Science and Technology in

Ancient India
Indian mathematics
Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent[1] in 1200 BCE[2] . In the classical period of Indian
mathematics (400 CE to 1200 CE), important contributions were made by scholars
like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara II, and Varāhamihira. Indian mathematicians made early contributions
to the study of the concept of zero as a number,[5] negative numbers,[6] arithmetic, and algebra.[7]  These
mathematical concepts were transmitted to the Middle East and Europe [7] .
Ancient Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of a section of sutras in which a
set of rules were stated with ease in order to aid memorization by a student. This was followed by a second
section consisting of a prose commentary that explained the problem in more detail and provided justification
for the solution. [10] All mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE; thereafter, they
were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form.

Indus Valley Civilization

Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and other sites of the Indus Valley civilisation have uncovered evidence
of the use of "practical mathematics". The people of the Indus Valley Civilization manufactured bricks whose
dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favourable for the stability of a brick structure. They used a
standardised system of weights based on the ratios: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500,
with the unit weight equaling approximately 28 grams. They mass-produced weights in
regular geometrical shapes, which included hexahedra, barrels, cones, and cylinders, thereby demonstrating
knowledge of basic geometry.[18]
The inhabitants of Indus civilisation also tried to standardise measurement of length to a high degree of
accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length was divided into ten equal
parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this
unit of length.[19][20]

Vedic period[edit]
The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large numbers. By the time of
the Yajurvedasaṃhitā- (1200–900 BCE), numbers as high as 1012 were being included in the texts.[2] For
example, the mantra at the end of the annahoma performed during the aśvamedha, and uttered just before-,
during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a hundred to a trillion.
.
The Satapatha Brahmana (c. 7th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions.[22]

Jain mathematics (400 BCE – 200 CE)[edit]

Although Jainism as a religion and philosophy predates its most famous exponent, the
great Mahavira (6th century BCE), most Jain texts on mathematical topics were composed only
after the 6th century BCE. Jain mathematics is important historically as a crucial link between
the mathematics of the Vedic period and that of the classical period.
A significant historical contribution of Jain mathematicians was that they freed Indian
mathematics from its religious and ritualistic constraints. In particular, their fascination with the
enumeration of very large numbers and infinities led them to classify numbers into three classes:
enumerable, innumerable and infinite. Not content with a simple notion of infinity, their texts
define five different types of infinity: the infinite in one direction, the infinite in two directions, the
infinite in area, the infinite everywhere, and the infinite perpetually. Jain mathematicians were
apparently also the first to use the word shunya (literally void in Sanskrit) to refer to zero.
Important Jain works on mathematics included the Sthananga Sutra (c. 300 BCE – 200 CE);
the Anuyogadwara Sutra (c. 200 BCE – 100 CE), and the Satkhandagama (c. 2nd century CE).
Important Jain mathematicians include Bhadrabahu (d. 298 BCE),  Yativrisham Acharya (c. 176
BCE), and Umasvati (c. 150 BCE).

Oral tradition[edit]
Mathematicians of ancient India were almost all Sanskrit pandits ,[41] who were trained in Sanskrit
language and literature, and possessed a common stock of knowledge in vyākaraṇa,   mīmāṃsā
and nyāya. [41] Memorisation of what is heard through recitation played a major role in the
transmission of mathematical texts in ancient India.

The Sutra genre[edit]
Mathematical activity in ancient India began as a part of a "methodological reflexion" on the
sacred Vedas, which took the form of works called Vedāṇgas.
[45]
  śikṣā (phonetics), chhandas (metrics),vyākaraṇa (grammar), nirukta (etymology)
kalpa (ritual)and jyotiṣa (astrology), were the six disciplines of the Vedāṇgas.[45] Mathematics
arose as a part of the last two disciplines, ritual and astronomy. Since the Vedāṇgas immediately
preceded the use of writing in ancient India, they formed the last of the exclusively oral literature.
They were expressed in a highly compressed mnemonic form, the sūtra (literally, "thread"):
Extreme brevity was achieved in Sutras through multiple means, which included
using ellipsis , using technical names instead of longer descriptive names, shortening lists by only
mentioning the first and last entries, and using markers and variables.[45] 

The written tradition: prose commentary[edit]

With the increasing complexity of mathematics, both writing and computation were required.
Consequently, many mathematical works began to be written down in manuscripts that were then
copied and re-copied from generation to generation.
The earliest mathematical prose commentary was that on the work, Āryabhaṭīya (written 499 CE).
The Āryabhaṭīya was composed of 33 sūtras .[49]  From the time of Bhaskara I (600 CE onwards),
prose commentaries increasingly began to include some derivations. Bhaskara I's commentary
on the Āryabhaṭīya, had the following structure:[49]

 Sūtra in verse by Āryabhaṭa

 Commentary by Bhāskara I, consisting of:
o Elucidation of Sutra
o Example usually in verse.
o Setting  of the numerical data.
o Working  of the solution.
o Verification of the answer. These became rare by the 13th century, derivations being
favoured by then.[49]
Typically, for any mathematical topic, students in ancient India first memorised the sūtras, which,
were "deliberately inadequate"[48] in explanatory details. The students then worked through the
topics of the prose commentary by writing them on chalk- and dust-boards.
Numerals and the decimal number system[edit]
It is well known that the decimal place-value system in use today was first recorded in India, then
transmitted to the Islamic world, and eventually to Europe.[51] The Syrian bishop Severus
Sebokht wrote in the mid-7th century CE about the "nine signs" of the Indians for expressing
numbers.[51] However, how, when, and where the first decimal place value system was invented is
not so clear.[52]
The earliest surviving evidence of decimal place value numerals in India is from the middle of the
first millennium CE.[54] A copper plate from Gujarat mentions the date 595 CE, written in a decimal
place value notation, although there is some doubt as to the authenticity of the plate.
There are older textual sources.[55] Probably the earliest such source is the work of the Buddhist
philosopher Vasumitra dated likely to the 1st century CE.[55]  A decimal representation was
employed in a verse composition technique, later labelled Bhuta-sankhya (literally, "object
numbers") used by early Sanskrit authors of technical books.[56]  The earliest reference employing
object numbers is a c. 269 CE Sanskrit text, Yavanajātaka of Sphujidhvaja.[57] Such use seems to
make the case that by the mid-3rd century CE, the decimal place value system was familiar, at
least to readers of astronomical and astrological texts in India.[56]

Classical period (400–1200)[edit]

This period is often known as the golden age of Indian Mathematics. This period saw
mathematicians such as Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara I and Bhaskara
II give broader and clearer shape to many branches of mathematics. The main texts were
composed in sutra form, and were followed by prose commentaries.[50]

Fifth and sixth centuries[edit]

Surya Siddhanta
Though its authorship is unknown, the Surya Siddhanta (c. 400) contains the roots of
modern trigonometry.[citation needed] Because it contains many words of foreign origin, some authors
consider that it was written under the influence of Mesopotamia and Greece.[66][better source needed]
This ancient text uses the following as trigonometric functions for the first time:[citation needed]

 Sine
 Cosine
 Inverse sine 

.
Later Indian mathematicians such as Aryabhata made references to this text, while
later Arabic and Latin translations were very influential in Europe and the Middle East.
Aryabhata I
Aryabhata (476–550) wrote the Aryabhatiya. He described the important fundamental principles
of mathematics in 332 shlokas.
Aryabhata's contributions include:

 Introduced the trigonometric functions.

 Defined the cosine

 . Solutions of simultaneous quadratic equations.

.

Varahamihira
Varahamihira (505–587) produced the Pancha Siddhanta . He made important contributions to
trigonometry, including sine and cosine tables to 4 decimal places of accuracy.

Seventh and eighth centuries[edit]

In the 7th century, two separate fields, arithmetic and algebra, began to emerge in Indian
mathematics. .[68] Brahmagupta devoted chapters 12 and 18 of his astronomical work Brāhma
Sphuṭa Siddhānta (628 CE), to these fields. Chapter 12, containing 66 Sanskrit verses, was
divided into two sections: "basic operations" and "practical mathematics". In the latter section, he
stated his famous theorem on the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral.
Bhaskara I
Bhaskara I (c. 600–680) expanded the work of
Aryabhata in his books
titled Mahabhaskariya, Aryabhatiya-bhashya and Laghu
-bhaskariya. He produced:

 Solutions of indeterminate equations.

 A rational approximation of the sine function.
 A formula for calculating the sine of an acute angle
without the use of a table, correct to two decimal
places.

Ninth to twelfth centuries[edit]

Aryabhata II
Aryabhata II (c. 920–1000) wrote an
astronomical treatise Maha-Siddhanta. The
Maha-Siddhanta has 18 chapters, and
discusses:

 Numerical mathematics
 Algebra.
 Solutions of indeterminate equations
Bhaskara II
Bhāskara II (1114–1185) was a
mathematician-astronomer who wrote a
number of important treatises, namely
the Siddhanta
Shiromani, Lilavati, Bijaganita, Gola
Addhaya, Griha Ganitam and Karan Kautoohal.
His contributions include:

 Interest computation
 Plane geometry
 Nth root
Indian astronomy
Astronomy has long history in Indian subcontinent stretching from pre-historic to modern times. Some of the
earliest roots of Indian astronomy can be dated to the period of Indus Valley civilisation or earlier.[1]
[2]
 Astronomy later developed as a discipline of Vedanga.[4] The oldest known text is the Vedanga Jyotisha,
dated to 1400–1200 BCE.[5]
Indian astronomy flowered in the 5th–6th century, with Aryabhata, whose work, Aryabhatiya, represented the
pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time. The Aryabhatiya is composed of four sections, covering topics
such as units of time, methods for determining the positions of planets, the cause of day and night, and several
other cosmological concepts.[10] Later the Indian astronomy significantly influenced Muslim astronomy, Chinese
astronomy, European astronomy,[11] and others. Other astronomers of the classical era who further elaborated
on Aryabhata's work include Brahmagupta, Varahamihira and Lalla.

History[edit]
Some of the earliest forms of astronomy can be dated to the period of Indus Valley civilisation, or earlier.[1]
[2]
 Some cosmological concepts are present in the Vedas, as are notions of the movement of heavenly bodies
and the course of the year.[3]  Rig Veda describes time as a wheel with 12 parts and 360 spokes (days), with a
remainder of 5, making reference to the solar calendar.[12] As in other traditions, there is a close association
of astronomy and religion during the early history of the science, astronomical observation being necessitated
by spatial and temporal requirements of correct performance of religious ritual. Thus, the Shulba Sutras, texts
dedicated to altar construction, discusses advanced mathematics and basic astronomy.[13] Vedanga Jyotisha is
another of the earliest known Indian texts on astronomy,[14] it includes the details about the Sun,
Moon, nakshatras, lunisolar calendar.[15][16]  Later astronomers mention the existence of
various siddhantas during this period, among them a text known as the Surya Siddhanta. These were not fixed
texts but rather an oral tradition of knowledge, and their content is not extant. The text today known as Surya
Siddhanta dates to the Gupta period and was received by Aryabhata.
The classical era of Indian astronomy begins in the late Gupta era, in the 5th to 6th centuries.
The Pañcasiddhāntikā by Varāhamihira (505 CE) approximates the method for determination of the meridian
direction from any three positions of the shadow using a gnomon.[13] By the time of Aryabhata the motion of
planets was treated to be elliptical rather than circular.[18] Other topics included definitions of different units of
time, eccentric models of planetary motion, epicyclic models of planetary motion, and planetary longitude
corrections for various terrestrial locations.[18]

Calendars[edit]
Further information: Hindu calendar

See also: Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar

The divisions of the year were on the basis of religious rites and seasons (Rtu).[19] The duration from mid March
—mid May was taken to be spring (vasanta), mid May—mid July: summer (grishma), mid July—mid
September: rains (varsha), mid September—mid November: autumn (sharad), mid November—mid January:
winter (hemanta), mid January—mid March: the dews (shishir).[19]
In the Vedānga Jyotiṣa, the year begins with the winter solstice.[20] Hindu calendars have several eras:

 The Hindu calendar, counting from the start of the Kali Yuga, has its epoch on 23 January 3102 BCE.
 The Vikram Samvat calendar, introduced about the 12th century, counts from 56 to 57 BCE.
 The "Saka Era", used in some Hindu calendars and in the Indian national calendar, has its epoch near the
vernal equinox of year 78.
 The Saptarishi calendar traditionally has its epoch at 3076 BCE.[21]
Astronomers[edit]

Name Year Contributions

The earliest astronomical text—named Vedānga Jyotiṣa details several astronomical

attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events.[22] The Vedānga
1st
Jyotiṣa also details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules
Lagadha millennium
for empirical observation.[22] Since the texts written by 1200 BCE were largely religious
BCE
compositions the Vedānga Jyotiṣa has connections with Indian astrology and details
several important aspects of the time and seasons.

Āryabhaṭa was the author of the Āryabhatīya and the Āryabhaṭasiddhānta. Aryabhata

explicitly mentioned that the Earth rotates about its axis, thereby causing what appears
476–550
Āryabhaṭa to be an apparent westward motion of the stars.[18] In his book, Aryabhata, he suggested
CE
that the Earth was sphere, containing a circumference of 39,967 km.[24] Aryabhata also
mentioned that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the Moon.

Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta dealt with both Indian mathematics and

astronomy. In Khandakhadyaka  Brahmagupta reinforced Aryabhata's idea of another
Brahmagupt 598–668 day beginning at midnight.[25] Brahmagupta also calculated the instantaneous motion of a
a CE planet, gave correct equations for parallax, and some information related to the
computation of eclipses.[3]  He also theorized that all bodies with mass are attracted to
the earth.[26]

Varāhamihira was an astronomer and mathematician who studied Indian astronomy as

Varāhamihira 505 CE well as the many principles of Greek, Egyptian, and Roman astronomical sciences.
[27]
 His Pañcasiddhāntikā is a treatise drawing from several knowledge systems.[27]

Authored the astronomical works Mahābhāskariya , Laghubhaskariya , and

Bhāskara I 629 CE the Aryabhatiyabhashya (629 CE)—a commentary on the Āryabhatīya written by
Aryabhata.[28]  

Author of the Śiṣyadhīvṛddhida , which corrects several assumptions of Āryabhaṭa.

[29]
 The Śisyadhīvrddhida of Lalla itself is divided into two
parts:Grahādhyāya and Golādhyāya.[29] Grahādhyāya (Chapter I-XIII) deals with
planetary calculations, determination of the mean and true planets, three problems
8th century
Lalla pertaining to diurnal motion of Earth, eclipses, rising and setting of the planets, and
CE
complementary situations of the Sun and the Moon.[29] The second part—
titled Golādhyāya (chapter XIV–XXII)—deals with graphical representation of planetary
motion, astronomical instruments, spherics, and emphasizes on corrections and
rejection of flawed principles.[29] 
 Authored Siddhāntaśiromaṇi and Karaṇakutūhala  and reported on his observations of
planetary positions, conjunctions, eclipses, cosmography, geography, mathematics, and
Bhāskara II 1114 CE
astronomical equipment used in his research at the observatory in Ujjain, which he
headed[31]

Śrīpati was an astronomer and mathematician who followed the Brahmagupta school
Śrīpati 1045 CE and authored the Siddhāntaśekhara in 20 chapters, thereby introducing several new
concepts, including Moon's second inequality.[3][32]

Instruments used[edit]
Among the devices used for astronomy was gnomon, known as Sanku, in which the shadow of a vertical rod is
applied on a horizontal plane in order to ascertain the cardinal directions, the latitude of the point of
observation, and the time of observation.[39]  The Cross-staff, known as Yasti-yantra, was used by the time
of Bhaskara II (1114–1185 CE).[39] This device could vary from a simple stick to V-shaped staffs designed
specifically for determining angles with the help of a calibrated scale.[39] The clepsydra (Ghatī-yantra) was used
in India for astronomical purposes until recent times.[39] 
The armillary sphere was used for observation in India since early times, and finds mention in the works of
Āryabhata (476 CE).[40]   An instrument invented by the mathematician and astronomer Bhaskara II (1114–1185
CE) consisted of a rectangular board with a pin and an index arm.[39] This device—called the Phalaka-yantra—
was used to determine time from the sun's altitude.[39] The Kapālayantra was an equatorial sundial instrument
used to determine the sun's azimuth.[39] Kartarī-yantra combined two semicircular board instruments to give rise
to a 'scissors instrument'.[39] Introduced from the Islamic world and first finding mention in the works
of Mahendra Sūri—the court astronomer of Firuz Shah Tughluq (1309–1388 CE)—the astrolabe was further
mentioned by Padmanābha (1423 CE) and Rāmacandra (1428 CE) as its use grew in India.[39]
Invented by Padmanābha, a nocturnal polar rotation instrument consisted of a rectangular board with a slit and
a set of pointers with concentric graduated circles.[39] Time and other astronomical quantities could be
calculated by adjusting the slit to the directions of α and β Ursa Minor.

International discourse[edit]
Indian and Greek astronomy[edit]
According to David Pingree, there are a number of Indian astronomical texts that are dated to the sixth century
CE or later with a high degree of certainty. There is substantial similarity between these and pre-Ptolemaic
Greek astronomy.[42] Pingree believes that these similarities suggest a Greek origin for certain aspects of Indian
astronomy. One of the direct proofs for this approach is the fact quoted that many Sanskrit words related to
astronomy, astrology and calendar are either direct phonetical borrowings from the Greek language, or
translations, assuming complex ideas, like the names of the days of the week which presuppose a relation
between those days, planets and gods.[citation needed]
With the rise of Greek culture in the east, Hellenistic astronomy filtered eastwards to India, where it profoundly
influenced the local astronomical tradition.[6][7][8][9][43] For example, Hellenistic astronomy is known to have been
practised near India in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai-Khanoum from the 3rd century BCE. Various sun-dials,
including an equatorial sundial adjusted to the latitude of Ujjain have been found in archaeological excavations
there.[44] Numerous interactions with the Mauryan Empire, and the later expansion of the Indo-Greeks into India
suggest that transmission of Greek astronomical ideas to India occurred during this period.[45] The Greek
concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets, further influenced the astronomers
like Varahamihira and Brahmagupta.[43][46]
Several Greco-Roman astrological treatises are also known to have been exported to India during the first few
centuries of our era. The Yavanajataka is a Sanskrit text of the 3rd century CE on Greek horoscopy and
mathematical astronomy.
Later in the 6th century, the Romaka Siddhanta , and the Paulisa Siddhanta  were considered as two of the five
main astrological treatises, which were compiled by Varāhamihira in his Pañca-siddhāntikā , a compendium of
Greek, Egyptian, Roman and Indian astronomy.[48] 

measurement systems
The history of measurement systems in India begins in early Indus Valley civilisation with the earliest
surviving samples dated to the 5th millennium BCE.[1] Since early times the adoption of standard weights and
measures has reflected in the country's architectural, folk, and metallurgical artifacts.[1] A complex system of
weights and measures was adopted by the Maurya empire (322–185 BCE), which also formulated regulations
for the usage of this system.

Early history[edit]
See also: Hindu units of time

Standard weights and measures were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization.[1] The centralised weight and
measure system served the commercial interest of Indus merchants as smaller weight measures were used to
measure luxury goods while larger weights were employed for buying bulkier items.[5] Weights existed in
multiples of a standard weight and in categories.[5] Technical standardisation enabled gauging devices to be
effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction.[6] Uniform units of length were
used in the planning of towns such as Lothal, Surkotada, Kalibangan, Dolavira, Harappa, and Mohenjo-daro.
[1]
 The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were
further modified.[7] 
Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilisation prior to 1500 BCE.[8] Excavations at Lothal
1
(2400 BCE) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about  ⁄16 inch (1.6 mm). The Indus civilisation
constructed pan balances made of copper, bronze, and ceramics.[1]  A number of excavated surveying
instruments and measuring rods have yielded evidence of early cartographic activity.[10]
Weights and measures are mentioned throughout the religious and secular works of the Vedic period in India.
[11]
 Some sources that mention various units of measurement are Satapatha Brahmana, Apastamba Sutra, and
the Eight Chapters of the grammarian Pāṇini.[11] Indian astronomers kept a pañchānga for calculations
of tithi (lunar day), vāra (weekday), naksatra (asterism), and karan (half lunar day) for social and religious
events.[12] 

Post Maha Janapadas period—High Middle Ages (400 BCE–1200 CE) [edit]
Steelyard balances—found in India since the 4th century BCE—have been excavated from the archaeological
sites of Gandhara and Amravati.[14] Evidence of a complex system of weights and measures existing in use for
multiple purposes under the central control of the Maurya administration (322–185 BCE) is found in
the Arthashastra.

Depiction of equal arm balances is found in the art of Ajanta cave (No. 17) in the Maharashtra state.[15] Beams
of steelyard balances have been unearthed from the 8th century CE archaeological sites at Sirpur and Arang.
[15]
 The research conducted by Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Bīrūn, an Islamic scholar who undertook
one of the first studies of India's traditions in his Tahriq-e-Hind, also reflect on the regular usage of the
steelyard in India.[

metallurgy
The history of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began prior to the 3rd millennium BCE.[1] Metals and
related concepts were mentioned in various early Vedic age texts. The Rigveda already uses
the Sanskrit term Ayas(आयस) (metal). The Indian cultural and commercial contacts with the Near East and
the Greco-Roman world enabled an exchange of metallurgic sciences.

Overview[edit]
Recent excavations in Middle Ganga Valley done by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari show iron working in India
may have begun as early as 1800 BCE.[4] Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka
Tila and Lahuradewa in the state of Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE -
1200 BCE. Sahi concluded that by the early 13th century BCE, iron smelting was definitely practiced on a
bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may well be placed as early as the
16th century BCE.[5]
The Black and Red Ware culture was another early Iron Age archaeological culture of the northern Indian
subcontinent. It is dated to roughly the 12th – 9th centuries BCE, and associated with the post-Rigvedic Vedic
civilization. Perhaps as early as 300 BCE, although certainly by 200 CE, high quality steel was being produced
in southern India by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique. The resulting high-carbon steel,
called fūlāḏ in Arabic and wootz by later Europeans, was exported throughout much of Asia and Europe.

Hindu, Buddhist, Jain and other texts[edit]

Rigveda[edit]
The Rig Veda refers to ayas, and also states that the Dasyus had Ayas. The references to Ayas in the Rig
Veda probably refer to bronze or copper rather than to iron.[6] Scholars like Bhargava[7] maintain that Rigved was
written in the Vedic state of Brahmavarta and Khetri Copper mines formed an important location in
Brahmavarta. Vedic people had used Copper extensively in agriculture, Water purification, tools, utensils etc. 

Arthashastra[edit]
The Arthashastra lays down the role of the Director of Metals, the Director of Forest Produce and the Director
of Mining.[8] It is the duty of the Director of Metals to establish factories for different metals. The Director of
Mines is responsible for the inspection of mines.

Other texts[edit]
The Atharvaveda and the Shatapatha Brahmana refer to krsna ayas ("black metal"), which could be iron There
is also some controversy if the term syamayas ("black metal) refers to iron or not. In later texts the term refers
to iron. In earlier texts, it could possibly also refer to bronze, an alloy of copper and tin.[10][11]  [13]
The Yajurveda seems to know iron.[8] In the Taittiriya Samhita are references to ayas and at least one reference
to smiths.[8]  
In the Charaka Samhita an analogy occurs that probably refers to the lost wax technique.[14] The Silpasastras 
describe the lost wax technique in detail.[14]

The Silappadikaram says that copper-smiths were in Puhar and in Madurai. An influential Indian metallurgist

and alchemist was Nagarjuna (born 931). He wrote the treatise Rasaratnakara that deals with preparations
of rasa (mercury) compounds. It gives a survey of the status of metallurgy and alchemy in the land.

Archaeology[edit]
Chakrabarti (1976) has identified six early iron-using centres in India: Baluchistan, the Northwest, the Indo-
Gangetic divide and the upper Gangetic valley, eastern India, Malwa and Berar in central India and the
megalithic south India.[8] 

The earliest evidence for smelted iron in India dates to 1300 to 1000 BCE.[18] These early findings also occur in
places like the Deccan and the earliest evidence for smelted iron occurs in Central India, not in north-western
India.[19] Moreover, the dates for iron in India are not later than in those of Central Asia, and according to some
scholars the dates for smelted iron may actually be earlier in India than in Central Asia and Iran.[20] The Iron
Age did however not necessary imply a major social transformation.
Archaeological data suggests that India was an independent and early centre of iron technology. [22]  J.M.
Kenoyer (1995) also remarks that there is a long break in tin acquisition necessary for the production of tin
bronzes in the Indus Valley region, suggesting a lack of contact with Baluchistan and northern Afghanistan, or
the lack of migrants from the north-west who could have procured tin.

Indus Valley Civilization[edit]

The copper-bronze metallurgy in the Harappan civilization was widespread and had a high variety and quality.
[25]
 The early use of iron may have developed from the practice of copper-smelting.[26] While there is to date no
proven evidence for smelted iron in the Indus Valley civilization, iron ore and iron items have been unearthed in
eight Indus Valley sites, some of them dating to before 2600 BCE.[27] There remains the possibility that some of
these items were made of smelted iron, and the term "krsna ayas" might possibly also refer to these iron items,
even if they are not made of smelted iron.
Lothali copper is unusually pure, lacking the arsenic typically used by coppersmiths across the rest of the Indus
valley. Workers mixed tin with copper for the manufacture of celts, arrowheads, fishhooks, chisels, bangles,
rings, drills and spearheads, although weapon manufacturing was minor. They also employed advanced
metallurgy in following the cire perdue technique of casting, and used more than one-piece moulds for casting
birds and animals.[28] They also invented new tools such as curved saws and twisted drills unknown to other
civilizations at the time.[29]

Metals[edit]
Brass[edit]
Brass was used in Lothal and Atranjikhera in the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE.[30] Brass and probably zinc was
also found at Taxila in 4th to 3rd century BCE contexts.[31]

Copper[edit]
Copper technology may date back to the 4th millennium BCE in the Himalaya region.[15] It is the first element to
be discovered in metallurgy, Copper and its alloys were also used to create copper-bronze images such as
Buddhas or Hindu/Mahayana Buddhist deities.[14]  Other metal objects made by Indian artisans include lamps.
[33]
 Copper was also a component in the razors for the tonsure ceremony.[14]
One of the most important sources of history in the Indian subcontinent are the royal records of grants
engraved on copper-plate grants (tamra-shasan or tamra-patra). Because copper does not rust or decay, they
can survive indefinitely.

Gold and silver[edit]

The deepest gold mines of the Ancient world were found in the Maski region in Karnataka.[34] There were
ancient silver mines in northwest India. Dated to the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. gold and silver were
also used for making utensils for the royal family and nobilities.the royal family wore costly fabrics that were
made from gold and silver thin fibres embroidered or woven into fabrics or dress.

Iron[edit]
See also: Iron pillar of Delhi and Dhar iron pillar

Recent excavations in Middle Ganges Valley show iron working in India may have begun as early as 1800
BCE.[35] In the 5th century BCE, the Greek historian Herodotus observed that Indian and the Persian army
used arrows tipped with iron. [36] Ancient Romans used armour and cutlery made of Indian iron.  [36]  Quintus
Curtius wrote about an Indian present of steel to Alexander.[38] Ferrum indicum appeared in the list of articles
subject to duty under Marcus Aurelius and Commodus.[8] Indian Wootz steel was held in high regard in Europe,
and Indian iron was often considered to be the best.[39]
Wootz and steel[edit]
Main articles: Wootz steel and Damascus steel

The first form of crucible steel was wootz, developed in India some time around 300 BCE. In its production the
iron was mixed with glass and then slowly heated and then cooled. As the mixture cooled the glass would bond
to impurities in the steel and then float to the surface, leaving the steel considerably purer. Carbon could enter
the iron by diffusing in through the porous walls of the crucibles. Carbon dioxide would not react with the iron,
but the small amounts of carbon monoxide could, adding carbon to the mix with some level of control. Wootz
was widely exported throughout the Middle East, where it was combined with a local production technique
around 1000 CE to produce Damascus steel, famed throughout the world.[40] Wootz derives from the Tamil term
for steel urukku.[41] Indian wootz steel was the first high quality steel that was produced

Zinc[edit]
Zinc was extracted in India as early as in the 4th to 3rd century BCE. Zinc production may have begun in India,
and ancient northwestern India is the earliest known civilization that produced zinc on an industrial scale.[42] The
distillation technique was developed around 1200 CE at Zawar in Rajasthan.[30]
The Arthashastra describes the production of zinc.[45] The Rasaratnakara by Nagarjuna describes the
production of brass and zinc.[46] There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the Charaka Samhita (300
BCE). The Rasaratna Samuchaya (800 CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of
which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.[47] It also describes two
methods of zinc distillation.[31]

Ayurveda
Ayurveda (/ˌɑːjʊərˈveɪdə, -ˈviː-/)  is an alternative medicine system with historical roots
[1]

in the Indian subcontinent.  The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific.

[2] [3][4]

 Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population
[5]

report using it. [6][7][8]

Ayurveda therapies have varied and evolved over more than two millennia.  Therapies [2]

include herbal medicines, special diets, meditation, yoga, massage, laxatives, enemas,

and medical oils.  Ayurvedic preparations are typically based on complex herbal
[9][10]

compounds, minerals, and metal substances (perhaps under the influence of early
Indian alchemy or rasashastra). Ancient Ayurveda texts also taught surgical techniques,
including rhinoplasty, kidney stone extractions, sutures, and the extraction of foreign
objects. [11][12]

The main classical Ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of medical
knowledge from the gods to sages, and then to human physicians.  Printed editions of [13]

the Sushruta Samhita , frame the work as the teachings of Dhanvantari, Hindu god of

Ayurveda, incarnated as King Divodāsa of Varanasi, to a group of physicians, including
Sushruta.  The oldest manuscripts of the work, however, omit this frame, ascribing
[14][15]

the work directly to King Divodāsa.   Historical evidence for Ayurvedic texts,
[16]

terminology and concepts appears from the middle of the first millennium BCE onwards.
[18]

In Ayurveda texts, Dosha balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is

considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.  Ayurveda treatises describe three
[19]

elemental doshas viz. vāta, pitta and kapha, and state that balance (Skt. sāmyatva) of

the doshas results in health, while imbalance (viṣamatva) results in disease. Ayurveda
treatises divide medicine into eight canonical components. Ayurveda practitioners had
developed various medicinal preparations and surgical procedures from at least the
beginning of the common era. [20]

Etymology
The term Āyurveda is composed of two words, āyus, "life" or "longevity", and veda,
knowledge", translated as "knowledge of longevity"  or "knowledge of life and
[22][23]

longevity". [24]

History
Some scholars assert that the concepts of traditional Ayurvedic medicine have existed since the times of
the Indus Valley civilisation[135] but since the Indus script has not been deciphered, such assertions are moot.[22]: 
535–536 
 The Atharvaveda contains hymns and prayers aimed at curing disease. There are various legendary
accounts of the origin of Ayurveda, such as that it was received by Dhanvantari (or Divodasa) from Brahma.[15]
[37]
 Tradition also holds that the writings of Ayurveda were influenced by a lost text by the sage Agnivesha.[136]
Ayurveda is one of the few systems of medicine developed in ancient times that is still widely practiced in
modern times.[23] As such, it is open to the criticism that its conceptual basis is obsolete and that its
contemporary practitioners have not taken account of the developments in medicine.[137][138] Responses to this
situation led to an impassioned debate in India during the early decades of the twentieth century, between
proponents of unchanging tradition (śuddha "pure" Ayurveda) and those who thought Ayurveda should
modernize and syncretize (aśuddha "impure, tainted" Ayurveda).[139][140][141] The political debate about the place of
Ayurveda in contemporary India has continued to the present, both in the public arena and in government.
[142]
 Debate about the place of Ayurvedic medicine in the contemporary internationalized world also continues
today.[143][144]

Main texts
Many ancient works on Ayurvedic medicine are lost to posterity,[145] but manuscripts of three principal early texts
on Ayurveda have survived to the present day. These works are the Charaka Samhita, the Sushruta
Samhita and the Bhela Samhita. The dating of these works is historically complicated since they each internally
present themselves as composite works compiled by several editors.

Charaka
Charaka was one of the principal contributors to Ayurveda, a system of medicine and lifestyle developed in ancient
India. He is known as a physician who edited the medical treatise entitled Charaka Samhita, one of the foundational
texts of classical Indian medicine and Ayurveda, included under Brhat-Trayi.

Charaka Samhita
The Charaka Samhita is a Sanskrit text on Ayurveda .[1][2] Along with the Sushruta Samhita, it is one of the two
foundational texts of this field that have survived from ancient India.[3][4][5]  The text is based on the Agnivesha Samhitā,
an eighth century BCE encyclopedic medical compendium by Agniveśa. It was revised by Charaka between 100 BCE
and 200 CE and renamed Charaka Samhitā.
The pre-2nd century CE text consists of eight books and one hundred and twenty chapters.[6][7] It describes ancient
theories on human body, etiology, symptomology and therapeutics for a wide range of diseases.[8] The Charaka
Samhita also includes sections on the importance of diet, hygiene, prevention, medical education, and the teamwork
of a physician, nurse and patient necessary for recovery to health.[9][10][11]
Authorship[edit]
The Charaka Samhita states that the content of the book was first taught by Atreya, and then subsequently codified
by Agniveśa, revised by Charaka, and the manuscripts that survive into the modern era are based on one completed
by Dṛḍhabala.[14]  Based on textual analysis, and the literal meaning of the Sanskrit
word charak, Chattopadhyay speculated that charak does not refer to one person but multiple people.[16] Vishwakarma
and Goswami state that the text exists in many versions and entire chapters are missing in some versions.[17]

Date[edit]
Dates of composition of the Charaka Samhita are uncertain. Meulenbeld's History of Indian Medical Literature dates it
to be between fourth century BCE to the second century CE,[7] with Charaka's compilation likely between 100 BCE
and 200 CE.[18] The Dṛḍhabala revision and completion, the source of current texts, is dated to the 6th century CE.[19]

Roots[edit]
In Sanskrit, charak is a term for a wanderer, sannyasi (ascetic), and sometimes used in the context of the ancient
tradition of wandering physicians who brought their medical expertise and magico-religious rites from village to
village.[20][21]
Surendranath Dasgupta states that the medical tradition of wandering physicians are traceable to the Atharvaveda,
particularly the Caranavaidya shakha – one of the nine known shakha of Atharvaveda-based Vedic schools.[20] The
name of this school literally means "wandering physicians".[20] Their texts have not survived into the modern era, but
manuscripts from two competing schools – Paippalada and Saunakiya, have.[20]
The Atharvaveda contains chapters relating to medicine, surgery and magico-religious rites.[22] This Atharvaveda layer
of text was likely compiled contemporaneously with Samaveda and Yajurveda, in about 1200 BCE–1000 BCE.[23]
[24]
 Dasgupta and other scholars state that the Atreya-Charaka school and its texts may have emerged from this older
tradition, and he cites a series of Atharvaveda hymns to show that almost all organs and nomenclature found in
Charaka Samhita are also found in the Vedic hymns.[25][26]

Contents[edit]
The extant text has eight sthāna (books), totalling 120 chapters. The text includes a table of contents embedded in its
verses, stating the names and describing the nature of the eight books, followed by a listing of the 120 chapters.[

A source for socio-cultural and ecological history of ancient India [edit]

The text is not only an interesting source of ancient medical practices, it also may be a source of valuable information
on ecological, social, and economic conditions in ancient India.[14] The text describes physical geography with words
such as Jangala, Aanoopa, and Sadharana, then lists the trees, vegetables, lakes and rivers, bird life and animals
found in each of these regions.[14] Many of the drugs mentioned, they state, are linked to region of their origin.  The
text also states that the food habits of ancient Indians varied by regions.[14] Mamsa (meat) was popular with people
who lived in Bahlika, Pahlava, Cheena, Shoolika, Yavana and Shaka. People of Prachya preferred Matsya
(fish). Those living in Sindhu Desha (now Gujarat and south Pakistan) were habituated to milk, while people of
Ashmaka and Avantika consumed more oily and sour food.[14] The people of Dakshina Desha (South India) preferred
Peya (thin gruel), whereas those of Uttara (North) and Pashchima (West) liked Mantha. Residents of Madhya Desha
(Central India) preferred barley, wheat and milk products according to the text.[

Sushruta
Sushruta was an ancient Indian physician. The Sushruta Samhita , a treatise ascribed to him, is one of the most
important surviving ancient treatises on medicine and is considered a foundational text of Ayurveda.[4] The treatise
addresses all aspects of general medicine, but the impressive chapters on surgery have led to the false impression
that this is its main topic. The translator G. D. Singhal dubbed Suśruta "the father of surgery" on account of these
detailed accounts of surgery.[5][6][7][8]
The Sushruta Samhita  locates its author in Varanasi, India.[9]
Sushruta Samhita
The Sushruta Samhita  is an ancient Sanskrit text on medicine and surgery, and one of the most important such
treatises on this subject to survive from the ancient world. The Sushruta Samhita  is one of the foundational texts
of Ayurveda , alongside the Charaka-Saṃhitā, the Bheḷa-Saṃhitā,.[1][2] It is one of the two foundational Hindu texts on
the medical profession that have survived from ancient India.[3][4]
The Suśrutasaṃhitā is of great historical importance because it includes historically unique chapters describing
surgical training, instruments and procedures which is still followed by modern science of surgery.[2][5] 

History[edit]
Date[edit]
Over a century ago, the scholar Rudolf Hoernle (1841 – 1918) proposed that given that the author of Satapatha
Brahmana, a Vedic text from the mid-first-millennium BCE, was aware of Sushruta's doctrines, Sushruta's doctrines
should be dated based on the composition date of Satapatha Brahmana.[8] The composition date of the Brahmana is
itself unclear, added Hoernle, and he estimated it to be about the 6th century BCE.[8] Hoernle's date of 600 BCE for
the Suśrutasaṃhitā continues to be widely and uncritically cited in spite of much intervening scholarship. Scores of
scholars have subsequently published opinions on the date of the work, and these many views have been
summarized by Meulenbeld in his History of Indian Medical Literature.[9] Boslaugh dates the currently existing text to
the 6th-century CE.[10]
The most detailed and extensive consideration of the date of the Suśrutasaṃhitā is that published by Meulenbeld in
his History of Indian Medical Literature (1999-2002). Meulenbeld stated that the Suśrutasaṃhitā is likely a work that
includes several historical layers, whose composition may have begun in the last centuries BCE and was completed
in its presently surviving form by another author who redacted its first five sections and added the long, final section,
the "Uttaratantra."[1] It is likely that the Suśruta-saṃhitā was known to the scholar Dṛḍhabala [Wikidata] (fl. 300-500 CE),
which gives the latest date for the version of the work that has survived into the modern era.[

Authorship[edit]
Suśruta is named in the text as the author, who is presented in later manuscripts and printed editions as narrating the
teaching of his guru, Divodāsa.[20][21] A person of this name is said in early texts such as the Buddhist Jatakas to have
been a physician who taught in a school in Kashi in parallel to another medical school in Taxila,[22][23] sometime
between 1200 BCE and 600 BCE.[24] The earliest known mentions of the name Sushruta firmly associated with the
tradition of the Suśrutasaṃhitā is in the Bower Manuscript (4th or 5th century CE), where Sushruta is listed as one of
the ten sages residing in the Himalayas.[25]
Rao in 1985 suggested that the author of the original "layer" was "elder Sushruta" (Vrddha Sushruta), although this
name appears nowhere in the early Sanskrit literature. The text, states Rao, was redacted centuries later by another
Sushruta, then by Nagarjuna, and thereafter Uttara-tantra was added as a supplement.[13] It is generally accepted by
scholars that there were several ancient authors called "Suśruta" who contributed to this text.[26]

Affiliation[edit]
The text has been called a Hindu text by many scholars.[27][28][29] The text discusses surgery with the same terminology
found in more ancient Hindu texts,[30][31] mentions Hindu gods such as Narayana, Hari, Brahma, Rudra, Indra and
others in its chapters,[32][33] refers to the scriptures of Hinduism namely the Vedas,[34][35] and in some cases,
recommends exercise, walking and "constant study of the Vedas" as part of the patient's treatment and recovery
process.[36]  [39]
The Sushruta Samhita and Caraka Samhita have religious ideas throughout, states Steven Engler.[39] These ideas
include the use of terms and same metaphors that are pervasive in the Hindu scriptures – the Vedas, and the
inclusion of theory of Karma, self (Atman) and Brahman (metaphysical reality) along the lines of those found in
ancient Hindu texts.[39]  The text may have Buddhist influences, since a redactor named Nagarjuna has raised many
historical questions, whether he was the same person of Mahayana Buddhism fame.[26] Zysk states that the ancient
Buddhist medical texts are significantly different from both Sushruta and Caraka Samhita. For example, both Caraka
and Sushruta recommend Dhupana (fumigation) in some cases, the use of cauterization with fire and alkali in a class
of treatments, and the letting out of blood as the first step in treatment of wounds. Nowhere in the Buddhist Pali texts,
states Zysk, are these types of medical procedures mentioned. While Sushruta and Caraka are close, many
afflictions and their treatments found in these texts are not found in Pali texts.[42]
In general, states Zysk, Buddhist medical texts are closer to Sushruta than to Caraka,[40] and in his study suggests
that the Sushruta Samhita probably underwent a "Hinduization process" around the end of 1st millennium BCE and
the early centuries of the common era after the Hindu orthodox identity had formed. The mutual influence between
the medical traditions between the various Indian religions, the history of the layers of the Suśruta-saṃhitā remains
unclear, a large and difficult research problem.[26]
Sushruta is reverentially held in Hindu tradition to be a descendant of Dhanvantari, the mythical god of medicine,[45] or
as one who received the knowledge from a discourse from Dhanvantari in Varanasi.[20

Contents[edit]
Scope[edit]
The Sushruta Samhita was composed after Charaka Samhita, and except for some topics and their emphasis, both
discuss many similar subjects such as General Principles, Pathology, Diagnosis, Anatomy, Sensorial Prognosis,
Therapeutics, Pharmaceutics and Toxicology.[51][52][1]
The Sushruta and Charaka texts differ in one major aspect, with Sushruta Samhita providing the foundation of
surgery, while Charaka Samhita being primarily a foundation of medicine.[51]

Chapters[edit]
The Sushruta Samhita, in its extant form, is divided into 186 chapters and contains descriptions of 1,120 illnesses,
700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources.[53]
The Suśruta-Saṃhitā is divided into two parts: the first five books (Skt. Sthanas) are considered to be the oldest part
of the text, and the "Later Section" (Skt. Uttaratantra) that was added by the author Nagarjuna.

Bhela Samhita
Bhela Samhita is a Sanskrit-language medical text from ancient India. It is known from an incomplete c. 1650 CE
manuscript kept at the Sarasvati Mahal Library in Thanjavur, and a c. 9th century fragment found at Tuyoq.
Quotations in other works suggest that an older version of the text, possibly composed during 400-750 CE, existed.
Much of the text is in form of a dialogue between sage Atreya and his pupil Bhela, the author of the text.

Authorship[edit]
The text is primarily in form of a dialogue between the sage Atreya[a] and his pupil Bhela. However, several other
people also talk to Atreya in the text, including:[1]

 the royal sage Nagnajit, who asks Atreya questions about detecting poison in food
 Gurdalu Bhekin, who asks Atreya about medical topography
 Sushrotar Medhavin, who describes the treatment of the dosha-related disorders
 Several sages talk to Atreya on the topic of tastes

Date[edit]
Multiple sources, including the Thanjavur version of the Bhela Samhita mention Bhela as a pupil of the ancient sage
Atreya. Plus, Bhela is mentioned in ancient texts such as the Bower Manuscript. This suggests that Bhela was
regarded as a medical authority in the ancient period.[3]
Modern scholars date the Thanjavur manuscript to c. 1650, and the Bhela Samhita version represented by this
manuscript was probably completed in the 7th century CE or later, as suggested by internal evidences.[4] Unlike
the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita, it has not been revised by later authors.[1]
An earlier form of the text probably developed sometime during 400-750 CE. The Bhela Samhita refers to several
practices that originated in the Gupta period, such as chanda-karman and the worship of Shiva on a cremation
ground.[4] The original Bhela Samhita was not identical with the Thanjavur text, as suggested by several quotations.
For example, on the topic of applying enema to children, the Kaashyapa-samhita (possibly c. 7th century[6]) attributes
an opinion to Bhela which disagrees with the Thanjavur text.[3]
Bhela's text is probably not much earlier than the Sushruta Samhita.[4] While the Charaka Samhita refers to the Bhela
Samhita,[7] the Thanjavur version was probably composed after Dṛḍhabala redacted the present-day version
of Charaka Samhita.[4]

Contents[edit]
Bhela Samhita is a medical treatise that primarily deals with internal medicine (kaya-chikitsa). The text mainly
consists of shloka verses in anuṣṭubh metre, and only the Sharira-sthana part contains prose passages.[8

Inventions

 English Bond: The English bond is a form of brickwork with alternating stretching and heading courses,
with the headers centred over the midpoint of the stretchers, and perpends in each alternate course
aligned. Harappan architecture in South Asia was the first to use the so-called English bond in building
with bricks.
Plumbing: Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing
leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 BC. Earthen pipes were
used in the Indus Valley c. 2700 BC for a city-scale urban drainage system,[2

 Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilisation's
archaeological site at Mohenjodaro in Pakistan[26] and Dholavira in India.[27] The three features of stepwells
in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a
bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.[26] 
 Crucible steel: Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 BCE—high quality steel was
being produced in southern India, by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.[81] In this
system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron
melted and absorbed the carbon.[81]

 Button: Ornamental buttons—made from seashell—were used in the Indus Valley civilisation for

ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[140] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes
pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread.[140] 

 Carding devices: Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in

textile technology to India.[143] The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India
(2nd century CE).[143] These carding devices, called kaman and dhunaki would loosen the texture of the
fibre by the means of a vibrating string.[143]
 Charkha (Spinning wheel): invented in India, between 500 and 1000 CE.
Catapult by Ajatashatru in Magadha

Vedic Sanskrit grammar

Vedic Sanskrit is the name given by modern scholarship to the oldest, attested form of the Proto-Indo-Aryan
language. This is the language that was used in the religious hymns known as the Vedas, in particular, the Ṛg-Veda,
the oldest of them, dated to have been composed roughly over the period from 1500 to 1000 BCE. It was a purely
spoken language during that period used before the introduction of writing in the language.[1][2][3]
Vedic Sanskrit has inherited from its parent the Proto-Indo-European language an elaborate system of morphology,
much of which has been preserved in Sanskrit as a whole than in other kindred languages such as Ancient
Greek or Latin.[4][5]
Its grammar differs in certain respects from the grammar of the later Classical Sanskrit.

History[edit]
The language descended from Proto-Indo-European named Indic or Proto-Indo-Aryan entered the Indian
subcontinent with the arrival of the Indo-Aryans dated to be around 1800–1500 BCE.[6][7] The Vedic hymns are
estimated to have been composed between 1500 and 1000 BCE, with the language of each hymn fixed at the time of
its oral composition,[8] establishing a religious canon around a literary tradition.
As the popular speech unavoidably evolved over the centuries the Vedic hymns began to be increasingly
inaccessible. In order to "arrest" language change, there arose a rigorous linguistic tradition aimed at preserving the
literary language, culminating in the work of Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyayī, dated around 600–400 BCE, which marks the
beginning of 'Sanskrit', referred to in contradistinction to the Vedic language as 'Classical Sanskrit'.
Despite these efforts, by the time of Pāṇini's final definition, the language had undergone some changes, especially
in grammar. 

Sanskrit grammar
The grammar of the Sanskrit language has a complex verbal system, rich nominal declension, and extensive
use of compound nouns. It was studied and codified by Sanskrit grammarians from the later Vedic
period (roughly 8th century BCE), culminating in the Pāṇinian grammar of the 4th century BCE.

Grammatical tradition[edit]
See also: Vyākaraṇa

Origins[edit]
Sanskrit grammatical tradition (vyākaraṇa, one of the six Vedanga disciplines) began in late Vedic India and
culminated in the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini.
The oldest attested form of the Proto-Indo-Aryan language as it had evolved in the Indian subcontinent after its
introduction with the arrival of the Indo-Aryans is called Vedic. By 1000 BCE, the end of the early Vedic period,
a large body of Vedic hymns had been consolidated into the Ṛg·Veda, which formed the canonical basis of the
Vedic religion, and was transmitted from generation to generation entirely orally.
In the course of the following centuries, as the popular speech evolved, there was rising concern among the
guardians of the Vedic religion that the hymns be passed on without 'corruption', which for them was vital to
ensure the religious efficacy of the hymns.[a] This led to the rise of a vigorous, sophisticated grammatical
tradition involving the study of linguistic analysis, in particular phonetics alongside grammar, the high point of
which was Pāṇini's stated work, which eclipsed all others before him.[2][3][4]

Pāṇini
Pāṇini was a Sanskrit philologist, grammarian, and revered scholar in ancient India,[3][10][11] variously dated between the
6th[7][8][note 2] and 4th century BCE.[4][5][6][2]
Since the discovery and publication of his work Aṣṭādhyāyī by European scholars in the nineteenth century, Pāṇini
has been considered the "first descriptive linguist",[12] and even labelled as “the father of linguistics”.[13][14][15] His
approach to grammar was influential on such foundational linguists as Ferdinand de Saussure and Leonard
Bloomfield.[16]

Aṣṭādhyāyī
The Aṣṭādhyāyī is a grammar that describes a form of an early Indo-Aryan language: Sanskrit.
Authored by Sanskrit philologist and scholar Pāṇini and dated to around 500 BCE, it describes the language as
current in his time, specifically the dialect and register of an élite of model speakers, referred to by Pāṇini himself
as śiṣṭa. The work also accounts both for some features specific to the older Vedic form of the language, as well as
certain dialectal features current in the author's time.

Etymology[edit]
Aṣṭādhyāyī is made of two words aṣṭa-, 'eight' and adhyāya-, 'chapter', thus meaning eight-chaptered, or 'the book of
eight chapters'.[2]

Background[edit]
While not the first, the Aṣṭādhyāyī is the oldest linguistic and grammar text, and one of the oldest Sanskrit texts,
surviving in its entirety. Pāṇini refers to older texts such as the Unādisūtra, Dhātupāṭha, and Gaṇapātha but some of
these have only survived in part.[6]

Arrangement[edit]
The Aṣṭādhyāyī consists of 3,959 sūtras[C] in eight chapters, which are each subdivided into four sections or pādas.

Related fields[edit]
The Aṣṭādhyāyī is the foundation of Vyākaraṇa, one of the Vedic ancillary fields (Vedāṅgas),[8] and complements
others such as the Niruktas, Nighaṇṭus, and Śikṣā.[9] Regarded as extremely compact without sacrificing
completeness, it would become the model for later specialist technical texts or sūtras.[10

Commentarial tradition[edit]
The Aṣṭādhyāyī, composed in an era when oral composition and transmission was the norm, is staunchly embedded
in that oral tradition. In order to ensure wide dissemination, Pāṇini is said to have preferred brevity over clarity[14] - it
can be recited end-to-end in two hours. This has led to the emergence of a great number of commentaries[α] of his
work over the centuries, which for the most part adhere to the foundations laid by Pāṇini's work.[15][3]
The most famous and among the most ancient of these Bhāṣyas is the Mahābhāṣya[c][16] of Patañjali.[17][18][d][e][f] Non-
Hindu texts and traditions on grammar emerged after Patañjali, some of which include the Sanskrit grammar text of
Jainendra of Jainism and the Chandra school of Buddhism.

Patanjali
Patanjali pronunciation?] also called Gonardiya or Gonikaputra, was a Siddhar; a Hindu author, mystic and philosopher.
[1]
 Very little is known about him, and while no one knows exactly when he lived, estimates from analysis of his works
suggest that it was between the 2nd and 4th centuries CE.[2]
He is believed to be an author and compiler of a number of Sanskrit works.[3] The greatest of these are the Yoga
Sutras, a classical yoga text. There is speculation as to whether the sage Patañjali is the author of all the works
attributed to him, as there are a number of known historical authors of the same name. A great deal of scholarship
has been devoted over the last century to the issue of the historicity or identity of this author or these authors.[4]

Mahabhashya
Mahabhashya attributed to Patañjali, is a commentary on selected rules of Sanskrit grammar from Pāṇini's treatise,
the Aṣṭādhyāyī, as well as Kātyāyana's Vārttika-sūtra, an elaboration of Pāṇini's grammar. It is dated to the 2nd
century BCE.[1][2]

Overview[edit]
Patañjali is one of the three most famous Sanskrit grammarians of ancient India, other two being Pāṇini and
Kātyāyana who preceded Patañjali (dated to c. 150 BCE). Kātyāyana's work (nearly 1500 verses on Pāṇini) is
available only through references in Patañjali's work.[3]
It was with Patañjali that the Indian tradition of language scholarship reached its definite form. The system thus
established is extremely detailed as to shiksha (phonology, including accent) and vyakarana (grammar and
morphology). Syntax is scarcely touched, but nirukta (etymology) is discussed, and these etymologies naturally lead
to semantic explanations. People interpret his work to be a defence of Pāṇini, whose Sutras are elaborated
meaningfully. Patañjali also examines Kātyāyana rather severely. But the main contributions of Patañjali lies in the
treatment of the principles of grammar enunciated by him.[4]
Kātyāyana introduced semantic discourse into grammar, which was further elaborated by Patañjali to such an extent
that Mahābhāṣya can be called a mix of grammar as such as well as a philosophy of grammar.[5]  The extant
Mahābhāṣya text is available on 1228 of the 3981 sūtras of the Aṣṭādhyāyī. The Mahābhāṣya is divided into eighty
five sections called āhnika consisting of subject matter of one day's study each. [7]

Kātyāyana
Kātyāyana  (est. c. 6th to 3rd century BCE)[1][2][3] was a Sanskrit grammarian, mathematician and Vedic priest who
lived in ancient India. According to some legends[citation needed], he was born in the Katya lineage originating
from Vishwamitra, thus[citation needed] called Katyayana.

Works[edit]
He is known for two works:

 The Vārttikakāra, an elaboration on Pāṇini grammar. Along with the Mahābhāṣya of Patañjali, this text became a

core part of the Vyākaraṇa (grammar) canon. This was one of the six Vedangas, and constituted compulsory
education for students in the following twelve centuries.
 He also composed one of the later Śulbasūtras, a series of nine texts on the geometry of altar constructions,
dealing with rectangles, right-sided triangles, rhombuses, etc.[8]

Arts
Indian art consists of a variety of art forms, including painting, sculpture, pottery, and textile arts such as woven silk.
Geographically, it spans the entire Indian subcontinent. A strong sense of design is characteristic of Indian art and
can be observed in its modern and traditional forms. In historic art, sculpture in stone and metal, mainly religious, has
survived the Indian climate better than other media and provides most of the best remains. 

Rock art[edit]

Main article: Cave paintings in India

Rock art of India includes rock relief carvings, engravings and paintings, some (but by no means all) from the South
Asian Stone Age. It is estimated there are about 1300 rock art sites with over a quarter of a million figures and
figurines.[1] The earliest rock carvings in India were discovered by Archibald Carlleyle, twelve years before the Cave of
Altamira in Spain,[2] although his work only came to light much later via J Cockburn (1899).[3]  The paintings in these
sites commonly depicted scenes of human life alongside animals, and hunts with stone implements. Their style varied
with region and age, but the most common characteristic was a red wash made using a powdered mineral
called geru, which is a form of Iron Oxide (Hematite).[9]

Indus Valley civilisation (c. 3300 BC – c. 1750 BC)[edit]

Main article: Indus Valley civilisation

Despite its widespread and sophistication, the Indus Valley civilisation seems to have taken no interest in public
large-scale art, unlike many other early civilizations. A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in
dancing poses reveal the presence of some forms of dance. Additionally, the terracotta figurines included cows,
bears, monkeys, and dogs.
Much the most common form of figurative art found is small carved seals. Thousands of steatite seals have been
recovered, and their physical character is fairly consistent. In size they range from 3⁄4 inch to 11⁄2 inches square. In
most cases they have a pierced boss at the back to accommodate a cord for handling or for use as personal
adornment. Seals have been found at Mohenjo-Daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another, on
the Pashupati Seal, sitting cross-legged in a yoga-like pose. This figure has been variously identified. Sir John
Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.[10]
The animal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been clearly identified. Part bull, part
zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate
claims that the image had religious or cultist significance, but the prevalence of the image raises the question of
whether or not the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols.[11] The most famous piece is the
bronze Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-Daro, which shows remarkably advanced modelling of the human figure for this early
date.[12]
After the end of the Indus Valley Civilization, there is a surprising absence of art of any great degree of sophistication
until the Buddhist era. It is thought that this partly reflects the use of perishable organic materials such as wood.[13]

Vedic period[edit]
Main article: Vedic period

The millennium following the collapse of the Indus Valley civilisation, coinciding with the Indo-Aryan migration during
the Vedic period, is devoid of anthropomorphical depictions.[14] It has been suggested that the early Vedic
religion focused exclusively on the worship of purely elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices,
which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations.[15][16] Various artefacts may belong to
the Copper Hoard culture (2nd millennium BCE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics.
[17]
 Interpretations vary as to the exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which
they belonged.[17] Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstract pottery designs during the Black and
red ware culture (1450-1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200-600 BCE), with finds in a wide area,
including the area of Mathura.[17]
After a gap of about a thousand years, most of the early finds correspond to what is called the "second period of
urbanization" in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE.[17] The anthropomorphic depiction of various deities apparently
started in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, possibly as a consequence of the influx of foreign stimuli initiated
with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, and the rise of alternative local faiths challenging Vedism, such
as Buddhism, Jainism and local popular cults.[14

Mauryan art

Mauryan art is the art produced during the period of the Mauryan Empire. It
represented an important transition in Indian art from use of wood to stone. It was a
royal art patronized by Mauryan kings especially Ashoka. Pillars, Stupas, caves are the
most prominent survivals.
The most significant remains of monumental Mauryan art include the remains of the
royal palace and the city of Pataliputra, a monolithic rail at Sarnath, the Bodhimandala
or the altar resting on four pillars at Bodhgaya, the rock-cut chaitya-halls in the Barabar
Caves near Gaya . [1]

Ananda Coomaraswamy, writing in 1923, argued that the Mauryan art has three main
phases.  The first phase is found in some instances of the representation of the Vedic
[2]

deities. The second phase was the court art of Ashoka, typically found in the monolithic
columns on which his edicts are inscribed and the third phase was the beginning of
brick and stone architecture, as in the case of the original stupa at Sanchi.[2]

Most scholars agree that Mauryan art was influenced by Greek and Persian art,
especially in imperial sculpture and architecture.  Political and cultural contacts between
[4]

the Greek and Persian cultures and India were intensive and ran for a long period of
time, encouraging the propagation of their advances in the area of sculpture. [4]

Sculpture[edit]
This period marked an imaginative and impressive step forward in Indian stone
sculpture; much previous sculpture was probably in wood and has not survived. The
elaborately carved animal capitals surviving on from some Pillars of Ashoka are the best
known works, and among the finest, above all the Lion Capital of
Ashoka from Sarnath that is now the National Emblem of India. Coomaraswamy
distinguishes between court art and a more popular art during the Mauryan period.
Court art is represented by the pillars and their capitals,  and surviving popular art by
[5]

some stone pieces, and many smaller works in terracotta.

The highly polished surface of court sculpture is often called Mauryan polish. However
this seems not to be entirely reliable as a diagnostic tool for a Mauryan date, as some
works from considerably later periods also have it. The Didarganj Yakshi, now most
often thought to be from the 2nd century CE, is an example.
Pillars and their capitals[edit]
See also: Pillars of Ashoka

The Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BCE, has been excavated at the
Mauryan city of Pataliputra. It has been described as Perso-Ionic, with a
strong Greek stylistic influence, including volute, bead and reel, meander  designs. This
monumental piece of architecture tends to suggest the  Hellenistic artistic influence at
the Mauryan court from early on. [6][7]

Emperor Ashoka also erected religious pillars throughout India. These pillars were

carved in two types of stone. Some were of the spotted red and white sandstone from
the region of Mathura, the others of buff-coloured fine grained hard sandstone usually
with small black spots quarried in the Chunar near Varanasi. The uniformity of style in
the pillar capitals suggests that they were all sculpted by craftsmen from the same
region. It would therefore seem, that stone transported from Mathura and Chunar to the
various sites where the pillars have been found and here the stone was cut and carved
by craftsmen  They were given a fine polish characteristic of Mauryan sculpture.
[5]
These pillars were mainly erected in the Gangetic plains. They were inscribed with
edicts of Ashoka on Dhamma or righteousness.
Terracottas[edit]
Popular terracotta objects of various sizes have been found at Mauryan sites, and
elsewhere, and are probably the most numerous Mauryan works of art. Made by local
people who may not have been specialists, but for example potters with a sideline, they
are very difficult to date if not recorded as coming from an identifiable archaeological
context. Many are regarded as pre-Mauryan, but a continuation of the tradition of
making mother-goddesses in clay, which dates back to the prehistoric period is revealed
by the discovery of these objects at Mauryan levels during the excavations at
Ahicchatra.
They are found more commonly from Pataliputra to Taxila. Many have stylized forms
and technically they are more accomplished, in that they have a well-defined shape and
clear ornamentation. Some appear to have been made from moulds, yet there is little
duplication. Terracotta images of folk gods and goddesses often have an earthy charm.
Many animal figures are probably toys for children.
Ringstones[edit]
Main article: Ringstone

The ringstone is a distinctive type of artefact and miniature sculpture made in India

during the period of the Mauryan Empire. They are usually dated to the 3rd or 2nd
centuries BCE.  They are shaped like a doughnut, but with straighter sides, and flat and
[12]

plain on the bottom. They are in stone, with the top side very finely carved in relief with
several circular zones of decoration running around the hole in the centre. The designs
vary, but all examples are finely carved, despite their small size. A number of
components appear in a variety of variations. Typically the innermost zone, which runs
down the sloping sides of the hole, has standing female figures, often nude or nearly so,
but with jewellery and elaborate hairstyles, with trees in between them.  These may be
[14]

called "goddesses", or "mother goddesses", and the trees, apparently of various

species, as the tree of life, but these interpretations are not universally accepted.
[15]

Their purpose, and any practical function, remains unclear and "enigmatic". They may
have a specific religious purpose, or a more general one promoting fertility, or been
used to make jewellery by hammering metal foil over the designs.

Painting[edit]
It is clear from Megasthenes that the Mauryans had painting of some quality, but no
examples have survived. Many centuries later, the paintings of the Ajanta Caves, the
oldest significant body of Indian painting, show there was a well-developed tradition,
which may well stretch back to Mauryan times.

Architecture[edit]
While the period marked a second transition to use of brick and stone, wood was still
the material of choice. Kautilya in the Arthashastra advises the use of brick and stone
for their durability. Yet he devotes a large section to safeguards to be taken against
conflagrations in wooden buildings indicating their popularity.
The Greek ambassador Megasthenes mentions that the capital city of Pataliputra was
encircled by a massive timber-palisade, perforated by holes or slits through which
archers could shoot. It had sixty-four gates and 570 towers.  According to Strabo, the
[18]

gilded pillars of the palace were adorned with golden vines and silver birds. The palace
stood in an extensive park studded with fish ponds. It was furnished with a great variety
of ornamental trees and shrubs. Excavations carried out by Spooner and Waddell have
brought to light remains of huge wooden palisades at Bulandi Bagh in Pataliputra.. Out
of 80 stone columns, that once stood on a wooden platform and supported a wooden
roof, Spooner was able to discover the entire lower part of at least one in almost perfect
conditions. It is more or less similar to an Ashokan pillar, smooth, polished and made of
grey Chunar sandstone. [19]

Many stupas like those at Sanchi, Sarnath and possibly Amaravati Stupa were originally

built as brick and masonry mounds during the reign of Ashoka. Most were renovated
many times, which leaves us with hardly a clue of the original structures.

Pottery[edit]
Use of the potters wheel became universal. The pottery associated with the Mauryan
period consists of many types of ware. But the most highly developed technique is seen
in a special type of pottery known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP), which
was the hallmark of the preceding and early Mauryan periods. The NBP ware is made
of finely levigated alluvial clay, which when seen in section is usually of a grey and
sometimes of a red hue. Occasionally small red-brown patches are apparent on the
surface. It can be distinguished from other polished or graphite-coated red wares by its
peculiar lustre and brilliance.
This ware was used largely for dishes and small bowls. It is found in abundance in
the Ganges valley.

Gupta art
Gupta art is the art of the Gupta Empire, which ruled most of northern India, with its peak between about 300 and
480 CE, surviving in much reduced form until c. 550. The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak
and golden age of North Indian art for all the major religious groups.[2]  The period saw the emergence of the iconic
carved stone deity in Hindu art, while the production of the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures continued to
expand. The traditional main centre of sculpture was Mathura, which continued to flourish, with the art of Gandhara,
the centre of Greco-Buddhist art , continuing to exert influence. Other centres emerged during the period, especially
at Sarnath. Although the empire lost its western territories by about 500, the artistic style continued to be used across
most of northern India until about 550,[5] and arguably around 650.[6] It was then followed by the "Post-Gupta" period,
with many similar characteristics; Harle ends this around 950.[7]
In general the style was very consistent across the empire and the other kingdoms where it was used.[8] The vast
majority of surviving works are religious sculpture, mostly in stone with some in metal or terracotta, and architecture,
mostly in stone with some in brick. The Ajanta Caves are virtually the sole survival from what was evidently a large
and sophisticated body of painting,[9] . Gupta India produced both textiles and jewellery, which are only known from
representations in sculpture and especially the paintings at Ajanta.[10]
Sculpture[edit]
Three main schools of Gupta sculpture are often recognised, based in Mathura,  Sarnath[31] and to a lesser
extent Nalanda.
Both Buddhist and Hindu sculpture concentrate on large, often near life-size, figures of the major deities,
respectively Buddha, Vishnu and Shiva. The dynasty had a partiality to Vishnu. Minor figures such as yakshi, which
had been very prominent in preceding periods, are now smaller and less frequently represented, and the crowded
scenes illustrating Jataka tales of the Buddha's previous lives are rare.[34] When scenes include one of the major
figures and other less important ones, there is a great difference in scale, with the major figures many times larger.
The lingam was the central murti in most temples. Some new figures appear, including personifications of
the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, not yet worshipped, but placed on either side of entrances.[36] The
main bodhisattva appear prominently in sculpture for the first time,[37] as in the paintings at Ajanta. Buddhist, Hindu
and Jain sculpture all show the same style.[5]
The Indian stylistic tradition of representing the body as a series of "smooth, very simplified planes" is continued,
though poses, especially in the many standing figures, are subtly tilted and varied, in contrast to the "columnar
rigidity" of earlier figures.[39] The detail of facial parts, hair, headgear, jewellery and the haloes behind figures are
carved very precisely, giving a pleasing contrast with the emphasis on broad swelling masses in the body.[40] Deities
of all the religions are shown in a calm and majestic meditative style.[5

Terracotta sculpture[edit]
The earliest terracottas datable to the Gupta period appear at the Buddhist site of Devnimori in Gujarat circa 375–400
CE, representing the southern extension of Gandharan influence to the subcontinent.[75][76]  The Gupta period saw the
production of many sculptures in terracotta of very fine quality, and they are similar in style across the empire, to an
even greater extent than the stone sculpture.[5] Some can still be seen in their original settings on the brick temple
at Bhitargaon, where the large relief panels have almost worn away, but various heads and figures survive at higher
levels.[78] 

Sculpture in metal[edit]
The over life-size copper Sultanganj Buddha (2.3 metres tall) is the only remaining metal statue of any size from the
Gupta period, out of what was at the time probably approximately as numerous a type as stone or stucco statues.
[81]
 There are, however, many much smaller near-identical figures. The metal Brahma from Mirpur-Khas is older, but
about half the size of the Sultanganj figure. The style of the Sultanganj figure, made by lost-wax casting, is
comparable to slightly earlier stone Buddha figures from Sarnath in the smoothly rounded attenuation of body and
limbs and the very thin, clinging body garment, indicated in the lightest of ways.

Architecture[edit]
For reasons that are not entirely clear, for the most part the Gupta period represented a hiatus in Indian rock-cut
architecture, with the first wave of construction finishing before the empire was assembled, and the second wave
beginning in the late 5th century, just as it was ending. This is the case, for example, at the Ajanta Caves, with an
early group made by 220 CE at the latest, and a later one probably all after about 460.[111] Instead, the period has left
almost the first surviving free-standing structures in India, in particular the beginnings of Hindu temple architecture.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at Ajanta, Elephanta,
and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under other dynasties in
Central India, and in the case of Ellora after the Gupta period, but primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of
Guptan style. Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods,
showing a mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting palaces.[113] The
Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and its ministers,[114] and the Dashavatara
Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture, although it has lost its
mandapa and covered ambulatory for parikrama.[115]
There are a number of different broad models, which would continue to be the case for more than a century after the
Gupta period, but temples such as Tigawa and Sanchi Temple 17, which are small but massively built
stone prostyle buildings with a sanctuary and a columned porch, show the most common basic plan that is elaborated
in later temples to the present day. Both of these have flat roofs over the sanctuary, which would become uncommon
by about the 8th century. The Mahabodhi Temple, Bhitargaon, Deogarh and Gop show high superstructures of
different shapes.[121] The Chejarla Kapoteswara temple demonstrates that free-standing chaitya-hall temples with
barrel roofs continued to be built, probably with many smaller examples in wood.[122]

Pillars[edit]
Pillars with inscriptions were erected, recording the main achievements of Gupta rulers. Whereas the Pillars of
Ashoka were cylindrical, smooth and finished with the famous Mauryan polish, Gupta pillars had a rough surface
often shaped into geometrical facets.[123]

Painting[edit]
Painting was evidently a major art in Gupta times, and the varied paintings of the Ajanta Caves, which are much the
best survivals (almost the only ones), show a very mature style and technique, clearly the result of a well-developed
tradition.[124] Indeed, it is recorded that skill in amateur painting, especially portraits, was considered a desirable
accomplishment among Gupta elites, including royalty. At Ajanta, it is thought that established teams of painters,
used to decorating palaces and temples elsewhere, were brought in when required to decorate a cave. Mural
paintings survive from both the earlier and later groups of the caves. Several fragments of murals preserved from the
earlier caves are effectively unique survivals of ancient painting in India from this period.[127]
Four of the later caves have large and relatively well-preserved mural paintings which have come to represent Indian
mural painting to the non-specialist,[127] and represent the great glories not only of Gupta but of all Indian art.[128]  The
paintings are in "dry fresco", painted on top of a dry plaster surface rather than into wet plaster.[130] All the paintings
appear to be the work of painters supported by sophisticated patrons from an urban atmosphere. Unlike much Indian
mural painting, compositions are not laid out in horizontal bands like a frieze, but show large scenes spreading in all
directions from a single figure or group at the centre.[131] The ceilings are also painted with sophisticated and elaborate
decorative motifs, many derived from sculpture.[132]  The Ajanta paintings have seriously deteriorated since they were
rediscovered in 1819, and are now mostly hard to appreciate at the site. Only mural paintings survive, but it is clear
from literary sources that portable paintings, including portraits, were common, probably including illustrated
manuscripts.[130]

Art of Mathura
The Art of Mathura refers to a particular school of Indian art, almost entirely surviving in the form of sculpture,
starting in the 2nd century BCE, which centered on the city of Mathura, in central northern India, during a period in
which Buddhism, Jainism together with Hinduism flourished in India.[5] Mathura was the first artistic center to produce
devotional icons for all the three faiths,[6] and the pre-eminent center of religious artistic expression in India at least
until the Gupta period, and was influential throughout the sub-continent.[7]
Chronologically, Mathuran sculpture becomes prominent after Mauryan art.[8]  Mathura became India's most important
artistic production center from the second century BCE, with its highly recognizable red sandstone statues being
admired and exported all over India.[8] In particular, it was in Mathura that the distinctive Indian convention of giving
sacred figures multiple body parts, especially heads and arms, first became common in art around the 4th century
CE, initially exclusively in Hindu figures, as it derived from Vedic texts.[6]
Mathura continued to be an important centre for sculpture until Gupta art of the 4th to 6th centuries, if not beyond.

Mauryan period[edit]
See also: Mauryan art

Mathura seems to have been a comparatively unimportant city of central northern India during the period of
the Maurya Empire (ca. 320-180 BCE), whose capital was in eastern India at Pataliputra, but it was still called a
"great city" by Megasthenes.[13][8] Mauryan art and architecture flourished during that period in other cities such
as Pataliputra, Kausambi, Vidisha or Amaravati, but there are no known examples of stone sculpture or architecture
at Mathura that can be securely dated to the Mauryan period.[14][8] Excavations have shown that the first construction
consisted in a mud wall, dating to the end of the Maurya period, around the 3rd century BCE at the earliest.[13] It
seems Mathura only rose to prominence as a cultural and urban center around 150-100 BCE.[15]

Terracotta figurines (4th-2nd century BCE)[edit]

Although no stone sculpture or architecture from the Mauryan period are known in Mathura, some relatively high
quality terracotta statuettes have been recovered from the Mauryan strata in excavations.[18] This would suggest that
there was some level of artistic creation at Mathura during the period of the Maurya Empire.[18] The creation of
terracotta figurines is thought to have been much easier than sculpting stone, and therefore became the mainstream
form of artistic expression.[19] In Mathura, the first statuette were found in strata dating to the late 4th-2nd centuries
BCE, and their production, together with associated terracotta miniatures of votive tanks and shrines, seems to have
continued for close to a thousand years.[20]
Terracottas generally showed what appears to be female deities or mother goddesses, and from the 2nd century
women in elaborate headdress.[19][21]  Their headdress is often decorated with lotus stalks, complete with conical lotus
pistils with their seeds, which symbolize fecundity and beauty.[16] The lotus would remain an attribute of female deities
in later periods.[16] Some terracotta statuettes also show a child or children clinging to the goddess, thereby
emphasizing her role as a symbol of fecundity.[16] The cult of these female goddesses, characterized by small and
easily manufactured figures, appears to have been essentially domestic.[20]
Several figures of foreigners also appear in the terracottas from the 4th and 3rd century BCE, which are either
described simply as "foreigners" or Persian or Iranian because of their foreign features.[22][23][24] These figurines might
reflect the increased contacts of Indians with Iranian people during this period.[23] Several of these seem to represent
foreign soldiers who visited India during the Mauryan period and influenced modellers in Mathura with their peculiar
ethnic features and uniforms.[25] 
The anthropomorphic depiction of various deities apparently started to appear in the middle of the 1st millennium
BCE. Panini and Patanjali seem to mention depictions of Shiva, Skanda, Visaka, Vāsudeva-Krishna and Arjuna.
Before the introduction of stone sculpture, there may have been an older tradition of using clay or wood to represent
Indian deities, which, because of their inherent fragility, have not survived.[36] Apart from the local terracotta figurines
generally showing female fertility deities, there are no early remains of such representations of Indian deities.
Probably the earliest known Indian depiction of these Mathuran deities is a rock painting found at Tikla, around 170
kilometers south of Mathura.[30] This rock painting is dated to the 3rd-2nd century BCE, based on the paleography of
the Brahmi inscription accompanying it.[30] Here, the deities are depicted wearing a dhoti with a peculiar headdress,
and are shown holding their attributes: a plow and a sort of mace for Balarama, and a mace and a wheel for
Vāsudeva. A third smaller character is added, forming what can be called a Vrishni trio, in the person of a female,
thought to be the Goddess Ekanamsha, who seems to hold a Chatra royal umbrella.[30]

Early stone sculpture in Mathura (180-70 BCE)[edit]

Stone art and architecture began being produced at Mathura at the time of "Indo-Greek hegemony" over the region.[48]
[8]
 Some authors consider that Indo-Greek cultural elements are not particularly visible in these works, and Hellenistic
influence is not more important than in other parts of India.[49] Others consider that Hellenistic influence appears in the
liveliness and the realistic details of the figures, the use of perspective from 150 BCE, iconographical details such as
the knot and the club of Heracles, the wavy folds of the dresses, or the depiction of bacchanalian scenes:[8][50]
The art of Mathura became extremely influential over the rest of India.[8] There is a remarkable unity in the style of
artistic production across northern India during this early period, circa 150 BCE: the early style of Mathura is highly
similar to contemporary examples found in Bharhut, Sanchi Stupa No.
2, Vidisha,  Amaravati,  Udayagiri, Pataliputra, Sarnath, and Kausambi.[60]

Colossal anthropomorphic statues (2nd century BCE)[edit]

Some of the earliest works of art of the Mathura school are the Yakshas, monumental sculptures in the round of earth
divinities that have been dated to the 2nd-1st century BCE. Yakshas seem to have been the object of an important
cult in the early periods of Indian history, many of them being known such as Kubera, king of the
Yakshas, Manibhadra .[61] The Yakshas are a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, but sometimes
mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness,[62][63] and were the
object of popular worship.[64] Many of them were later incorporated into Buddhism, Jainism or Hinduism.[61]
In the 2nd century BCE, Yakshas became the focus of the creation of colossal cultic images, typically around 2
meters or more in height, which are considered as probably the first Indian anthropomorphic productions in stone.[50]
[61]
 The colossal size and quality of these statues shows that they cannot just have been the object of a rural popular
cult, but were rather produced in urban workshops and worshipped in shrines by an affluent urban community.
[65]
 Although few ancient Yaksha statues remain in good condition, the vigor of the style has been applauded, and
expresses essentially Indian qualities.[50] They are often pot-bellied, two-armed and fierce-looking  The Yakshas are
often depicted with weapons or attributes, such as the Yaksha Manibhadra, dated circa 100 BCE, who in the right
hand holds a mudgar mace, and in the left hand the figure of a small standing devotee or child joining hands in
prayer.[52][61] It is often suggested that the style of the colossal Yaksha statuary had an important influence on the
creation of later divine images and human figures in India.[36] The female equivalent of the Yakshas were
the Yakshinis, often associated with trees and children, and whose voluptuous figures became omnipresent in Indian
art.[61]
Some Hellenistic influence, such as the geometrical folds of the drapery of the statues, has been suggested.[50]  Under
the Indo-Greeks, the cult of the Yakshas may also have been associated with the Bacchic cult of Dionysos.[70]  They
may have promoted a syncretic art which conflated Hellenistic Dionysiac imagery with the local cult of the Yakshas.[72]
In the production of colossal Yaksha statues carved in the round, which can be found in several locations in northern
India, the art of Mathura is considered as the most advanced in quality and quantity during this period.[73] In later
periods, from the turn of the millennium, Yakshas and Nagas evolved from being benevolent, powerful deities at the
center of worship, to becoming frightening demonic creatures acting as subsidiary attendants in the major religions of
Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism.[65] They also became much smaller in size as they were dethroned by the new
religions, suggesting the continuation of a cult at the domestic level.[65]

Jain reliefs
There are many Jain sculptures, with numerous relief showing devotional scenes, such as the Kankali Tila tablet.
[109]
 Most of these are votive tablets, called ayagapata.[123]
Jain votive plates, called "Ayagapatas", are numerous, and some of the earliest ones have been dated to circa 50-20
BCE.[124] They were probably prototypes for the first known Mathura images of the Buddha.[125] Many of them were
found around the Kankali Tila Jain stupa in Mathura.
Notable among the design motifs in the ayagapatas are the pillar capitals displaying "Persian-Achaemenian" style,
with side volutes, flame palmettes, and recumbent lions or winged sphinxes.[126][1

First images of the Buddha

From around the 2nd-1st century BCE at Bharhut and Sanchi, scenes of the life of the Buddha, or sometimes of his
previous lives, had been illustrated without showing the Buddha himself, except for some of his symbols such as the
empty throne, or the Chankrama pathway.[148] This artistic device ended with the sudden appearance of the Buddha,
probably rather simultaneously in Gandhara and Mathura, at the turn of the millennium.[148]
Possibly the first known representation of the Buddha was the Isapur Buddha.   It is thought that the images of Jain
saints, which can be seen in Mathura from the 1st century BCE, were prototypes for the first Mathura images of the
Buddha, since the attitudes are very similar, and the almost transparent very thin garment of the Buddha not much
different visually from the nakedness of the Jinas.[125] Here the Buddha is not wearing the monastic robe which would
become characteristic of many of the later Buddha images.[125] The cross-legged sitting posture may have derived
from earlier reliefs of cross-legged ascetics or teachers at Bharhut, Sanchi and Bodh Gaya.[150]  There has been a
recurring debate about the exact identity of these Mathura statues, some claiming that they are only statues
of Bodhisattavas, which is indeed the exact term used in most of the inscriptions of the statues found in Mathura.
Only one or two statues of the Mathura type are known to mention the Buddha himself.[151] This could be in conformity
with an ancient Buddhist prohibition against showing the Buddha himself in human form, otherwise known
as aniconism in Buddhism. However the scenes in the Isapur Buddha and the later Indrasala Buddha (dated 50-100
CE), refer to events which are considered to have happened after the Buddha's enlightenment, and therefore
probably represent the Buddha rather than his younger self as a Bodhisattava.[153]

Gupta Empire period (4–6th century)[edit]

Main article: Gupta art

Following the decline of the Kushan Empire and the occupation of northern India by the Gupta
Empire under Samudragupta (r.c. 335/350-375 CE), the art of Mathura continued to prosper and evolve. The Mathura
school became one of the two major schools of Gupta Empire art, together with the school of Benares, with Mathura
school remaining the most important and the oldest. The art of Mathura continued to become more sophisticated
during the Gupta Empire, between the 4th and 6th centuries CE. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved
during the Gupta period (4th to 6th century CE) to reach a very high fineness of execution and delicacy in the
modeling, displaying calm and serenity.[225] The style becomes elegant and refined, with a very delicate rendering of
the draping and a sort of radiance reinforced by the usage of pink sandstone.[225] Artistic details tend to be less
realistic, as seen in the symbolic shell-like curls used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha, and the ornate halos
around the head of the Buddhas.[225] The art of the Gupta is often considered as the pinnacle of Indian Buddhist art,
achieving a beautiful rendering of the Buddhist ideal.[225]
The Gupta art of Mathura was very influential throughout northern India, accompanied by a reducing of foreign
influences.[224][225] It was also extremely influential in the development of Buddhist art almost everywhere in the rest of
Asia.

Hindu art at Mathura under the Guptas[edit]

The first known creation of the Guptas relating to Hindu art at Mathura is an inscribed pillar recording the installation
of two Shiva Lingas in 380 CE under Chandragupta II, Samudragupta's successor.[227]

Development of the iconography of Vishnu[edit]

Until the 4th century CE, the worship of Vāsudeva-Krishna seems to have been much more important than that of
Vishnu.[209] With the Gupta period, statues focusing on the worship of Vishnu start to appear, in the form of an
evolution based on the earlier statues of Vāsudeva-Krishna.[209] Many of the statues of Vishnu appearing from the 4th
century CE, such as the Vishnu Caturanana ("Four-Armed"), use the attributes and the iconography of Vāsudeva-
Krishna, but add an aureole starting at the shoulders.[209]
Other statues of Vishnu show him as three-headed, the Vaikuntha Chaturmurti type, where Vishnu or his human
emanation Vāsudeva-Krishna is shown with a human head, flanked by the muzzle of a boar and the head of a lion,
two of his most important and ancient avatars, laid out upon his aureole.[209] Recent scholarship considers that these
"Vishnu" statues still show the emanation of Vāsudeva Krishna as the central human-shaped deity, rather than the
Supreme God Vishnu himself.[228][209]
A further variation is Vishnu as three-headed cosmic creator, the Visnu Visvarupa, showing Vishnu with a human
head, again flanked by the muzzle of a boar the head of a lion, but with a multitude of beings on his aureole, symbol
of the numerous creations and emanations resulting from his creative power.[209] These sculptures can be dated to the
5th century CE.[209]

Incorporation of Lakshmi[edit]

In the 3rd-4th century CE, Lakshmi, which had been an independent Goddess of prosperity and luck, was
incorporated in the Vaishnava pantheon as the consort of Vishnu.[229] She thus became the Hindu goddess of wealth,
good fortune, prosperity and beauty.[230]

Decline with the invasion of the Alchon Huns (6th century CE) [edit]
The decline of the Gupta Empire was accompanied by the invasions and the wide-scale destructions of the  Alchon
Huns circa 460-530 CE, and an ensuing disorganization of society. These events mark the end of Classical Indian
civilisation.[233] The art of Mathura suffered greatly from the destructions brought by the Hunas, as did the art of
Gandhara in the northwest, and both schools of art were nearly wiped out under the rule of the Huna Mihirakula.[232][need
quotation to verify]

Greco-Buddhist art Or Gandhara art

The Greco-Buddhist art or Gandhara art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a
cultural syncretism between Ancient Greek art and Buddhism. It had mainly evolved in the ancient region
of Gandhara, located in the northwestern fringe of the Indian subcontinent.
The series of interactions leading to Gandhara art occurred over time, beginning with Alexander the Great's brief
incursion into the area, followed by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka converting the region to Buddhism.[citation
needed]
 Buddhism became the prominent religion in the Indo-Greek Kingdoms. However, Greco-Buddhist art truly
flowered and spread under the Kushan Empire, when the first surviving devotional images of the Buddha were
created during the 1st-3rd centuries CE.[1] Gandhara art reached its zenith from the 3rd-5th century CE, when most
surviving motifs and artworks were produced.[1]
Gandhara art is characterized by Buddhist subject matter, sometimes adapting Greco-Roman elements, rendered in
a style and forms that are heavily influenced by Greco-Roman art. It has the strong idealistic realism and sensuous
description of Hellenistic art, and it is believed to have produced the first representations of Gautama Buddha in
human form, ending the early period of aniconism in Buddhism.[2]

Early Gandhara creations: stone palettes (2nd century BC – 1st century AD) [edit]
Main article: Stone palettes

The Greeks in Asia are well known archaeologically for their stone palettes, also called "toilet trays", round trays
commonly found in the areas of Bactria and Gandhara, which usually represent Greek mythological scenes. The
earliest of them are attributed to the Indo-Greek period in the 2nd and 1st century BCE .[19][20] Production continued
until the time of the Indo-Parthians, but they practically disappeared after the 1st century.

Interaction[edit]
As soon as the Greeks invaded Northwestern South Asia to form the Indo-Greek kingdom, a fusion of Hellenistic and
Buddhist elements started to appear, encouraged by the benevolence of the Greek kings towards Buddhism. This
artistic trend then developed for several centuries and seemed to flourish further during the Kushan Empire from the
1st century AD.

Early contributions of Gandharan artists to Buddhist art (2nd-1st

century BC)[edit]
According to some authors, Hellenistic sculptors had some connection with the creation of Buddhist art
at Sanchi and Bharhut.[21] The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other foreign
influence, such as the fluted bell, addorsed capital of the Persepolitan order, and the abundant use of the Hellenistic 
honeysuckle motif.[22]

Sanchi[edit]

Around, circa 115 BC, it is known that architectural decorations such as decorative reliefs started to be introduced
at Sanchi by craftsmen from the area of Gandhara, a central Indo-Greek region.[24][25] Typically, the earliest medallions
at Sanchi Stupa No.2 are dated to 115 BC, while the more extensive pillar carvings are dated to 80 BC.[26] These early
decorative reliefs were apparently the work of craftsmen from Gandhara, since they left mason's marks in Kharoshthi,
as opposed to the local Brahmi script.[24][25] This seems to imply that these foreign workers were responsible for some
of the earliest motifs and figures that can be found on the railings of the stupa.[24][25]

Bharhut[edit]

Craftsmen from the Gandhara area, a central region of the Indo-Greek realm, are known to have been involved in the
construction of the gateways at Bharhut, which are dated to 100-75 BC:[31][32] this is because mason's marks
in Kharosthi have been found on several elements of the Bharhut remains, indicating that some of the builders at
least came from the north, particularly from Gandhara where the Kharoshti script was in use.[29][22][33]
Cunningham explained that the Kharosthi letters were found on the ballusters between the architraves of the
gateway, but none on the railings which all had Indian markings, summarizing that the gateways, which are artistically
more refined, must have been made by artists from the North, whereas the railings were made by local artists.[30] The
Bharhut gateway is dated to 100-75 BC.[31]
The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other foreign influence, such as the
fluted bell, addorsed capital of the Persepolitan order, and the abundant use of the Hellenistic  honeysuckle motif.[22]

Characteristics of Greco-Buddhist art[edit]

Artistic model[edit]
Greco-Buddhist art depicts the life of the Buddha in art. The Bodhisattvas are depicted as bare-chested and jewelled
Indian princes, and the Buddhas as Greek kings wearing the light toga-like himation. The buildings in which they are
depicted incorporate Greek style, with the ubiquitous Indo-Corinthian capitals and Greek decorative scrolls.
Surrounding deities form a pantheon of Greek and Indian gods.

Material[edit]
Stucco as well as stone was widely used by sculptors in Gandhara for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings.
Stucco provided the artist with a medium of great plasticity, enabling a high degree of expressiveness to be given to
the sculpture.

Stylistic evolution[edit]
Stylistically, Greco-Buddhist art started by being extremely fine and realistic, as apparent on the standing Buddhas,
with a realistic treatment of the folds and on some even a hint of modelled volume that characterizes the best Greek
work. It then lost this sophisticated realism, becoming progressively more symbolic and decorative over the centuries.

Architecture[edit]
The presence of stupas at the Greek city of Sirkap, which was built by Demetrius around 180 BC, already indicates a
strong syncretism between Hellenism and the Buddhist faith, together with other religions such
as Hinduism and Zoroastrianism. The style is Greek, adorned with Corinthian columns in excellent Hellenistic
execution.
Later in Hadda, the Greek divinity Atlas is represented holding Buddhist monuments with decorated Greek columns.
The motif was adopted extensively throughout the Indian sub-continent, Atlas being substituted for the
Indian Yaksha in the monuments of the Shunga Empire around the 2nd century BC.

Buddha[edit]
Sometime between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD, the first anthropomorphic representations of the
Buddha were developed. These were absent from earlier strata of Buddhist art, which preferred to represent the
Buddha with symbols such as the stupa, the Bodhi tree, the empty seat, the wheel, or the footprints. But the
innovative anthropomorphic Buddha image immediately reached a very high level of sculptural sophistication,
naturally inspired by the sculptural styles of Hellenistic Greece.
Many of the stylistic elements in the representations of the Buddha point to Greek influence: the Greek himation ,
the halo, the contrapposto stance of the upright figures, the stylized Mediterranean curly hair and top-knot apparently
derived from the style of the Belvedere Apollo (330 BC), and the measured quality of the faces, all rendered with
strong artistic realism . Some of the standing Buddhas were sculpted using the specific Greek technique of making
the hands and sometimes the feet in marble to increase the realistic effect, and the rest of the body in another
material.

Gods and Bodhisattvas[edit]

Deities from the Greek mythological pantheon also tend to be incorporated in Buddhist representations,
displaying a strong syncretism. In particular, Herakles  has been used abundantly as the representation
of Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha.[37] Other Greek deities abundantly used in Greco-Buddhist art are
representation of Atlas, and the Greek wind god Boreas. Atlas in particular tends to be involved as a sustaining
element in Buddhist architectural elements. Particularly under the Kushans, there are also numerous
representations of richly adorned, princely Bodhisattvas all in a very realistic Greco-Buddhist style.
The Bodhisattvas, characteristic of the Mahayana form of Buddhism, are represented under the traits of Kushan
princes, completed with their canonical accessories.
 

Devotees[edit]
Some Greco-Buddhist friezes represent groups of donors or devotees, giving interesting insights into the cultural
identity of those who participated in the Buddhist cult.
Some groups, often described as the "Buner reliefs," usually dated to the 1st century AD, depict Greeks in
perfect Hellenistic style, either in posture, rendering, or clothing. It is sometimes even difficult to perceive an
 actual religious message behind the scenes. About a century later, friezes also depict Kushan devotees, usually
with the Buddha as the central figure.

Fantastic animals[edit]
Various fantastic animal deities of Hellenic origin were used as decorative elements in Buddhist temples, often
triangular friezes in staircases or in front of Buddhist altars. The origin of these motifs can be found in Greece in
the 5th century BC, and later in the designs of Greco-Bactrian perfume trays as those discovered in Sirkap.
Among the most popular fantastic animals are tritons, ichthyo-centaurs and ketos sea-monsters. As fantastic
animals of the sea, they were, in early Buddhism, supposed to safely bring the souls of dead people to Paradise
beyond the waters.

Later period (5th-7th centuries)[edit]

The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara essentially ends with the 5th-7th centuries. A late evolution is the appearance of
a halo and mandorla surrounding the Buddha figure.[38] The last stages correspond roughly to the destruction of
the Alchon Huns, when the art of Gandhara, becomes essentially extinct.

Amaravati Stupa
Amarāvati Stupa is a ruined Buddhist stūpa at the village of Amaravathi, Palnadu district, Andhra Pradesh, probably
built in phases between the third century BCE and about 250 CE. It was enlarged and new sculptures replaced the
earlier ones, beginning in about 50 CE.[ The great majority of sculptures are in relief, and the surviving sculptures do
not include very large iconic Buddha figures, although it is clear these once existed. Art historians regard the art of
Amaravati as one of the three major styles or schools of ancient Indian art, the other two being the Mathura style, and
the Gandharan style.[4]  Like other major early Indian stupas, but to an unusual extent, the Amaravarti sculptures
include several representations of the stupa itself, which although they differ, partly reflecting the different stages of
building, give a good idea of its original appearance.

History[edit]
The stupa was possibly founded in the third century BCE in the time of Asoka but there is no decisive evidence for
the date of foundation.[11] The earliest inscription from the site belongs to the early centuries BCE but it cannot be
assigned to Aśoka with certainty.[12] The earliest phase from which we have architectural or sculpted remains seems
to be post-Mauryan, from the 2nd century BCE.[13]

Sculptures[edit]
Very little of the sculpture was found and properly recorded in its original exact location, but the broad arrangement of
the different types of pieces is generally agreed. The many representations of a stupa, either representing the
Amaravati Stupa itself, or an imaginary one very similar to it, provide a useful guide. It is not certain whether either
the early or late phases of sculptural decoration were ever completed, as too much has been destroyed. Most
survivals can be fitted into groups, by architectural function and placement.
The stupas are broadly consistent and are generally taken to show what the late form of the Amaravati Stupa looked
like, or was intended to.
The early railing pillars are in granite and plain; the cross-bars were perhaps in limestone. Many stumps of the pillars
are now arranged around the stupa. Fragments have been found of limestone coping stones, some with reliefs of
running youths and animals, perhaps from c. 150-100 BCE.[39] This subject-matter continued in the coping stones of
the first phase of the later railings.
The later "railing copings" are long pieces typically about 75 to 90 cm tall and 20 to 28 cm thick,[40] running along the
top of the railings. Many are carved with crowded scenes, often illustrating Jataka tales from the previous lives of the
Buddha. There was also a much smaller set of limestone railings, undecorated, whose placing and function remains
unclear.[41] The later ones, in limestone, are carved with round lotus medallions, and sometimes panels with figurative
reliefs, these mostly on the sides facing in towards the stupa. There are three medallions to a column, the bottom one
incomplete. Based on the style of the sculpture the construction of the later railing is usually divided into three
phases, growing somewhat in size and the complexity of the images.[42]
Around the entrances there were a number of columns and pillars , some topped with figures of sitting lions, a
symbol of Buddhism. Several of these have survived. The stupas on drum-slabs show large statues of a standing
Buddha behind the entrances, but none of these have survived.

Amaravati School or style[edit]

Amaravati is the most important site for a distinct regional style, called the Amaravati School or style, or Andhran
style. There are numerous other sites, many beyond the boundaries of the modern state of Andhra Pradesh. One
reason for the use of the terms Amaravati School or style is that the actual find-spot of many Andhran pieces is
uncertain or unknown. The early excavations at Amaravati itself were not well recorded, and the subsequent history
of many pieces is uncertain.[44] As late as the 1920s and beyond, other sites were the subject of excavations that were
sometimes little better than treasure hunts, with pieces sold abroad as "Amaravati School".[45]
The second most important site for the style is Nagarjunakonda, some 160 km away. This was a large
monastic vihara or "university", which is now submerged under a lake, after construction of a dam. Many remains
were relocated to what is now an island in the lake, but most sculptures are now in various museums, in India and
abroad.[46]  In reliefs, the mature Amaravati style is characterised by crowded scenes of graceful, elongated figures
who imbue the sculpted scenes with a sense of life and action that is unique in Indian art . In the narrative scenes, the
deep cutting permits overlapping figures on two or even three planes, the figures appearing to be fully in the round.
Though the subject matter is similar to that at Bharhut and Sanchi the style is notably different. Compared with the
northern works, their figures are more attenuated and sensual, their decoration more abundant. In earlier phases,
before about 180-200 CE, the Buddha himself is not shown, as also in other Indian schools.[50] Unlike other major
sites, minor differences in the depiction of narratives show that the exact textual sources used remain unclear, and
have probably not survived.[51]
Especially in the later period at Amaravati itself, the main relief scenes are a sort of court art, showing a great interest
in scenes of court life reflecting the luxurious life of the upper class, rich, and engaged in the vibrant trade with many
parts of India and the wider world.[52]
Free-standing statues are mostly of the standing Buddha, wearing a monastic robe. There is a peculiarly
characteristic large fold at the bottom of the robe, one of a number of features similar to the Kushan art of the north.[53]