume of structured or unstructured data.
Big data is so huge that the traditional data processing system is inadequate to process.
• Data mining is a process used to extract usable data from a larger set of any raw data
• By analyzing this data, a useful decision can be made in various cases such as:
o Tracking Customer Spending Habit, Shopping Behavior
o Smart Traffic System
o Auto Driving Car
o Virtual Personal Assistants
o Internet of Things etc.

COMPUTER VIRUSES
A computer virus is a type of malicious code or program written to alter the way a
computer operates and is designed to spread from one computer to another. In the
process, a virus has the potential to cause unexpected or damaging effects, such as
harming the system software by corrupting or destroying data.
What are the different types of computer viruses?
Boot sector virus: This type of virus can take control when you start — or boot — your
computer. One way it can spread is by plugging an infected USB drive into your
computer.
Web scripting virus: This type of virus exploits the code of web browsers and web
pages. If you access such a web page, the virus can infect your computer.
Browser hijacker: This type of virus “hijacks” certain web browser functions, and you
may be automatically directed to an unintended website.
 40

Resident virus: This is a general term for any virus that inserts itself in a computer
system’s memory. A resident virus can execute anytime when an operating system
loads.
Direct action virus: This type of virus comes into action when you execute a file
containing a virus. Otherwise, it remains dormant.
Polymorphic virus: A polymorphic virus changes its code each time an infected file is
executed. It does this to evade antivirus programs.
File infector virus: This common virus inserts malicious code into executable files —
files used to perform certain functions or operations on a system.
Multipartite virus: This kind of virus infects and spreads in multiple ways. It can infect
both program files and system sectors.
Macro virus: Macro viruses are written in the same macro language used for software
applications.
Such viruses spread when you open an infected document, often through email
attachments. A computer worm is malware, just like a virus, but a worm takes a copy of
itself and propagates it to other users.

MOBILE TECHNOLOGY
Mobile communication involves transmitting voice or data using wireless radio
transmission.
Mobile generations refer to change like mobile wireless communication network speed,
technology, data capacity, frequency, latency etc.
Mobile phones communicate through ground-based cellular networks. Cellular networks
are divided into ‘communication cells’ with which our mobile phones and mobile devices
communicate.
Mobile communication involves transmitting voice or data using wireless radio
transmission.
The first mobile systems were based on analogue transmission called as 1G.
The second-generation mobile systems were based on digital transmission.
Initially only voice was carried over the network.
The commonly used standards for voice communication were GSM and CDMA.
These days, most mobile communications use Long Term Evolution communication– or
LTE which allows us to communicate with voice and data simultaneously
over the same network.
The rules for carrying voice or data in a network are defined under the standards for
mobile network communications often seen as 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G
 41

6G technology: It will be able to operate at higher frequencies than 5G networks,

resulting in significantly increased capacity and lower latency (delay). One of the 6G
internet’s goals will be to provide communication with a one-microsecond latency (a
communication delay of one microsecond). This is 1,000 times faster than one
millisecond throughput – or 1/1000 the latency. It aims to make use of the currently
underutilized terahertz frequency spectrum.
5G technology: 5G is the next-generation cellular technology that will provide faster and
more reliable communication with ultra-low latency. Latency is a measure of delay. In a
network, latency measures the time it takes for some data to get to its destination
across the network. Features- high datarates, massive connectivity, high reliability,
mobility at high speeds
4G technology: 4G mobile technology provides wireless mobile broadband internet
access in addition to voice and other services of 3G. Applications include improved web
access, Internet Protocol (IP) telephony, Video Conferencing, Cloud Computing,
Gaming Services, High-Definition Mobile TV etc. 4G uses LTE (Long Term Evolution)
technology, which allows voice & data-communication simultaneously.
Beamforming: It is the application of multiple radiating elements transmitting the same
signal at an identical wavelength and phase, which combine to create a single antenna
with a longer, more targeted stream which is formed by reinforcing the waves in a
specific direction
 42

LOW BAND SPECTRUM

Low band spectrum- It has a lot of potential in terms of coverage and internet and data
transfer speed; however, the maximum speed is just 100 Mbps (Megabits per
second). The low band spectrum may not be ideal for specialised requirements of the
business; thus, Telcos may utilise and deploy it for commercial cell phone customers
who may not have need for extremely highspeed internet.
MID-BAND SPECTRUM
Mid band spectrum- It has faster speeds than the low band, however it has restrictions
in terms of coverage area and signal penetration. This band might be utilised by
companies and specialised production units to create captive networks that can be
tailored to their specific demands.
HIGH-BAND SPECTRUM
High band spectrum- It has the fastest speed of the three bands, but its coverage and
signal penetration intensity are severely restricted. Internet speeds in the 5G high-band
spectrum have been tested to reach 20 Gbps (gigabits per second), although the
greatest internet data speed in 4G has been reported at 1 Gbps in most circumstances.
MILLIMETRE (MM) WAVE BAND
The millimetre wave band, or mmWave, is a portion of the radio frequency spectrum
that spans 24 to 100 GHz. This spectrum has a short wavelength and is more likely to
give higher speeds and shorter latencies.
Since a result, data transport becomes more efficient and smoother, as existing
networks are optimised for lower frequency bandwidths.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS MM BAND
Significance of mm band-
- Lower frequency bands may be used to deliver 5G services.
- They can reach longer distances and have been demonstrated to perform well
even in congested metropolitan areas.
- However, when it comes to data rates, these bands fall short of the maximum
capacity required for a real 5G experience.
- So, mmWave is that key component in the 5G jigsaw puzzle for mobile service
providers.
-
 43

INDIGENOUS 5G
Currently, Indian contribution is design ownership of telecom products is very limited
and India has been significant importer of global products. TSDSI has been established
to enable India industry to take lead in International standardization activities.
1. LMLC TECHNOLOGY
1. LMLC technology
TSDSI in collaboration of IITs have been successful in getting the Low Mobility Large
Cell (LMLC) use case accepted by ITU as one of the 5G requirements for rural areas.
Benefits:
a. Increases the distance between two base stations to 6 km against 1.7 km by other
technology. This technology will be beneficial for rural India and other developing
countries.
b. The base stations can be placed at Gram Panchayats and connectivity can be
provided to neighboring villages and farms.
c. Reduction of Capex cost.
d. Increase in speed of internet access in rural areas.
e. These rural towers have to be located where BharatNet fiber ends in 2.5 lakh Gram
Panchayats. From these towers, neighboring villages numbering 3.5 lakhs have to be
provided wireless coverage.
f. This is for the first time a global standard is emerging from India at ITU.
2. TSDSI RIT
2. TSDSI RIT
IIT Madras along with other institutions has developed this standard as a variation to
3GPP standards for enhanced rural connectivity. This technology is also called 5Gi
technology.
Benefits:
a. Enhanced coverage in rural areas
b. Reduced capex costs.
c. This standard, however, has not been adopted by
ITU and thus not globally harmonised

NET NEUTRALITY
Net neutrality refers to the fact that governments and internet service providers treat all
data on the internet equally and do not charge users more for higher-quality delivery or
give some websites preferential treatment.
The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) recently proposed the formation of a
multi-stakeholder body (MSB) to guarantee that internet service providers in the nation
follow net neutrality principles.
 44

All Internet service providers (ISPs) must provide the same amount of data access and
speed to all traffic under network neutrality, and traffic to one service or website cannot
be banned or downgraded.

BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY
Blockchain technology is a structure that stores transactional records (also known as
block), of the public in several databases, known as the chain, in a network connected
through Peer-to-peer (P2P) nodes.
This storage is referred to as a digital ledger.
Every transaction in this ledger (storage) is authorized by the digital signature of the
owner, which authenticates the transaction and saves it from any tampering.
Blockchain Key characteristic features include decentralization, persistence, and
anonymity.
Blockchain technology discards the need for any third- party or central authority for
peer-to-peer transactions. Managed by a cluster of computers not owned by a single
entity.

Cryptocurrency:
Cryptocurrency is a digital payment system that doesn’t rely on banks to verify
transactions.
It’s a peer to-peer system that can enable anyone anywhere to send and receive
payments.
In many countries, cryptocurrency is unregulated & they are not a legal tender payment
system. For example, Bitcoin.

Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC):

CBDC is a digital version of fiat currency that may be exchanged using blockchain-
based wallets and is controlled by the central bank. It is a digital type of legal money
issued by a central bank. An official digital currency would lower the cost of currency
administration while allowing real time payments to be made without the need for
interbank settlement.
Another advantage of CBDC is that, to the degree that huge amounts of cash can be
replaced by CBDC, the cost of printing, transporting, and keeping paper money may be
significantly decreased.
The Indian government has declared in its Budget 2022- 23 that its central bank will
issue a digital currency as early as 2022

WEARABLE TECHNOLOGY
These are smart electronic devices designed to be worn on the user’s body. Ex: Smart
jewellery, Wristbands, watches etc.
These devices detect, analyze, and transmit information.
Wearable technology is evolving into an important category of the Internet of things,
with life-changing applications in medicine and other fields.
 45

NEAR-FIELD COMMUNICATION (NFC)

NFC is a short-range contactless communication technology based on a Radio
Frequency (RF) field using a base frequency of 13.56 MHz.
NFC-enabled devices must be either physically touching or within a few centimeters of
each other for data transfer to occur.

RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID)

RFID technology uses radio waves to passively identify a tagged object.
An RFID tag consists of a tiny radio transponder; a radio receiver and transmitter.
Unlike a barcode, the tag doesn’t need to be within the line of sight of the reader, so it
may be embedded in the tracked object

FASTAG
The FASTag is a reloadable tag that allows tolls to be deducted automatically without
the need to stop for a cash transaction.
Once activated, the tag employs Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology and
is attached to the vehicle’s windscreen.
It was first used in April 2016, and on December 1, 2017, the government made it
mandatory for all new automobiles and trucks to be fitted with a FASTag before being
sold.
The National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) returns 5% of total monthly transactions
to encourage the usage of FASTags.

INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)

IoT is the interlinking of digital devices, people, machines, appliances, & other objects
with one another through wireless networks.
It allows machines & people to be connected and communicate as well.
IoT is a seamless connected network system of embedded objects/ devices, with
identifiers, in which communication without any human intervention is possible using
standard and interoperable communication protocols.
Applications-
APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET OF THINGS
 Smart cities: Cellular communication enabled Smart municipal bins will send alerts to
municipal services when a bin needs to be emptied
Agriculture: Sensing for soil moisture & nutrients, controlling water usage for plant
growth & determining custom fertilizer are uses of IoT.
 Energy utilization: Smart Grids will be able to detect sources of power outages, can
automatically take inputs of solar panel, making possible distributed energy system.
Healthcare: Personalized analysis of an individual’s health and tailor-made strategies to
combat illness will be possible. Enhanced patient monitoring and better health
outcomes.
 Manufacturing: The IoT intelligent systems enable rapid manufacturing of new
products, dynamic response to product demands, and real-time optimization of
manufacturing production and supply chain networks, by networking machinery,
sensors, and control systems together.
 Environmental monitoring: to assist in environmental protection by monitoring air or
 46

water quality, atmospheric or soil conditions. It can even include areas like monitoring
the movements of wildlife and their habitats.
 Supply chain: By placing RFID tags on individual products, the exact location of single
items in a large warehouse can be shared, thus saving search time, streamlining
infrastructure, and lowering labour costs.
 Elderly, sick and disabled population can be particularly assisted using IoT technology
with greater care.
 Overall boosting of efficiency which will result in economic growth and employment
creation.

NARROW BAND INTERNET OF THINGS (NB-IOT)

NB-IoT technology is a low power wide area technology that may be used almost
everywhere.
Will allow many devices to connect to IoT, allowing development of new applications.
Designed for applications that send tiny quantities of data across great distances.
Secure and dependable since it runs on licensed spectrum, offering assured service
quality.
Integrates into cellular system ensuring easy deployment. Links devices to existing
mobile networks more easily, effectively.
Securely and reliably handles tiny quantities of very occasional two-way communication.
Optimised for low power consumption. Extended long-range coverage and deep
penetration both indoors and underground

NFC TECHNOLOGY
NFC technology is a short-range wireless networking technology that enables NFC-
enabled devices to interact with one another and transmit information with a single
touch.
It makes it easy to pay bills, swap business cards, download coupons, and share a
document with other people.
WORKING OF NFC TECHNOLOGY
It uses electromagnetic radio waves to communication to allow communication between
two devices to take place. Because transactions take occur over such a small distance,
both devices must be equipped with NFC technology.
Devices must be physically contacting or within a few centimetres of one another for
data transmission to take place between them.

TECHNOLOGIES FOR INTERNET OF THINGS

1. NB-IoT technology operates on licensed spectrum, which is a subset of LTE

brands. It stands for Narrowband Internet of Things. is a standards-based low
power wide area (LPWA) technology developed to enable a wide range of new
IoT devices and services. NB-IoT significantly improves the power consumption
of user devices, system capacity and spectrum efficiency, especially in deep
coverage. Battery life of more than 10 years can be supported for a wide range of
use cases.
 47

2. LoRa/LoRaWAN uses linear frequency modulation in the unlicensed frequency

range in sub 1 ghz band. LoRa stands for Low Power, Wide Area networking
protocol designed to wirelessly connect battery operating 'things' to the internet in
regional, national or global networks and targets key Internet of Things requirements
such as bi-directional communication, end to end security, mobility and localisation
services.

3. Li-Fi: It is a wireless communication technology that utilises light to transmit data

and position between devices. It is also called Light-Fidelity. It uses light from Light
Emitting Diodes as a medium to deliver network. It is like Wi-Fi, the difference being
Wi-Fi uses radio frequency to communicate. This technology can theoretically
transmit at speeds of 100 Gbit/s.

4. Near Field Communication: It is a communication protocol that enables

communication between two electronic devices over a distance of 4 cm or less. It
offers a low-speed connection. It is based on inductive coupling between two
antennas.

5. Zigbee: It is a communication technology used to create personal area networks

with small, low power digital radios such as home automation, medical device data
collection and low power low bandwidth needs, designed for small scale projects.
(Battery powered devices).

6. Sigfox: It is a standards-based low power wide area (LPWA) technology

developed to enable a wide range of new IoT devices and services. NB-IoT
significantly improves the power consumption of user devices, system
capacity and spectrum efficiency, especially in deep coverage. Battery life of more
than 10 years can be supported for a wide range of use cases

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of a computer or a robot controlled by a computer
to do tasks that are usually done by humans because they require human intelligence
and discernment.
AI refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to
think like humans and mimic their actions.
AI is a self, adaptive learning system.

Applications: Industrial automation, Space science, self- driven cars, Healthcare sector,
weather forecasting, etc.

• 3 Types of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI)- also known as Weak AI refers to any AI that can
outperform a human in a narrowly defined and structured task.
It is designed to perform a single function like an internet search, face recognition or
speech detection under various constraints and limitations.
 48

Applications of Narrow AI are not thinking for

themselves but simulating human behaviour based on
a set of rules, parameters and contexts that they are
trained with.
Examples of Narrow AI: Searching Internet, Disease Detection, Facial Recognition,
Recommender Systems, etc.

2. Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)

Also known as strong AI aims to create machines that can reason and think just like a
human can do. Machines can think for itself (also sometimes referred to as Sentience).
General AI systems will have ability to think, reason and plan just like a human can do.
Characteristics of General AI are: It does not rely on human programming to think or
accomplish tasks.
General AI can respond to different environments and situations and adopt its
processes accordingly.

3. Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI)

Working Mechanism of artificial intelligence: AI works by combining large amounts of

data with fast, iterative processing and intelligent algorithms, allowing the software to
learn automatically from patterns or features in the data.

AI is a broad field of study that includes many theories, methods and technologies, as
well as the following major subfields:
o Machine learning automates analytical model building. It uses methods from neural
networks, statistics, operations research and physics to find hidden insights in data
without explicitly being programmed for where to look or what to conclude.
o A neural network is a type of machine learning that is made up of interconnected units
(like neurons) that processes information by responding to external inputs, relaying
information between each unit. The process requires multiple passes at the data to find
connections and derive meaning from undefined data.
o Deep learning uses huge neural networks with many layers of processing units, taking
advantage of advances in computing power and improved training techniques to learn
complex patterns in large amounts of data.
o Computer vision relies on pattern recognition and deep learning to recognize what’s in
a picture or video. When machines can process, analyze and understand images, they
can capture images or videos in real time and interpret their surroundings.
o Natural language processing (NLP) is the ability of computers to analyze, understand
and generate human language, including speech. The next stage of NLP is natural
language interaction, which allows humans to communicate with computers using
normal, everyday language to perform tasks.

Turing test is a test developed evaluating whether a system has attained properties of
Artificial General Intelligence. It was referred to Imitation Game
originally. It tests a machines ability to exhibit intelligent behaviour equivalent to or
indistinguishable from human being.
 49

Singularity: Technological Singularity or simply ‘Singularity’ is a hypothetical future point

in time at which general AI powered will be more intelligent than humans and will
dominate humans. Machines will experience runaway reaction of self-improvements
which will subjugate human intelligence.

Explainable AI: (Also known as XAI). With increasing complexity and ubiquity of
systems using AI, there has been increasing attention to the black box problem in
AI. Black box AI is any artificial intelligence system whose inputs and operations aren't
visible to the use, or another interested party. Black box AI models arrive at conclusions
or decisions without providing any explanations as to how they were reached. To
address the problem, there has been increasing focus on the concept of Explainable AI
which is a set of processes and methods that allows human users to comprehend and
trust the results and output created by AI algorithms. This will increase fairness, trust
and address biases in AI systems.
APPLICATION OF
ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
 50

DEEPFAKES
Deepfakes use a form of artificial intelligence called deep learning to make images of
fake events, hence the name deepfake.
The origin of the word “deepfake” can be traced back to 2017 when a Reddit user, with
the username “deep fakes”, posted explicit videos of celebrities.
Deep Fakes are created by machine learning models, which use neural networks to
manipulate images and videos.
A model such as this “analyzes video footage until it is able algorithmically to transpose
the ‘skin’ of one human face onto the movements of another.
The usage of a technique called Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN), which
employs two AI algorithms — one that creates false material and the other that
assesses the system’s efforts, allowing it to improve — has resulted in more accurate
deep fakes.

LI-FI
It is a bidirectional, fully networked wireless communication technology that transmits
data using visible light rather than radio frequencies.
A router is made out of an adapted LED bulb. It can provide more resilient and reliable
wireless networks that complement and enhance existing cellular and Wi-Fi networks by
providing greater security, data rates, and density.
It delivers ultra-fast data connections, which are particularly beneficial in metropolitan
regions where radio spectrum is congested, as well as in rural locations where Fiber
Optic Cables or networks are unavailable.
A standard LED bulb is linked to a gadget, which is linked to the Internet.
The Internet data enters the bulb via the gadget and is transported by light waves.
Light waves delivering Internet data fall on a receiver or a dongle attached to the
computer on the other end.
 51

BIOMETRICS
Biometrics are biological measurements — or physical characteristics — that can be
used to identify individuals.
For example, fingerprint mapping, facial recognition, and retina scans are all forms of
biometric technology, but these are just the most recognized options.

Digital Signature Certificates (DSC):

DSC are the digital equivalent (that is electronic format) of physical or paper certificates.
Certificates serve as a proof of identity of an individual.
DSCs can be presented electronically to prove identity, to access information or
services on the Internet or to sign certain documents digitally.

3D PRINTING
3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a method of creating prototypes or
functional models of products by layering materials such as plastic, resin, thermoplastic,
metal, fiber, or ceramic.
With a market share of more than 35%, the United States is the global leader in 3D
printing.China controls almost half of the Asian market, followed by Japan (30%) and
South Korea (10%).

Process of 3D Printing
The process of 3D printing begins with the creation of a virtual model of the thing to be
manufactured.
A 3D modelling application, such as CAD (Computer Aided Design), or 3D scanners
can be used to create virtual designs.
After that, the 3D digital copy is loaded into a 3D modelling application. In order to print
the model, it is next cut into hundreds or thousands of horizontal layers.
This prepared file is then sent to the 3D printer, which reads each slice in 2D format and
then builds the item layer by layer, with no apparent layering and a 3 dimensional
structure as a result

3D bioprinting:
The goal of 3D bioprinting was to provide 3D constructs with autonomous mechanical
characteristics so that they could resemble the body’s natural tissue.
This method enables for the customization of microstructures for disease models.
Scientists have created a 3D printing process that can replicate the complicated
geometry of blood vessels, which might be used to construct prosthetic arteries and
organ tissues in the future.

DRONES
A drone refers to an unpiloted aircraft or spacecraft. Another term for it is an “unmanned
aerial vehicle,” or UAV.

SEMICONDUCTORS
A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between a
 52

conductor (such as metallic copper) and an insulator (such as glass). Lattice structure
and atomic structure of constituent elements decide whether a particular material will be
insulator, metal or semiconductor.
There are two distinct band of energies (called valence band and conduction band) in
which electrons in a material lie. Valence band energies are low as compared to
conduction band energies. All energy levels in the valence band are filled while energy
levels in the conduction band may be fully empty or partially filled.
The electrons in the conduction band are free to move in a solid and are responsible for
the conductivity. The extent of conductivity depends upon the energy gap between the
top of valence band and bottom of conduction band.
The electrons from valence band can be excited by heat, light or electrical energy to the
conduction band and thus, produce a change in the current flowing in a semiconductor.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS
I. Based on material.
(i) Elemental semiconductors: Silicon (Si) and (Ge)
(ii) Compound semiconductors: Inorganic, organic, organic polymers
a. Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP etc.
b. Organic: Anthracene, Doped pthalocyanines etc.
c. Organic polymers: polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene
II. Based on purity
(i) Intrinsic: pure, with no impurities, have no or zero conductivity at low
tempertures. However, as temperature rises, conductivity of these materials
increases
(ii) Extrinsic: when a small quantity of small impurity is added to pure
semiconductor, the conductivity of semiconductor is increased. Deliberate
addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the impurity atoms are
called dopants

WIDE BANDGAP SEMICONDUCTOR

They are semiconductors materials which have a larger band gap than conventional
semiconductors.
Conventional semiconductors like silicon have a bandgap in the range of 1-1.5 EV
(silicon and gallium arsenide), whereas wide-bandgap materials have bandgaps in the
range above 2 EV.
Examples of wide-bandgap semiconductors: Boron nitride, Diamond, Zinc, Gallium
nitride, Zinc Oxide, Tin dioxide, Aluminum phosphide, Cadmium sulfide, Silicon carbide
Benefits:
- Permits devices to operate at much higher voltages and frequencies
- Devices can operate at higher temperatures of the order of 300o C.
- Higher temperature tolerance allows these devices to operate at much higher
power levels.
- Applications: They are key components to make green and blue LEDs and
lasers, certain radio frequency applications notably military radars.

Gallium nitride ALLIUM NITRIDE

- It is a very hard, mechanically stable widegap bandgap semiconductor. It was
 53

commonly used in blue light-emitting diodes since the 1990s.

- Ministry of Electronics and IT (Meity) and IISc have jointly established GaN based
Development Line
- Foundry facility called Gallium Nitride Ecosystem Enabling Centre and Incubator
(GEECI), especially for radio frequency and power applications, including
strategic applications.
- Benefits of Gallium Nitride
 Higher breakdown strength
 Faster switching speed leading to faster devices
 Higher thermal conductivity
 Lower on-resistance giving lower conductance losses.
 Less power needed to drive the circuit.
 Ability to make smaller devices taking up less space on the printed circuit board.
 Lower cost

RISC-V MICROPROCESSORS
Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) has launched Digital India
RISC-V Microprocessor (DIR-V) Program. This Program aims to enable the creation of
the microprocessors for the future in India, for the world and achieve industry-grade
silicon and design wins by December 2023.
ABOUT RISC-V
RISC-V is an open standard Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) based on established
RISC principles. Each computer hardware will support a particular ISA.
Unlike most other ISA designs, RISC-V is provided under open-source licenses that do
not require fees to use. RISC-V can be extended or customised for a variety of
hardware or application requirements
ARM and x-86 are two such instruction set architectures- one of which is licensed and
the other is sold, where the industry consolidated in the earlier decades. However,
RISC-V has emerged as a strong alternative to them in the last decade, having no
licensing encumbrances, enabling its adoption by one and all in the semiconductor.
Industry, at different complexity levels for various design purposes. India has developed
two series of microprocessors:
o SHAKTI series of microprocessors by IIT Madras.
o VEGA microprocessors by C-DAC.

CONTENT DELIVERY NETWORK

It is a system of distributed group of servers and networks that deliver pages and other
web content to a user, based on geographic location of the user, the origin of the
webpage, and the content delivery server.
CDN stores a cached version of its content in multiple geographic locations (points of
presence or PoPs) which enables faster delivery of internet content.
CDNs have emerged as overlay networks on the internet to provide better support for
delivering commercial content than was available using basic, best effort internet packet
transport services.
 54

PROOF OF STAKE VS PROOF OF WORK

Leading cryptocurrency migrated to ‘Proof of Stake’ consensus mechanism from the
earlier ‘Proof of work’ mechanism.
Because blockchains do not have any central authority keeping track of transactions
and balances, they need a way for users to agree on who owns what. This is known as
consensus mechanism.
PROOF OF STAKE MECHANISM
Proof of Stake are consensus mechanism used by blockchains to achieve distributed
consensus. In this mechanism, mining is replaced by staking. The owners of
blockchains offer their coins as collateral (staking) for the chance to validate blocks and
then become validators.

Validators are selected randomly. Blocks are validated by more than one validator, and
when a specific number of the validators verify that the block is accurate, it is
finalized and closed.

Benefits of Proof of Stake mechanism:

 Better energy efficiency as there is no need to use crypto-mining computations
required in Proof of Work.
 Lower barriers to entry, reduced hardware requirements.
 Reduced centralisation risk: Proof of stake should lead to more nodes securing the
network.
PROOF OF WORK MECHANISM
Proof of Work was first widely used blockchain consensus mechanism pioneered in
Bitcoin. It requires users to mine or complete complex computational puzzles before
submitting new transactions to the network. This expenditure of time and computation
power is costly and has high environmental cost in the form of energy required to
conduct mining
 55

IMMERSIVE TECHNOLOGIES
 Immersive technologies make it easy to build replicable and flexible experiences, such
as for flight or combat training.
 Startups use virtual reality (VR) to construct synthetic training environments (STE).
These experiences augment conventional training and mission rehearsal, improving the
readiness of soldiers and units. Beyond training opportunities, augmented reality (AR)
makes on-field soldiers more effective in their missions. Wearable glasses or AR
headsets provide soldiers with mapping information, movement markers, and other
data. This enhances real-time situational decision making for ground forces.
 US-based startup GOVRED builds VR-based training solutions for the military

EDGE COMPUTING
Edge computing enables data to be analyzed, processed, and transferred at the edge of
a network – where things and people produce or consume that information.
It brings computation and data storage closer to the devices where it’s being gathered,
rather than relying on a central location that can be thousands of miles away.
The basic difference between edge computing and cloud computing lies in where the
data processing takes place.
The existing Internet of Things (IoT) systems perform all their computations in the cloud
using data centres.
Edge computing, on the other hand, essentially manages the massive amounts of data
generated by IoT devices by storing and processing data locally.

WIFI 6.0
Next generation standard in WiFi technology. Also known as “AX WiFi"
It was built for in response to the growing number of devices in the world of IoT (Internet
of Things) due to faster data transmission rates.
Each connected device performs at an optimum level, in locations with hundreds or
thousands of connected devices.
Highest standards for security and interoperability.
Lower battery consumption.
Increased bandwidth to deliver greater performance with lower latency.

FREE SPACE OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

FSO communication systems are where free space acts as a communication channel
 56

between transceivers that are line-of-sight (LOS) for successful transmission of optical
signals.
 The channel can be atmosphere, space, or vacuum, whose characteristics determine
the transmission and reception of optical signals for designing reliable and efficient
communication systems.
 Using FSO technology data is transmitted by propagation of light through atmospheric
or space communication channels, allowing optical connectivity.
 FSO communication offers a high data rate to meet the tremendous increasing
demand of broadband traffic mostly driven by Internet access and HDTV broadcasting
services.
 Compared to fiber optics technology, FSO offers much more flexibility in designing
optical network architectures at very high speeds, at tens and hundreds of Gbit/s rates.
 However, FSO communication is affected by atmospheric effects, which limits
sensitivity and achievable data rates with acceptable BER.
 Both point-to-point, point-to-multipoint, multipoint-topoint, and multipoint-to-multipoint
FSO communications are possible, depending on the different scenarios of establishing
optical links. FSO communication is the most practical alternative to solve the
bottleneck broadband connectivity problem.

GIGA MESH
 It is a wireless technology product that could enable telecom operators deploy quality,
high speed rural telecom infrastructure at 5 times lower cost.
 Giga Mesh is based on millimeter wave multi beam technology.

WI-FI CALLING
 It makes use of high-speed Internet connection, available via broadband, to make and
receive high definition (HD) voice calls.
 This is not much different from a voice call using WhatsApp or any other over-the-top
messaging platform, but here the call is from one number to another, and not using an
app.
 Wi-Fi Calling can be configured on compatible smartphones by upgrading operating
systems to the version that supports Wi-Fi Calling and enabling this in Settings.

PUBLIC DOMAIN NAME SERVER (DNS)

 The government will launch a public Domain Name Server (DNS) aimed at providing a
faster and more secure browsing experience for Internet users in the country, while
ensuring that citizens’ data is stored locally.
 The main objective of bringing country’s own public DNS is to ensure availability,
particularly for smaller Internet Service Providers (ISPs) who don’t have
credible DNS.
 A user will be free to choose any DNS and they need not compulsorily need to shift to
 57

India public DNS.

 The National Informatics Centre (NIC) would configure the setup which would be
offered to all citizens
Domain Name System (DNS)WHAT IS DNS?
 DNS is a system that translates domain names to Internet Protocol or IP addresses
that allows browsers to load websites sought.
 Domain Name System translates human readable domain names (for example,
www.google.com) to machine readable IP addresses (for example,
192.0.2.44).
 A domain name server is a computer that houses DNS zones of domain names.

OPEN API (APPLICATION PROGRAMMING INTERFACES)

 They provide an open architecture, allowing any business to access data and
functionality without any association with the API providers.
 Open APIs can bring in the profound changes in the overall digital ecosystem. Open
APIs basically allow data to be accessible to larger institutions.
 Government of India has open API policy for programs like Aadhaar, eKYC, eSign,
and Unified Payments Interface (UPI) among others.
 Though Aadhaar data is handled by Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI)
and banks have no control over the data, still banks can use the data.
For instance, banks use Aadhaar-enabled biometric authentication to open bank
accounts.
 An open API also gives banks the ability to monetise your data. But that doesn't mean
all your information is made public. The data exchange in open APIs happens in a
controlled manner.
 However, security does seem to be a concern with open APIs. Hence, not many banks
currently offer them. But they are still works in progress and you can’t rule out the
possibility that someday, any bank would be able to fetch your data from any bank, of
course, with your consent.

UNIFIED MESSAGING PLATFORM

 MeitY has released Unified Messaging Platform for secure and efficient Government
communications, envisages to provide email service to over 5 million officials of Central
and State Government employees.
 NIC is the implementing agency.
 The service has been built through an open-source solution in accordance with the
“Policy on adoption of Open-source software for Government of India”. This
gives strategic control of government over the solution.
 The service provides a multilingual platform comprising of 11 local languages with a
go-live in English and Hindi initially, followed by other languages.
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QR CODE
QR Code stands for Quick Response Code. Main purpose of development was to
create a code that could be read quickly.
Features EATURES OF QR CODES ARE
1. High capacity of encoding of data
2. Small printout size
3. Dirt and Damage Resistant
4. Readable from any direction in 360 degrees
5. Structured Appending feature
QR Code has error correction capability to restore data if the code is dirty or damaged.
Four error correction levels are available for users to choose according to the operating
environment. Raising this level improves error correction capability but also increases
the amount of data QR Code size.

RFID TECHNOLOGY
 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) refers to a wireless system comprised of two
components: tags and readers.
 Reader is a device that has one or more antennas that emit radio waves and receive
signals back from the RFID tag.
 Tags, which use radio waves to communicate their identity and other information to
nearby readers, can be passive or active. Passive RFID tags are powered by the reader
and do not have a battery. Active RFID tags are powered by batteries.
 RFID tags can store a range of information from one serial number to several pages of
data. Readers can be mobile so that they can be carried by hand, or they can be
mounted on a post or overhead.
 Reader systems can also be built into the architecture of a cabinet, room, or building.
Advantages-
 Automates data collection, reduces human effort & error.
 Tag reading with no line-of-sight or item-by-item scans required.
 Multiple RFID tags can be read simultaneously.
 All RFID tags within range can be detected instantly and matched with information in
your database.
 Assets can be cross-referenced against assigned locations & recorded as present,
missing, or relocated.
 RFID can be integrated with active scanning and fixed readers for a totally automated
tracking solution.
 Assets and employees can be tracked and located automatically for everything from
supply chain & asset management, facility security & emergency planning.
 Available scanners support both RFID and barcoding so you can upgrade at your own
pace.
 59

BHAR OS SOFTWARE
 IIT, Madras has recently developed ‘BharOS’ – an indigenous mobile operating
system.
 It is a government funded AOSP (Android Open-Source Project) based operating
system with no Google Apps or services.
 It comes with No Default Apps (NDA) which means that users are not forced to use
apps that they may not be familiar with giving more permission controls to user.
 It offers ‘Native Over The Air’ (NOTA) updates which means that security updates and
bug fixes will be automatically installed on the device.
 Private App Store Services (PASS). A PASS provides access to a curated list of apps
that have been thoroughly vetted and have met certain security and privacy standards
of organisations.

NEUROMORPHIC COMPUTING
 Neuromorphic Computing is an approach to computing that is inspired by the structure
and function of the human brain.
 The development of neuromorphic hardware aims at mimicking biological synapse
that monitors and remembers the signal generated by the stimuli.
 A neuromorphic computer/chip consists of Artificial Neural Networks comprised of
millions of artificial neurons (made from silicon).
 These neurons pass signals to each other in layers, converting input into output
through electric spikes or signals, based on the architecture of Spiking Neural
Networks.
 This allows the machine to mimic the neuro-biological networks in the human brain
and perform tasks efficiently such as visual recognition and data interpretation.

MICROLED DISPLAY TECHNOLOGY

 MicroLEDs are self-illuminating diodes that have brighter and better colour
reproduction than Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) display technology.
 MicroLEDs are made up of numerous microscopic LEDs which self-illuminate per
display pixel i.e., they produce colours without backlighting or colour filters.
It is called a MicroLED panel because its pixels are very small and measured in
micrometres.
 While OLEDs use tiny sub-pixels made from organic emissive materials, Micro-LEDs
use an inorganic LED structure.
Advantages- ADVANTAGES OVER OLED
 Increased brightness
 Longer lifespan
 Lower power consumption
 Low response time
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 Limitless scalability as they can be freely resized in any form.

DISADVANTAGE
Disadvantages-
Disadvantages-
- High costs and technical difficulties in its development.

INDIA STACK
 India Stack is a name used to describe a collection of disparate technology products
and framework.
Components of this collection are owned & maintained by different agencies.
 Open API team at iSPIRIT has been a pro-bono partner in the development, evolution
and evangelization of these APIs and systems.
 None of the systems which are include in the India Stack require any proprietary
technology or intellectual property, hence, can be easily implemented in any country
across the world.
LAYERS OF INDIA STACK
API included-API INCLUDED IN INDIA STACK
 Aadhaar: Bedrock of India Stack is a set of digital identity products centered around
Aadhaar. Aadhaar program is being implemented by Unique Identification Authority of
India, a statutory body constituted under Aadhaar Act, 2016. Currently, more than 95%
Indians possess an Aadhaar number allowing them to:
 Remotely authenticate attributes such as name, age, address, mobile number, email
address, gender via a two-factor or biometric authentication.
 Receiving digitally signed & universally accepted copies of lifetime records such as
driver’s license, educational diplomas, insurance policies etc.
 Signing documents or messages using a government backed digital signature service.

 eSign: It is a digital signature product built on top of Aadhaar. It allows any Aadhaar
holder to produce legally valid digital signatures on any document, at any time, using
any device. Consent for this signature is obtained through a one-time password sent to
the signer’s Aadhaar linked mobile number.

 Digital Locker (DigiLocker): It is a public utility provided to Aadhaar holders by the

Union Government. The service allows an Aadhaar holder to sign in using a one-time
password sent to the mobile number used to enroll on Aadhaar. DigiLocker is a secure
cloud-based platform for storage, sharing and verification of documents & certificates.
Once inside, residents of India will find several digital signed, legally valid electronic
documents such driver’s license, education degrees, Aadhaar card and even insurance
policies. Implemented by Digital India Corporation under Ministry of Electronics & IT
(MEITY).
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 Unified Payment Interface (UPI): It is a revolutionary, user-friendly, real time

payment solution that facilitates inter-bank transactions, and enables greater
digital payments adoption in the country. Developed and launched by the National
Payments Corporation of India in 2016, UPI is now one of the most preferred
payment solutions in India, with over a billion transactions every month. Benefits of UPI
are:
 Immediate money transfer through mobile device 24X7X365 days.
 Single mobile application for accessing different bank accounts.
 Single Click 2-Factor Authentication yet provides a strong feature of seamless single
click payment.
 Payment using QR Code, Utility Bill Payments.
 Complaints to mobile app directly.

 E-Office: It is a complete digital workplace solution for government offices. It assists

departments in informed and quick decision making and less paper office. The Open
Architecture on which eOffice has been built, makes it a reusable framework and a
standard reusable product amenable to replication across the governments, at the
central, state and district levels. The product brings together the independent functions
and systems under a single framework.

 e-Sanjeevani: National Telemedicine Service of India & world’s largest telemedicine

implementation network in primary healthcare. It functions in two modes:
 eSanjeevani AB-HWC (Provider to Provider telemedicine platform): An assisted
telemedicine system that connects patients through health workers and medical officers
in Health & Wellness Centers to doctors and specialists in hubs established in
secondary/tertiary level health facilities or medical colleges. Based on hub and
spoke model.
 eSanjeevaniOPD (a patient to provider telemedicine platform): Empowers citizens to
access outpatient services in the confines of their homes through smartphones or
laptops etc.
 Going forward, point of care diagnostic devices will also be integrated in the
eSanjeevani platform. It is operated by Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.

 National Digital Health Mission (NDHM): Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ANDM)
aims to develop the necessary backbone to support integrated digital health
infrastructure in India. However, participation of citizens and healthcare facility is
voluntary in ABDM.
Components of ABDM are:
 ABHA Number: An individual/citizen/patient will be provided with a randomly
generated 14-digit number known as ABHA for uniquely identifying a
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person in the digital health ecosystem, authenticate himself and link his health records
with consent across multiple systems and stakeholders.
 Healthcare Professionals Registry (HPR): Comprehensive registry of all healthcare
professionals involved in healthcare services across both modern and traditional
systems of medicine.
 Health Facility Registry (HFR): Comprehensive registry of health facilities (Hospitals,
clinics, diagnostic labs, imaging centers, pharmacies etc.) across different systems of
medicines including both public and private health facilities.

 Unified Health Interface (UHI): An open protocol for various digital health services
focusing on End User Applications and participating Health Service Provider
applications such as appointment booking, teleconsultation, service discovery etc.

 E-Hospital: A one stop solution that connects patients, hospitals and doctors on a
single digital platform. Helps for efficient appointments in government hospitals.

 Data Empowerment & Protection Architecture (DEPA): Aims to empower every

India with control over their data. DEPA’s institutional Architecture involves the creation
of new market players knowns as Consent Managers who play the role of enabling
consent management for the user. These consent managers are ‘data blind’ and will not
see user data themselves; rather they will serve as a conduit for encrypted data flows.
DEPA’s technology architecture is an interoperable, secure, and privacy preserving
framework for data sharing through:
 A technology standard for a machine-readable Consent Artefact.
 Open APIs for data sharing.
 A standard for Financial information.

 Account Aggregators (AA): Account Aggregator is a consent manager for Financial

Data. They are a new class of NBFCs approved by RBI to manage consent for
financial data sharing. Licenses for entities to operated as AAs is given by RBI. Entities
regulated by RBI, SEBI, IRDA & PFRDA can access and share data with AAs.
Citizens will have choice to choose which AAs would act as their ‘consent manager’ and
facilitate their data sharing from financial information providers to financial information
users. Technology standards for Account Aggregators have been developed by Reserve
Bank Information Technology Limited (ReBIT).

 Open Credit Enablement Network (OCEN): An open standards-based network to

accelerate access to affordable, formal credit. acts as a bridge between
lenders, borrowers, and other credit infrastructure providers, enabling them to interact
 63

with each other in a secure, reliable, and efficient manner. With OCEN,
borrowers can easily access credit from multiple lenders, while lenders can easily verify
the borrower’s identity, creditworthiness, and other relevant details before disbursing the
loan. The platform’s open architecture and standard APIs make integrating with OCEN
easy for other credit infrastructure providers, creating a robust credit ecosystem that
benefits all stakeholders. Moreover, OCEN’s platform ensures that all transactions are
secure, compliant with regulatory requirements, and protect user privacy. It has been
developed by iSpirit.

OPEN-SOURCE SOFTWARE (OSS)

Open-source software (OSS) is software that is distributed with its source code, making
it available for use, modification, and distribution with its original rights.
 Examples of Linux, Mozilla Firefox, VLC media player, SugarCRM, etc.
 While the operating system of Apple’s iPhones (iOS) is closed source, meaning it
cannot be legally modified or reverse engineered, Google’s Android operating
system is open source.
 Many other solutions launched by the government including Digilocker, Diksha,
Aarogya Setu, the Covid-19 vaccination platform CoWIN have also been built on top of
open-source digital platforms.
Indian developers are major players in this ecosystem.
According to GitHub, a leading platform for open-source software development, more
than 7.2 million of its 73 million users in 2021 were from India. India ranks third
after China and the US. Promoting Open Source Software-PEN-SOURCE
SOFTWAREARE
 GoI had issued a Policy on Adoption of Open-Source Software in 2015.
 The government has also made the android version of the Aarogya Setu app open
source.
 Major institutions like our courts, IRCTC, LIC and State Bank of India rely on FOSS to
scale operations and provide timely and efficient digital services to millions.
 GovTech 3.0 has been started to focus on Open Digital Ecosystems (ODEs), the
underlying philosophy suggests that the government should focus on creating
the “digital commons”. Promoting OSS is a part of GovTech 3.0.
By harnessing power of the crowd, open-source software allows developers to benefit
from accelerated innovation, quicker development processes and having more success
troubleshooting when problems arise.

OPEN NETWORK FOR DIGITAL COMMERCE (ONDC)

 Initiative aiming at promoting open networks for all aspects of exchange of goods and
services over digital or electronic networks.
 Based on open-source methodology, using open specifications and open network
protocols independent of any specific platform.
 64

 Providers and consumers would be able to use any compatible application of their
choice for exchange of information and carrying out transactions over ONDC.
 ONDC goes beyond the current platform-centric digital commerce model where the
buyer and seller must use the same platform or application to be digitally visible
and do a business transaction.
 Consumers can potentially discover any seller, product or service by using any
compatible application or platform, thus increasing freedom of choice for
consumers
GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY

NATIONAL GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY

Vision and Goals
• To make India a World Leader in Global Geospatial space.
• Integrated Policy to move towards a digital economy and improve services to citizens.
• Better utilization of data.
• Encouraging participation of the private sector

Institutional framework
Geospatial Data Promotion and Development Committee (GDPDC): At national level,
an apex body for formulating and implementing appropriate guidelines, strategies, and
programs. GDPDC would replace National Spatial Data Committee (NSDC) and
Geospatial Data Promotion and Development Committee.
Role of Department of Science & Technology (DST): Continue to be nodal Department
and GDPDC shall make suitable recommendations to DST.
 65

Strengthening Geospatial Infrastructure

1. Geospatial Data Infrastructure
o GDPDC will develop 14 global geospatial data themes recognized by United Nations
Statistics Division.It will also develop Sectoral Geospatial Data Themes for various
sectors.
o National Geospatial Data Registry (NGDR): Accessible by all stakeholders.
o Unified Geospatial Interface (UGI): To provide consumer-oriented products and
solutions using Geospatial data.
o Survey of India (SoI): Will help in developing NGDR and UGI in collaboration with
Bhaskaracharya National Institute for Space Applications and Geo-informatics (BISAG-
N)-under MeitY, private sector etc.

2. Mapping infrastructure: Policy shall replace the National Map Policy, 2005.
3. Geospatial Knowledge Infrastructure (GKI): Will be enabled by the integration of
Geospatial data with Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies and the growing digital
infrastructure.
4. Geospatial Education and Skill Development: National Institute for Geo-informatics
Science and Technology (NIGST), Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), and/or any
suitable institute(s), public or private, will be developed into Centre(s) of Excellence.
5. Geospatial Industrial Development Board (GIDB): Advisory body under GDPDC

DRAFT NATIONAL DATA GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK POLICY

 66

Released by The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology

About National Data Governance Framework Policy
It is the revised version of Draft India Data Accessibility and Use Policy, 2022.
Aim: To enhance access, quality, and use of data, in line with the current and emerging
technology needs.
• Objectives: To accelerate Digital Governance, have standardized data management
and security standards.
• Applicability: All Government departments and entities; all non-personal datasets and
data and platform; rules, standards governing its access and use by researchers and
Start-ups.

Components under NDGFP

1. Indian Datasets Platform: Consisting of anonymized non-personal datasets from
Government entities collected from Indian citizens or those in India.
o It will provide datasets access to Indian researchers and startups.
o NDGFP does not apply to the private players, but they can voluntarily contribute their
datasets.
o No provision for monetization of such data.
2. Indian Data Management Office (IDMO): Will be set under Digital India Corporation
(DIC) under MeitY. Data Management Units- In every Ministry/Department to work
closely with IDMO for ensuring implementation of policy
 67

NITI Aayog launched the National Data & Analytics Platform (NDAP) for open public
use
• About NDAP: A user friendly web platform accessible to all users.
• Function: Hosts foundational datasets from various government agencies, presents
them coherently, and provides tools for analytics and visualization

Bank for International Settlements (BIS) has endorsed India’s Data Empowerment
Protection Architecture (DEPA)
• About DEPA: A joint public-private effort for an improved data governance approach.
o DEPA forms the final layer of India Stack, a set of APIs that allows various
stakeholders to utilise a unique digital infrastructure aimed at presence-less, paperless,
and cashless service delivery.
• Function: Creates a digital framework that allows users to share their data on their own
terms through a third party entity, Consent Managers.
• Application: DEPA’s first application has been in the financial sector. It is being tested
in the health sector, as well
as others.

Yotta D1
• It is country’s biggest and North India’s first hyperscale data centre that was recently
inaugurated in Greater Noida Uttar Pradesh.
• About Data Centre: Dedicated secure space within a centralized location where
computing and networking equipment is concentrated for collecting, storing and
processing large amounts of data.
• Components: Network infrastructure (connects servers etc. to end-user locations);
Storage infrastructure; and Computing resources (provide processing, memory, etc. that
drive applications).

5G TECHNOLOGY
 68

5G is an amalgamation of various technologies such as:

o Massive multi-user MIMO (Multiple input multiple output) enabled network.
o Small cell stations to connect the base stations and users seamlessly.
o Mobile Edge Computing that brings cloud computing closer to the user.
o Beamforcing a laser beam between transmitting entity and the user.

• 5G operates at higher frequencies and is designed to connect virtually everyone and

everything together including machines, objects, and devices.
• Have an enhanced throughput to handle more simultaneous connections at a time.

Other Steps taken by Government to boost 5G Tech

• Cellular Operators Association of India (COAI) has formed the 5G India Forum (5GIF).
• National Digital Communication Policy-2018 lays out the objectives with respect to 5G
services in India.
5G Vertical Engagement and Partnership Program (VEPP) initiative: Department of
Telecommunications (DoT) has invited Expression of Interest for initiative to enable
close collaboration between User verticals and 5G Tech stakeholders.
5G Airwave Interference
Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) flagged concerns over likely interference of
5G C-Band spectrum with aircraft radio altimeters as both operate in mid C-Band
frequency range.
o A radio altimeter provides direct height-above-terrain information to various aircraft
systems and use of
altimeters in C- band ensures highly precise measurements of plane’s altitude.
o For telecom service providers, C-Band ensures coverage as well as high bandwidth,
resulting in faster
internet speeds, for rolling out 5G services.

Private captive 5G networks

• Union Cabinet has allowed private captive 5G telecom network in India.
• A private captive 5G network is a network set up by a private entity for the use of
enterprise concerned, and no one else
 69

5G SPECTRUM AUCTION
A record over ₹1.5 lakh crore worth of 5G telecom spectrum was sold in recently held
auction.
About 5G spectrum
• Spectrum relates to the radio frequencies allocated to the mobile industry and other
sectors for communication over the airwaves.
• Spectrum is a sovereign asset.
• Operators are most likely going to use a mix of low-band, mid-band, and high-band
spectrum to deliver the type of 5G experience that their customers demand.
E-Band
• Broadband and WiFi players opposes giving E band exclusively to Telcos.
• E band is the range of radio frequencies from 60 GHz to 90 GHz in the
electromagnetic spectrum.
• E-band is a major solution of 5G's microwave transmission

5G OPEN RADIO ACCESS NETWORK (RAN)

Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT), WiSig Networks Private Limited and
VVDN Technologies Private Limited have signed an agreement for developing 5G
Open RAN and other products together.

About RAN
• RAN is part of network that connects the main network infrastructure to end-users.
o It connects individual devices to other parts of a network through radio connections.
• It provides the critical technology to connect users to the mobile network over radio
waves. It acts as a bridge to access all the key applications on the web.
o Current RAN technology is provided as an integrated platform of both hardware and
software.
 70

o Therefore, it is difficult to mix vendors for its different units. Idea of Open RAN is to
enable operators to mix and match components from different vendors.
o Open RAN will create a multi-supplier RAN solution that allows for the separation
between hardware and software with open interfaces.
Standalone (SA) 5G:
A telecom network where both core network and radio access network (RAN) are
upgraded to 5G.
o It replaces the LTE network 4G wireless communications standard and allows
completely independent operation of a 5G service without any interaction with an
existing 4G core.

• Non-standalone 5G: In this, only RAN part of the network is upgraded.

o It is built over an existing 4G network.

• Advantage of SA over NSA: superior voice quality, significantly more speed, lower
latency etc.

• Challenges of SA 5G: not all phones will have support for SA 5G, will cost more etc.

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Recently TRAI releases

recommendations on
‘Licensing framework for
Establishing and
Operating for Satellite
Earth Station Gateway
(SESG).
SESG, also known as
Gateway Hub, acts as a
bridge between space-
based communication
network and
terrestrial
communication network.
It houses the equipment
that convert Radio
Frequency (RF) signal to
an Internet Protocol (IP)
signal for terrestrial
connectivity
 71

OTHERS

VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN)

Recently, the Central government has asked virtual private network (VPN) companies to
keep a record of their logs of customer information as directed by Indian Computer
Emergency Response Team (CERT-In).
About CERT-In guidelines
• New directives by CERT-In under Information Technology Act, 2000 state that:
o All cloud service and VPN providers to maintain a series of extensive customer
information for at least five years, even after cancellation or withdrawal of the
registration.
o Data centre companies and cryptocurrency exchanges are also asked to collect and
store user data
72
 73

DARKNET
Germany has shut down Russia-linked ‘Hydra Market’- considered as world's biggest
and oldest DarkNet marketplace of illegal items and services.

About DarkNet
• Also known as Dark Web, it is that part of the Internet which cannot be accessed
through traditional search engines like Google nor is it accessible by normal browsers
like Chrome
or Safari.
o It generally uses non-standard communication protocols which make it inaccessible to
internet service providers (ISPs) or government authorities.
o Content on Dark Net is encrypted and requires a specific browser such as TOR (The
Onion Ring) to access those pages.
• Dark Net itself is only a part of the
Deep Web, which includes sites that
are protected by passwords.
o Part of the internet that is readily
available and searchable on
standard search engines is called
as Surface Web.
• Application: Used by journalists
and citizens working in oppressive
regimes (to communicate without
any government censorship),
researchers and students to do
research on sensitive topics, law
enforcement agencies, etc.
• Concerns over its use: Anonymity,
Haven for illicit activity, Privacy and
ethical concerns, drug dealing,
communication by terrorists, etc
 74

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

GENERATIVE ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

• There has been increasing popularity of generative AI programs, such as
OpenAI's ChatGPT, Google’s BARD AI, DALL-E, Codex, GPT-3 etc.
• These programs are a conversational AI language based on deep learning model built
on the transformer architecture.
o It uses a deep neural network and is trained on corpus of text data from the internet,
allowing it to generate human-like text and to perform various tasks like question
answering, and conversation.

Generative artificial intelligence (AI)

• Describes algorithms that can be used to create new content like audio, code, images,
text, simulations, and videos.
• Achieved by training machine learning models on large amounts of data using neural
networks and then using these models to generate new, synthetic data, like already
existing data.
• Prominent frameworks or models of generative AI like Generative adversarial networks
(GANs), Transformer-Based Models (TBMs) and Variational AutoEncoders (VAEs).
LaMDA (Language Models for Dialog Applications)
• LaMDA is a machine-learning language model created by Google as a chatbot that is
supposed to mimic humans in conversation.
o Like BERT, GPT-3 and other language models, LaMDA is built on Transformer, a
neural network architecture that Google invented and open-sourced in 2017.
 75

o It is designed to be able to engage in free-flowing conversations about virtually

endless number of topics.

GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP ON AI (GPAI)

India took over the Chair of Global Partnership on AI (GPAI) from France.

Responsible AI for Youth 2022

• National E-Governance Division of Ministry of Electronics & IT in collaboration with
Intel India launched ‘Responsible AI for Youth 2022’ program.
• Program is aimed at enabling school students with Artificial intelligence (AI) skills in an
inclusive manner through exclusive hands-on learning and mentorship opportunities.
o It is open to all school students studying in classes 8-12 across India

4 D PRINTING
• A renovation of 3D printing wherein special materials is used to print objects that
change shape
post-production.
• Need Stimuli or triggers to start transformation: Such as moisture, temperature, light,
electrical current, stress, pH etc.
• Materials used: Hydrogels, Thermo-responsive, Photo and magneto responsive,
Piezoelectric materials, pH-responsive etc.
• Properties: Self-assembly, self-adaptability, self-healing, shape memory, self-capability
etc.
• Printing techniques: Similar to ones used in 3D such as fused deposition modelling
(FDM), jet 3D printing (3DP), selective laser melting (SLM), direct ink writing (DIW),
electron beam melting (EBM), etc.
• Applications: Medical, biotechnology, robotics, automobiles, aerospace, textiles,
flexible electronics, construction etc.

Additive manufacturing or 3D printing

• Technology that constructs a three-dimensional object from a digital 3D model or a
Computer-aided design (CAD) model by adding material layer by layer.
o 3D printing is the opposite of subtractive (traditional) manufacturing which is cutting
out / hollowing out a piece of metal or plastic with for instance a milling machine.
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• It allows creation of lighter, more complex designs that are too difficult or too
expensive to build using traditional dies, milling and machining.

QUANTUM KEY DISTRIBUTION (QKD)

Bengaluru-based start-up QNu
labs recently innovated
advanced secured
communication through
quantum key distribution
(QKD) systems.
Developed By: QNu Labs under
aegis of Innovation for
Defence Excellence (iDEX).
o iDEX is operational framework
of Defence Innovation
Organization (DIO), a special
purpose vehicle under Ministry
of Defence.
Objective of iDEX: To create an ecosystem to
foster innovation, entrepreneurship, and
technology development, specifically in Defence
and Aerospace sector.

About quantum key distribution (QKD)

• QKD is a secure communication technology that
uses quantum physics to construct a
cryptographic protocol.
o It allows two parties to generate a shared secret key that can be used to encrypt
and decrypt messages.
• In traditional cryptography, security is usually because an adversary is unable to solve a
certain mathematical problem while in QKD, security is achieved through laws of quantum
physics.
• Two such laws are Superposition and Entanglement

Quantum Internet
• Researchers have successfully teleported quantum information across a basic network.
• Quantum internet: Based on the theoretical use of quantum computers to construct a new
kind of network.
• In contrast to traditional internet which operates through the use of binary signals
(represented by 0’s or 1’s) in data packets, quantum internet would utilize quantum bits, or
qubits, to encode information as 0’s, 1’s, or both at same time.
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PROOF-OF-STAKE TECHNOLOGY
Ethereum blockchain platform switched to Merge software mechanism that uses ‘proof-
of-stake’ (PoS) mechanism.
About Merge and Proof-of-Stake
• Ethereum is a decentralised blockchain platform used to build decentralised apps
(dApps) and smart contracts among others.
• Merge is a software, aimed at slashing energy consumption, to the way transactions
are validated on Ethereum blockchain.
o Blockchain is a distributed or decentralized ledger technology which was first
introduced in the design and development of cryptocurrency
Merge uses the process of shifting the consensus mechanism of the blockchain from
proof-of-work to proof-of-stake

Importance of new consensus mechanism: Less impact of crypto mining on local

communities: Environmentally conscious move, better security, Ripple effect on the
direction in which the crypto and broader Web3 industry contribute to positive climate
action.

Non-fungible tokens (NFT)

• NFT is a digital object that can be a drawing, animation, piece of music, photo, or
video with a certificate of authenticity created by blockchain technology.
o Tokenizing these assets allows them to be bought, sold, and traded more efficiently
while reducing the probability of fraud.
o Fungibility refers to an asset's ability to be exchanged with a similar asset without
sacrificing its value (For ex: 100 rupee note is fungible).
• Characteristics of NFT
o All NFTs have a unique quality and a distinct value from any other similar
token.
o They are digitally rare.
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o Must be sold or purchased as a whole as they cannot be divided

unlike fungible tokens.
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FACIAL RECOGNITION SYSTEM (FRS)

• FRS is part of the Digi Yatra initiative (Ministry of Civil Aviation) to promote seamless
and hassle-free experience at airports and simultaneously improving the security.
o Government is looking to make ticket booking, airport entry and boarding pass
security check-in digital.
• Digi Yatra Foundation (DYF) has been set up as a joint venture company for creating
the Digi Yatra Central Ecosystem.

About Facial Recognition System

• FRS is a way of identifying or confirming an individual’s identity using their face. It can
be used to identify people in photos, videos, or in real-time.
o Computer algorithms map unique facial landmarks such as shape of cheekbones,
contours of lips etc. and convert these into a numerical code— termed a faceprint.
o For verification or identification, system compares faceprint generated with a large
existing database of faceprints.

EXTENDED REALITY
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RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID)

Delhi airport has become the first Indian airport to introduce Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID)-enabled tag to track check-in luggage.

INDIASTACK
IndiaStack Knowledge Exchange 2022 held recently.
• Earlier, India also launched Indiastack. global - a single repository of all major
projects on IndiaStack.
o Indiastack. global allows to contribute towards the Global Digital Public
Goods repository.

About IndiaStack
• A collection of open APIs and digital public goods.
o API stands for Application Programming Interface. It allows two applications to talk to
each other.
o IndiaStack includes APIs of Aadhaar, Unified Payment Interface (UPI), Co-Win,
DigiLocker, Aarogya Setu, eSanjeevani, UMANG, DIKSHA, etc.
• Aim: To unlock the economic opportunities of identity, data, and payments at
population scale
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MICROLEDS (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE) DISPLAYS

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QUANTUM COHERENCE
It is the ability of a quantum state to maintain its entanglement and superposition in the
face of interactions.
o It deals with the idea that all objects have wave-like properties
Spin-photon interfaces are elementary building blocks for quantum networks.
o These allow converting stationary quantum information (such as the quantum state of
an ion or a solid-state spin qubit) into light (namely photons) that can be distributed over
large distances.
• A major challenge is to find an interface that is both good at storing quantum
information and efficient at converting it into light.
• Optically active semiconductor quantum dots are the most efficient spin-photon
interface known to date but extending their storage time beyond a few microseconds is
difficult.
o Recent research improves the storage of quantum information beyond hundred
microseconds.
• Quantum dots (QDs) are a unique type of nanocrystalline semiconductor whose
electronic and optical properties are dependent on the size and shape of the dots.

DIGITAL CONNECTIVITY INFRASTRUCTURE PROVIDER (DCIP)

• TRAI is seeking views to introduce DCIP authorization under UL regime as it
underlined the importance of robust Digital Connectivity Infrastructure (DCI) in economic
development.
o UL offers service-wise authorizations, where licensees establish networks and use
them to provide services.

• Importance of DCI
o Increases productivity and provides amenities that enhance quality of life. It is used for
financial services, e-governance, tele-medicine etc.
o Helps in implementation of various government schemes under Digital India, Make in
India, Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission etc.
• Earlier, National Digital Communications Policy (NDCP-2018) emphasized on DCI
under ‘Propel India’ mission.
o NDCP-2018 envisages enabling unbundling of different layers (e.g., infrastructure,
network, services, and applications layer) through differential licensing.
• DCIP will work at infrastructure and network layer; creating neutral third-party entities
which can create passive and active DCI.
o Currently, Infrastructure Providers Category-I (IP-I) rolls out passive infrastructure
while active infrastructure creation is permitted to Telecom Service Providers only.
Passive Infrastructure refers to physical space, e.g., telecom towers, fiber distribution
hub etc. while Active infrastructure refers to active elements such as antennas, back-
haul connectivity etc.
• DCIPs can lease/rent/sell their infrastructure only to such entities which are licensed
under Indian Telegraph Act.
• Potential Benefits Of DCIP: Increased common sharable DCI and network resources,
cost reduction, attract investment, strengthen service delivery segment, etc.
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Broadband Definition change

• Recently, the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) has notified the change in
definition of Broadband.
• Now, Broadband is defined as a data connection that can support interactive services
including Internet access.
o It has the capability of the minimum download speed of 2 Mbps to an individual
subscriber from the point of presence (POP) of the service provider.
• Earlier, connections with 512 Kbps were called Broadband Connections
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GENERAL PHYSICS
GRAVITY
• Gravity is the force by which a planet or other body draws objects toward its center. The force of
gravity
keeps all of the planets in orbit around the sun.
• Universal Law Of Gravitation: Anything that has mass also has gravity. Objects with more mass
have more
gravity. Gravity also gets weaker with distance. So, the closer objects are to each other, the stronger
their
gravitational pull is.
• The universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena which were believed
to be
unconnected:
o Force that binds us to the earth;
o Motion of the moon around the earth;
o Motion of planets around the sun; and
o Tides due to the moon and the Sun.
6.2. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
• Newton formulated the well-known laws of motion. He designed an astronomical telescope to
carry out
astronomical observations. He invented a new branch of mathematics, called calculus.
• First Law: An object remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
compelled to
change that state by an applied force.
o In other words, all objects resist a change in their state of motion.
o Means a body/object wants to remain in an undisturbed situation. If it is motion then want to
remain in
motion or if in rest then want to remain in rest. (Inertia)
• Second Law: states that the rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the
applied
unbalanced force in the direction of force.
• Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
o The statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the two
interacting
objects.
o The size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object

NANOTECHNOLOGY
• Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at the nanoscale, at dimensions
between
approximately 1 and 100 nanometers, where unique phenomena enable novel applications.
• Types of Nanotechnology: The many types of nanotechnology are divided into two categories
based on how
they work (top-down or bottom- up) and the medium in which they work (dry or wet):
o Descending (top-down): At the nanometric scale, which ranges from one to 100 nanometres in
size,
mechanisms and structures are miniaturized. It is the most common to date, particularly in the
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electronics industry.
o Ascending (bottom-up): You start with a nanometric structure — a molecule, for example — and
build
a larger mechanism by a mounting or self-assembly process.
o Dry nanotechnology entails the use of nanoparticles in a dry state. It’s used to make structures
that don’t
work with humidity out of coal, silicon, inorganic materials, metals, and semiconductors.
o Wet nanotechnology is based on biological systems found in water, such as genetic material,
membranes,
enzymes, and other cellular components.

NANOMATERIALS
• Particles with particle size less than 100 nm are called nanoparticles.

Types of Nanoparticles
1. Carbon Based: It includes Graphene and other carbon based products.
2. Metal based: The main component of these nanomaterials are metals. They include Nano silver
and metal
oxides.
GRAPHENE
• Carbon atoms are organized in a honeycomb-like arrangement on a one-atom-thick sheet of
graphene.
Graphene is thought to be the world’s thinnest, strongest, and most electrically and thermally
conductive
substance.
• Graphene is the world’s strongest substance, and it can be used to make other materials stronger.
• Graphene is the most heat conducting material ever discovered. Because graphene is both strong
and light,
it’s an excellent material for heat-spreading applications like heat sinks and heat dissipation films.
• Graphene is a promising material for use in batteries and supercapacitors because of its
extraordinarily high
surface- area-to-volume ratio.
6.6. CARBON NANOTUBES
• Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylinder-shaped molecules made up of rolled-up single-layer
carbon atom
sheets (graphene).
• Single-walled nanotubes (SWCNT) have a diameter of less than 1 nanometer (nm), while multi-
walled
nanotubes (MWCNT) have diameters of more than 100 nm and are made up of multiple
concentrically
interconnected nanotubes. Their length might range from a few micrometers to millimeters.
• Applications of Nanotechnology: It can be used in diverse fields like Health sector, Space
technology,
Agriculture field, Environment and economy.
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. LASER TECHNOLOGY
• In 1960, Theodore H. Maiman of Hughes Research Laboratories created the first practical laser.
• LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is a device that stimulates
electronic
or molecular transitions to lower energy levels to produce an intense, coherent, directional beam of
light.
• A laser, unlike a regular light source, creates a narrow beam of extremely brilliant light.

The Properties Of Laser Light Are As Follows

• It is homochromatic because it includes only one wavelength of light (one specific colour). The
amount
of energy released when an electron falls to a lower orbit determines the wavelength.
• Coherent: This means that the emitted light waves are in phase with one another, and that they
move in
a straight line without dispersing over large distances. Light from typical light sources, such as an
incandescent bulb, on the other hand, diffuses in all directions. Laser Light is a directional beam
that is
exceedingly tight, strong, and concentrated.
LiDAR:
• It’s a remote sensing technique that uses pulsed laser light to measure ranges (varying distances)
to
the Earth.
• A lidar instrument is made up of three parts: a laser, a scanner, and a specialized GPS receiver.
• The most frequent platforms for collecting lidar data over large areas are planes and helicopters.
• LiDAR works on the basis of a basic principle: shoot laser light at an object on the ground and
calculate
how long it takes for the light to return to the LiDAR source.
• Given the speed of light (about 186,000 miles per second), the process of measuring the exact
distance
using LiDAR looks to be extremely quick.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY
BASICS OF THE CHEMISTRY
3.2.1 State of Matters:
• Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter.
• Conventionally matter can exist in three physical states viz. solid, liquid and gas.
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3.2.2 Solid:
• Particles are held very close to each other in solids in an orderly fashion and there is not much
freedom
of movement.
• Solids have definite volume and definite shape.
3.2.3 Liquids:
• In liquids, the particles are close to each other but they can move around.
• Liquids have definite volume but do not have definite shape.
3.2.4 Gasses:
• In gasses, the particles are far apart as compared to those present in solid or liquid states and their
movement is easy and fast.
• Gasses have neither definite volume nor definite shape.
• On heating, a solid usually changes to a liquid, and the liquid on further heating changes to gas (or
vapour). In the reverse process, a gas on cooling liquifies to the liquid and the liquid on further
cooling
freezes to the solid.

5th state of matter (Bose Einstein Condensates)

• Albert Einstein and Indian scientist Satyendra Nath Bose proposed the existence of a Bose-
Einstein
condensate almost a century ago.
• When atoms of certain elements are chilled to temperatures approaching absolute zero, an
unusual
substance emerges.
• Clusters of atoms begin to behave as a single quantum object with both wave and particle qualities
at that
moment. BECs are highly fragile, and even the tiniest interaction with the outside world can cause
them to overheat
and condense.

4th state of Matter

• Plasma, the fourth state of matter, is an ionized gas consisting of approximately equal numbers of
positively and negatively charged particles.

METALS
• More than 75% of the known elements have the characteristic properties of metals.
• The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires is called ductility. Gold is the most ductile metal.
Thus, metals
can be given different shapes according to our needs.
• The metals that produce a sound on striking a hard surface are said to be sonorous.
• They are Good conductors of Electricity.
• Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides. Different metals show different
reactivities
towards oxygen.
o Ex: Potassium and sodium react so vigorously that they catch fire if kept in the open. Hence, to
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protect
them and to prevent accidental fires, they are kept immersed in kerosene oil.
• At ordinary temperature, the surfaces of metals such as magnesium, aluminum, zinc, lead, etc., are
covered
with a thin layer of oxide. The protective oxide layer prevents the metal from further oxidation.
• All metals do not react with water. Metals like potassium and sodium react violently with cold
water.
• Magnesium does not react with cold water. It reacts with hot water to form magnesium hydroxide
and
hydrogen.
• Mercury is the only metal which is found in liquid state at room temperature.

Difference between Mass and Weight

• Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it, while weight is the force exerted by
gravity on
an object.
• The mass of a substance is constant, whereas its weight may vary from one place to another due to
change
in gravity.

BASICS OF METALLURGY
• Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical
Metallurgy is a term that refers to the process of extracting metals in their purest form.
• Minerals are metal compounds that are mixed with soil, limestone, sand and rocks.
• Metals are mined commercially from minerals at a low cost and with little effort.
• Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large amounts of impurities such as soil,
sand, etc.,
called gangue.
• The impurities must be removed from the ore prior to the extraction of the metal.
• The metals produced by metallurgy are not very pure. They contain impurities, which must be
removed to
obtain pure metals.
• The most widely used method for refining impure metals is electrolytic refining

Electrolytic Refining
• Many metals, such as copper, zinc, tin, nickel, silver, gold, etc., are refined electrolytically.
In this process, the impure metal is made the anode and a thin strip of pure metal is made the
cathode. A
solution of the metal salt is used as an electrolyte.
• The soluble impurities go into the solution, whereas, the insoluble impurities settle down at the
bottom of
the anode and are known as anode mud.
3.5.NON METALS
• Materials like coal and sulphur are soft and dull in appearance. They break down into a powdery
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mass on
tapping with a hammer.
• They are not sonorous and are poor conductors of heat
• and electricity. These materials are called non-metals.
• Non-metals generally do not react with acids.
• Non Metals generally do not conduct electricity. But in exceptional cases it can conduct electricity.
3.5.1 Corrosion and Rusting:
• Corrosion is the process by which certain materials, metals and non-metals, deteriorate as a result
of
oxidation.
• The most important form of corrosion is the rusting of
• iron and steel.
• Rusting is a process of oxidation in which iron combines with water and oxygen to form rust, the
reddish-brown crust that forms on the surface of the iron.
• The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting, oiling, greasing, galvanising, chrome plating,
anodising or making alloys.
• Galvanisation is a method of protecting steel and iron from rusting by coating them with a thin
layer
of zinc.
• The galvanized article is protected against rusting even if the zinc coating is broken.
• Although metals like aluminum, chromium and zinc corrode more readily than iron, their oxides
form
a coating that protects the metal from further attack.
3.5.2 Anodising:
• Anodising is a process of forming a thick oxide layer of aluminum. Aluminum develops a thin oxide
layer
when exposed to air. This aluminum oxide coat makes it resistant to further corrosion.
3.5.3 Aqua regia:
• Aqua regia is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and concentrated
nitric acid
in the ratio of 3:1.
• It can dissolve gold, even though neither of these acids can do so alone.
• Aqua regia is a highly corrosive, fuming liquid. It is one of the few reagents that is able to dissolve
gold
and platinum.
Pure gold, known as 24 carat gold, is very soft. It is, therefore, not suitable for making jewellery. It is
alloyed
with either silver or copper to make it hard. Generally, in India, 22 carat gold is used for making
ornaments.
It means that 22 parts of pure gold are alloyed with 2 parts of either copper or silver.
.DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOUND
• Compounds are defined as substances containing two or more different chemical elements. They
have
distinct chemical structures characterized by a fixed ratio of atoms held together by chemical
bonds.
• Covalent Compounds: Covalent or molecular compounds form when elements share electrons in
a covalent
bond to form molecules. Molecular compounds are electrically neutral.
• Ionic compounds: Ionic compounds are compounds composed of ions, charged particles that form
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when an
atom (or group of atoms, in the case of polyatomic ions) gains or loses electrons.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Chemical reactions involve the breaking and making of bonds between atoms to produce new
substances.
Figure 3.7: Chemical Reactions
• A combination reaction is a reaction in which two reactants combine to form one product.
• Decomposition Reactions: Decomposition reactions are those in which one compound breaks
down (or
decomposes) to form two or more products.
• Displacement Reactions: Displacement reactions are those in which an element reacts with a
compound to
form a new compound.
• Double Displacement Reaction: reactions in which there is an exchange of ions between the
reactants are
called double displacement reactions.
• Oxidation and Reduction: one reactant gets oxidised while the other gets reduced during a
reaction. Such
reactions are called oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reactions.
• Exchange Reactions: Exchange reactions are those in which cations and anions that were partners
in the
reactants are interchanged in the products.In exchange reactions, the products must remain
electrically
neutral.

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

3.8.1 Acids:
• An acid is a substance which furnishes hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. For example,
in its
aqueous solution hydrochloric HCl (aq) dissociates as: HCl (aq) 🠆 H + (aq) + Cl–(aq)
3.8.2 Base:
• A base is a substance which furnishes hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water. For example,
sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq), in its aqueous solutions, dissociates as: NaOH (aq) 🠆 Na + (aq) + OH
–
(aq)
Salts:
• Salts are ionic compounds made of a cation other than H + ion and an anion other than OH– ion.
o Acids react with metal oxides to produce salt and water.
o Bases react with non-metal oxides to produce salt and water

Some Commonly Used Salts:

• Baking soda: Baking soda, also known as sodium bicarbonate or bicarbonate of soda, is a popular
baking ingredient. It gives foods like bread, cakes, muffins and cookies a light, fluffy texture.
• Washing soda: Washing soda is used for washing clothes. It is mainly because of this chemical that
the
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clothes washed by a washer man appear so white. Chemically, washing soda is sodium carbonate
decahydrate.
• Bleaching Powder: Bleaching is a process of removing colour from a cloth to make it whiter.
Bleaching
powder has been used for this purpose for a long time. Chemically, it is calcium oxychloride.
• Plaster of Paris: These are made of plaster of paris, also called POP. The only difference between
gypsum
and plaster of paris is in the less amount of water of crystallization.

DRUGS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

• Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses (~100 – 500u). These interact with macromolecular
targets
and produce a biological response.
• When the biological response is therapeutic and useful, these chemicals are called medicines and
are used in
diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases.
3.9.1 Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs:
• Antacids: Antacids are medicines that counteract (neutralize) the acid in your stomach to relieve
indigestion and heartburn. Example: Ranitidine
• Antihistamines: Antihistamines are a class of drugs commonly used to treat symptoms of allergies.
Example: Synthetic drugs, brompheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine (Seldane), act as
antihistamines.
• Neurologically Active Drugs: Tranquilizers and analgesics are neurologically active drugs. These
affect
the message transfer mechanism from nerve to receptor.
o Tranquilizers are a class of chemical compounds used for the treatment of stress, and mild or
even
severe mental diseases. E.g. Sleeping Pills
o Equanil is used in controlling depression and hypertension.
• Analgesics: Analgesics reduce or abolish pain without causing impairment of consciousness,
mental
confusion, incoordination or paralysis or some other disturbances of the nervous system. These are
classified as follows:
1. Non-narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics: Aspirin and paracetamol belong to the class of non
narcotic analgesics. Aspirin is the most familiar example.
2. Narcotic drugs: Morphine and many of its homologues, when administered in medicinal doses,
relieve pain and produce sleep.
• Antimicrobials: An antimicrobial tends to destroy/prevent development or inhibit the pathogenic
action of microbes such as bacteria (antibacterial drugs), fungi (antifungal agents), virus (antiviral
agents), or other parasites (antiparasitic drugs) selectively.
• Antibiotics: Antibiotics are used as drugs to treat infections because of their low toxicity for
humans and
animals.
o An antibiotic now refers to a substance produced wholly or partly by chemical synthesis, which in
low concentrations inhibits the growth or destroys microorganisms by intervening in their
metabolic
processes.
o Antibiotics have either a cidal (killing) effect or a static (inhibitory) effect on microbes. A few
examples of the two types of antibiotics are as follows:
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1. Bactericidal: Penicillin and

2. Bacteriostatic: Erythromycin
• Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Antiseptics and disinfectants are also the chemicals which either kill
or
prevent the growth of microorganisms.
o Antiseptics are applied to the living tissues such as wounds, cuts, ulcers and diseased skin
surfaces.
Examples are furacine, soframicine, etc.Commonly used antiseptic, dettol is a mixture of
chloroxylenol and terpineol
o Disinfectants are applied to inanimate objects such as floors, drainage system, instruments, etc.
Same substances can act as an antiseptic as well as disinfectant by varying the concentration. For
example, 0.2 per cent solution of phenol is an antiseptic while its one percent solution is
disinfectant.
• Antifertility drugs: Birth control pills essentially contain a mixture of synthetic estrogen and
progesterone derivatives.
o Both of these compounds are hormones. It is known that progesterone suppresses ovulation.
o Synthetic progesterone derivatives are more potent than progesterone. Norethindrone is an
example
of synthetic progesterone derivative most widely used as an antifertility drug.
3.10. CHEMICALS IN THE FOOD
• Chemicals are added to food for their preservation, enhancing their appeal, and adding nutritive
value in
them. Example: Food colours.
3.10.1 Artificial Sweetening Agents:
• Natural sweeteners, e.g., sucrose add to calorie intake and therefore many people prefer to use
artificial
sweeteners.
o Ortho-sulfabenzamide, also called saccharin, is the first popular artificial sweetening agent.
o Aspartame is the most successful and widely used artificial sweetener. It is roughly 100 times as
sweet as cane sugar.
• Food Preservatives: Food preservatives prevent spoilage of food due to microbial growth. The
most
commonly used preservatives include table salt, sugar, vegetable oils and sodium benzoate.
3.11. POLYMERS
• The word polymer is coined from two Greek words: poly means many and mer means unit or part.
The
term polymer is defined as very large molecules having high molecular mass (103 -107u).
• The process of formation of polymers from respective monomers is called polymerisation.
• One of the common classifications of polymers is based on the source from which the polymer is
derived.
Under this type of classification, there are three sub categories:
• Natural polymers: These polymers are found in plants and animals. Examples are proteins,
cellulose,
starch, some resins and rubber.

Rubber is a natural polymer and possesses elastic properties. It is also termed as elastomeric
polymer.
o In elastomeric polymers, the polymer chains are held together by the weak intermolecular forces.
o These weak binding forces permit the polymer to be stretched.
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• Semi-synthetic polymers: Cellulose derivatives as cellulose acetate (rayon) and cellulose nitrate,
etc.
are the usual examples of this sub category.
• Synthetic polymers: A variety of synthetic polymers such as plastic (polythene), synthetic fibers
(nylon
6,6) and synthetic rubbers (Buna -S) are examples of man-made polymers extensively used in daily
life
as well as in industry.
• Polythene: Polythenes are linear or slightly branched long chain molecules.
Low density polythene: It is obtained by the polymerisation of ethene under high pressure of 1000
to 2000 atmospheres at a temperature of 350 K to 570 K in the presence of traces of dioxygen or
a peroxide. Low density polythene is chemically inert and tough but flexible and a poor conductor
of
electricity.
o High density polythene: It is formed when addition polymerisation of ethene takes place in a
hydrocarbon solvent in the presence of a catalyst such as triethyl aluminum and titanium
tetrachloride at a temperature of 333 K to 343 K and under a pressure of 6-7 atmospheres. High
density polymers are also chemically inert and more tough and hard. It is used for manufacturing
buckets, dustbins, bottles, pipes, etc.
Biodegradable Polymers
• These polymers contain functional groups similar to the functional groups present in biopolymers.
• Aliphatic polyesters are one of the important classes of biodegradable polymers.