EP110 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY II

BEP1031 MATERIAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

& EG 104 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING I

NO. OF EXPERIMENT: 6

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: TENSILE TEST

NAME & ID: ARRIANNA PAULINA PETER 1002162633

JOEL LEE CHERN TERN 1002265669
TIANG SOON LIN 1002267948

GROUP: 6

DATE OF EXPERIMENT: 20 JUNE 2023

TUTOR: MS. RAFIZAH BINTI ZAITON

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY &
BUILT ENVIRONMENT
2023
 Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 3

Objective .................................................................................................................................. 10

Problem statements .................................................................................................................. 10

Hypothesis................................................................................................................................ 10

Material and Apparatus ............................................................................................................ 11

Procedure ................................................................................................................................. 11

Results and calculation ............................................................................................................ 12

Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 19

Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 22

Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 23

Reference ................................................................................................................................. 24

Appendix .................................................................................................................................. 25

Rubrics ..................................................................................................................................... 31
Introduction
Tensile testing is the most common mechanical test used to assess the strength of
metals. The sample is pulled to break at a constant rate for a relatively short time. The force
exerted on the sample under test is plotted against the corresponding strain. Force data
obtained from tensile tests can be converted to engineering stress data and a graph of
engineering stress versus engineering strain can be generated.

The basic idea of the Tensile Test is to place a sample of metals given between
two fixtures which are called grips, to clamp the material tightly in place. Besides that, the
metal should be up straight in order to avoid any imperfections in the product of the test.
This metal used to test, is known in the length and diameter. These two parameters
should be measured before performing the test. Then, the machine is switched on, and the
fixtures will grow apart from each other creating stress in the middle of the material. For
analytical purposes, a plot of Extension vs Force will be plotted automatically by software
installed in the computer which is connected to the machine. Then, from there, we could
plot a Young Modulus graph if it's needed.

Figure 1: tensile test machine

Figure 2: measurements needed to be taken from specimens

For analytical purposes, a plot of stress (σ) versus strain (ε) is constructed during a
tensile test experiment, which could be done automatically on the software provided by the
instrument manufacturer. Stress, in metric system, is usually measured in N/m2 or Pa, such
that 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa. From the experiment, the value of stress is calculated by dividing the
amount of force (F) applied by the machine in the axial direction by its cross-sectional area
(A0), which is measured prior to running the experiment. Mathematically, it is expressed in
Equation 1. The strain values, which have no units, can be calculated using Equation 2. In the
equation, Lf is the instantaneous length of the specimen and L0 is the initial length.

𝐹
𝜎= ---------(1)
𝐴0

𝑙−𝑙0
𝜀= ---------(2)
𝑙0

A typical stress-strain curve would look like Figure 3. The stress-strain curve shown
in Figure 3 is an example of a “text-book” stress-strain curve. In reality, not all stress-strain
curves perfectly resemble the one shown in Figure 3. This stress-strain curve is typical for
ductile metallic elements. Another thing to take note is that Figure 3 shows an “engineering
stress-strain” curve. Once a material reaches its ultimate stress strength of the stress-strain
curve, its cross-sectional area would reduce dramatically, a term known as necking. When the
computer software plots the stress strain curve, it assumes that the cross sectional area stays
constant throughout the experiment, even during necking, therefore causing the curve to slope
down. The “real” stress-strain curve could be constructed directly by installing a “gauge,”
which measures the change in the cross sectional area of the specimen throughout the
experiment.
Figure 3: various regions and points on the stress-strain curve

Theoretically, even without measuring the cross-sectional area of the specimen during
the tensile experiment, the “true” stress-strain curve could still be constructed by assuming
that the volume of the material stays the same. Using this concept, both the true stress (σT)
and the true strain (εT) could be calculated using Equation 3 and Equation 4 respectively. The
derivation of these equations is beyond the scope of this lab report. Consult any standard
mechanics textbook to learn more about these equations. In these equations, L0 refers to the
initial length of the specimen, Lf refers to the instantaneous length and σ refers to the
instantaneous stress.

𝐿
𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎 ----------(3)
𝐿0

𝐿
𝜀𝑇 = ln ( )--------(4)
𝐿0

Figure 3 also shows that a stress-strain curve is divided into four regions, which are as
follows: elastic, yielding, strain hardening (commonly occurs in metallic materials) and
necking. The area under the curve represents the amount of energy needed to accomplish
each of the “events.” The total area under the curve (up to the point of fracture) is also known
as the modulus of toughness. This represents the amount of energy needed to break the
sample, which could be compared to the impact energy of the sample, determined using
Impact test. The area under the linear region of the curve is known as the modulus of
resilience. This represents the minimum amount of energy needed to deform the sample.
 The linear region of the curve of Figure 3, which is called the elastic region (past this
region, is called the plastic region), is the region where a material behaves elastically. The
material will return to its original shape when a force is released while the material is in its
elastic region. The slope of the curve, which could be calculated using Equation 5 is a
constant, and is an intrinsic property of a material, is known as the elastic modulus, E. In
metric unit, it is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa).
𝜎
𝐸= -------(5)
𝜀

Mechanical properties of metals and alloys that are technically important for structural design
and can be determined from technical tensile tests are:

1. Modulus of elasticity

Modulus of elasticity of young modulus is the measurement of resistant of the material due to
elastic deformation. It shows the stiffness of a material.

2. Yield strength at 0.2% offset

Yield strength determines the stress of the material due to elastic limit. It is the maximum
load that obtained by the material when it is in between elastic deformation and plastic
deformation.

Figure 4: stress-strain curve

 3. Ultimate tensile strength

It is the maximum load that can be hold by the specimen before it experiences necking
phenomenon. Necking happens when the gage of the specimen is starting to decrease. The
tensile strength happens in the plastic regime.

4. Percent elongation at fracture

5. Percent reduction in area at fracture

Tensile ductility of the specimen can be represented as % elongation or % reduction in area

as expressed in the equations given below:

𝑙−𝑙0
%𝜀 = × 100% ----------(6)
𝑙0
𝐴0 −𝐴𝑓
%𝐴 = × 100% -------(7)
𝐴0

where Af is the cross-sectional area of specimen at fracture.

The fracture strain of the specimen can be obtained by drawing a straight line starting
at the fracture point of the stress-strain curve parallel to the slope in the linear
relation. The interception of the parallel line at the x axis indicates the fracture strain of the
specimen being tested.

Figure 5: stress-strain relationship under uniaxial tensile loading

 6. Work hardening exponent, n
Furthermore, material behaviour beyond the elastic region where stress-strain
relationship is no longer linear (uniform plastic deformation) can be shown as a power
law expression as follows:
σ=Kεn --------------(8)
Where:
σ is the true stress
ε is the true strain
n is the strain-hardening exponent
K is the strength coefficient

The strain-hardening exponent values, n, of most metals range between 0.1-0.5,

which can be estimated from a slope of a log true stress-log true strain plot up to the
maximum load as shown in figure 5. Equation 10 can then be written as follows:
log 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜀 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐾 ---------------(9)

While n is the slope (m) and the K value indicates the value of the true stress at the
true strain equal to unity as illustrated in figure 6. High value of the strain-hardening
exponent indicates an ability of a metal to be readily plastically deformed under applied
stresses. This is also corresponding with a large area under the stress-strain curve up to the
maximum load. This power law expression has been modified variably according to
materials of interest especially for steels and stainless steels.
Figure 6: slope of log true stress – log true strain curve up to the ultimate tensile strength
indicating the work hardening exponent (n value)

7. Modulus of Resilience, UR
Apart from tensile parameters mentioned previously, analysis of the area under the stress
strain curve can give informative material behaviour and properties. By considering the
area under the stress-strain curve in the elastic region (triangular area) as illustrated in figure
6, this area represents the stored elastic energy or resilience. The latter is the ability of the
materials to store elastic energy which is measured as a modulus of resilience, UR, as follows:
1 𝜎02
𝑈𝑅 = 𝜎0 𝜀0 = ---------(10)
2 2𝐸

The significance of this parameter is considered by looking at the application of

mechanical springs which requires high yield stress and low Young's modulus. For example,
high carbon spring steel has the modulus of resilience of 2250 kPa while that of medium
carbon steel is only 232 kPa.

8. Tensile toughness, UT
Tensile toughness, UT, can be considered as the area under the entire stress-strain curve
which indicates the ability of the material to absorb energy in the plastic region. In other
words, tensile toughness is the ability of the material to withstand the external applied
forces without experiencing failure. Engineering applications that require high tensile
toughness is for example gear, chains and crane hooks, etc. The tensile toughness can be
estimated from an expression as follows:
𝜎0 + 𝜎𝑢
𝑈𝑇 = 𝜎0 𝜀𝑓 or 𝜀𝑓 ----------(11)
2
Figure 7: area under the stress-strain curve of high carbon spring steel and structural steel

Objective
• To assess the strength and behaviours of metals under a tensile load.
• To acquire significant parameters such as Young's Modulus, yield stress, and ultimate
tensile stress through experimentation.
• To examine and evaluate the fatigue strength of a material when exposed to repetitive
or cyclic stress conditions.

Problem statements
How does the mechanical behaviour of two different materials under tensile load compare,
and which material exhibits superior tensile properties for applications requiring high
strength and ductility? What effect does temperature have on the mechanical properties of a
given material? And how does temperature affect material behaviour and performance under
different thermal conditions? How does velocity affect the mechanical properties of a given
material under tensile loading, and how does it affect the material's behaviour and
performance under various loading conditions, such as impact and dynamic loading scenarios?

Hypothesis
When evaluating the strength of metals and their behaviour under tensile loads, it is
believed that increasing the applied load proportionally increases the deformation and stress
of the material up to the point of failure. This hypothesis is based on the expectation that as
the load increases, the internal forces within the material also increase, stretching and
deforming the material until it can no longer withstand the applied load, leading to failure. In
addition, different metals are expected to exhibit different mechanical properties due to
variations in material composition, crystal structure and microstructure that determine key
parameters such as Young's modulus, yield strength and tensile strength. This hypothesis is
supported by the understanding that different metals have different atomic arrangements and
bonding properties, which can affect their response to external forces. Therefore, the values
of these parameters are likely to vary from metal to metal, providing valuable insight into
mechanical behaviour and strength properties. Finally, when testing the fatigue strength of
materials subjected to cyclic or cyclic loading, it is hypothesized that the material's resistance
to fatigue failure decreases as the number of loading cycles increases. This hypothesis is
based on the observation that cyclic loading can induce the formation and propagation of
microcracks and defects in materials, leading to progressive weakening and eventual failure.
As the number of loading cycles increases, the accumulated damage and crack growth are
expected to reduce the fatigue strength of the material, eventually leading to failure at a
certain stress amplitude.

Material and Apparatus

- Universal Tensile Testing machine
- Steel sample
- Brass Sample
- Vernacular Calliper

Procedure
1. Measure the original gage length and area of the specimen using a vernier calliper.
2. Carry out the tensile test for the specimen using the universal testing machine under
the supervision of the lab technician/instructor.
3. After the test is completed, obtain the percent elongation and percent reduction of area.
4. From the plot of force versus strain, obtain the graph of engineering stress versus
engineering strain.
5. Obtain the Young’s modulus, ultimate tensile stress, 0.2% offset yield stress and
fracture stress for the specimen.
Results and calculation
Brass specimen ; Stainless steel specimen
Extension Force Extension Force
(mm) (N) (mm) (N)
0 0 0 0
0.0375 0 0.0075 0
0.045 10 0.0975 0
0.105 20 0.105 12.5
0.135 30 0.1125 12.5
0.1425 40 0.12 12.5
0.15 50 0.24 25
0.1575 60 0.2475 25
0.735 60 0.255 25
0.795 140 1.32 1112.5
0.8025 140 1.3275 1137.5
0.81 150 1.335 1150
0.8175 170 1.3425 1175
0.825 180 1.35 1200
3.3525 8640 3.42 10737.5
3.36 8670 3.4275 10787.5
3.3675 8690 3.435 10812.5
3.375 8700 3.4425 10837.5
3.3825 8720 3.45 10887.5
3.39 8740 3.4575 10937.5
3.3975 8770 3.465 10962.5
5.565 9840 3.4725 10987.5
5.5725 9840 3.48 11037.5
5.58 9840 4.2075 11950
5.5875 9830 4.215 11950
5.595 9830 4.2225 11962.5
5.79 9800 4.23 11962.5
5.7975 9790 4.24 11962.5
5.805 9790 4.3275 11950
5.82 9780 4.335 11950
6.0225 9680 4.3425 11950
6.03 9670 4.6125 11812.5
6.0375 9660 4.62 11800
6.2625 9440 4.6275 11787.5
6.27 9430 4.635 11775
6.345 9320 4.6425 11775
6.3525 9320 5.31 10650
6.36 9300 5.3175 10625
6.3675 9280 6.18 8525
Table 1: stress strain data of brass (LHS) and stainless steel RHS)

Fracture points ultimate tensile strength, Fmax(N) yield strength, F(N)

Area, A0 //A = 1/4пd2

Stainless steel, A0= 1/4п(5x10-3)2

= 1.963x10-5 m2

Stainless steel, A = 1/4п(4.0x10-3)2

=1.256x10-5 m2

Specimens Before elongation After elongation

Diameter, Length, Area, A0 Diameter, Length, l Area, A (m2)
d0 (m) l0 (m) (m2) d (m) (m)
Stainless 0.005 0.0260 1.963 x 10-5 0.004 0.0289 1.256 x 10-5
steel
Brass 0.005 0.0261 1.963 x 10-5 0.0042 0.0290 1.385 x 10-5
Table 2: elongations (before and after) of stainless steel and brass specimens measured
using vernier callipers

Specimens Stress, σ (MPa) Strain, ε

Brass 0 0
443.199 0.0260
501.274 0.0289
47 0.0400
Stainless steel 0 0
562.277 0.0261
609.399 0.0290
434.284 0.0400
Table 3: stress- strain values for specimens

1. Engineering stress, σ:
𝐹
𝜎= 𝐴0
11037.5𝑁
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝜎 =
1.963×10−5 𝑚2

= 562.277𝑀𝑃𝑎

8700𝑁
𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝜎 = 1.963×10−5𝑚2

= 443.199MPa

2. Engineering strain, ε:
𝑙−𝑙0
𝜀= 𝑙0
0.0289−0.0260
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝜀 = 0.0260

= 0.112
 0.0290−0.0261
𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝜀 =
0.0261

= 0.111

3. Ultimate tensile stress, σult:

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝐴0
11087.5𝑁
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 1.963×10−5𝑚2

= 564.824𝑀𝑃𝑎

9840𝑁
𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡 =
1.963×10−5 𝑚2

= 501.274𝑀𝑃𝑎

4. % elongation:
𝑙−𝑙0
%𝜀 = × 100%
𝑙0

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙, % 𝜀 = 0.112 × 100%

= 11.2%

Brass, % 𝜀 = 0.111 × 100%

= 11.1%

5. % reduction in area:
𝐴0 −𝐴𝑓
%𝐴 = × 100%
𝐴0

(1.963×10−5 𝑚2 )−(1.256×10−5 𝑚2 )
Stainless steel, % 𝐴 = × 100%
1.963×10−5 𝑚2

= 36.02%

(1.963×10−5 𝑚2 )−(1.385×10−5 𝑚2 )
Brass, % 𝐴 = × 100%
1.963×10−5 𝑚2

= 29.44%
6. Young’s modulus/ modulus of elasticity:
𝜎
𝐸= 𝜀
562.277𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝐸 = 0.112

= 5020.330𝑀𝑃𝑎

443.199𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝐸 = 0.111

= 3992.784𝑃𝑎

7. Yield strength is the strength at which a metal or alloy shows significant plastic
deformation, because there is no definite point on the stress-strain curve where elastic
strain ends and plastic strain begins, the yield strength is chosen to be the strength
when a definite amount of plastic strain has occurred, for example 0.25 offset yield
strength. (see figure 8)
Where,
F= average uniaxial tensile force
A0= original cross-sectional area
Lf= new length of specimen after being extended by uniaxial tensile force
L0= original length of specimen
Af= final cross-sectional area

Figure 8: determination of the 0.2% offset yield stress

 graph of force (N) against extension (mm) for brass specimen
14000
y = 1957.4x - 68.192
12000 R² = 0.881

10000

8000
force (N)

6000

4000

2000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-2000
extension (mm)

Graph 1: brass specimen (F against mm)→force-extension graph

stress-strain graph of brass

600

500
501.274
472.746
400 443.199
stress, σ (MPa)

300

200

100

0
strain, ε
0 0.026 0.0289 0.04

Graph 2: brass specimen → stress-strain graph

 graph of force, N against extensions, mm for stainless
steel specimen
16000

14000 y = 2266.7x - 167.9

R² = 0.7866
12000

10000
force (N)

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-2000
extensions, mm

Graph 3: stainless steel specimen ( F against mm) → force-extension graph

stress-strain graph for stainless steel

700

600 609.399
562.277
500
stress, σ (MPa)

434.384
400

300

200

100

0 0 0.0261 0.029 0.04

1 2 3 4
strain, ε

Graph 4: stainless steel specimen → stress-strain graph

Discussion
The data obtained from the universal testing machine shows the difference in rate of
extensions in stainless steel and brass samples. From data, on cross-sectional area, length,
extension and axial loads, the strain and stress for both samples specimens were calculated.
When subjected to the same amount of load, there was relatively high extension in brass than
in stainless steel. This can be attributed to the difference in micro-crystalline structured of the
two sample materials. Stainless steel reached yield point at stress of 562.277MPa (force, F is
11037.5N), whereas brass reached yield strength at 443.199MPa (F=8700N). Henceforth, it
can be seen that stainless steel has high tensile strength compared to brass. When the
gradients of both stainless steel and brass were calculated, the gradient of brass is steeper and
the value of gradient is lower than of stainless steel. The gradients of stress-strain curves give
the Young’s modulus, which affects the deflection of materials under different loads. Further
loading of both specimens beyond the yield point gives a stack difference; stainless steel
reached fracture point at approximately 609.399MPa (F=11962.5N) while brass reached
fracture at 501.274MPa (F=9840N). Stainless steel has Body-Centred-Cubic (BCC) crystal
structure, while brass has Face-Centred-Cubic (FCC) crystal structure. Changes in length
indicates the ductility of the material when loaded. There is large amount of necking observed
in stainless steel than in brass.

The changes encountered in cross-sectional area cannot be influenced by the

engineering stress-strain relationship; the changes can only be possible for true stress-strain
curves. Normally, true strains are of higher value than those of engineering strains. This can
be explained by the fact that true strains take place in transverse directions of the gage length.
High values of stress and strains in stainless steels are attributed to strain hardening. the
original area for stainless steel and brass is 1.963 x 10-5 m2. After elongation of the specimens,
the area of stainless steel is 1.256 x 10-5 m2 and 1.385 x 10-5m2. So, the percentage of
reduction in area for stainless steel and brass specimen are 36.02% and 29.44% respectively.
Strain hardening or work hardening in stainless steel occurs at high values of stress than brass.
The Young’s modulus for stainless steel is 5020.330MPa and 3392.784MPa. In the graph, it
can be seen that for engineering stress-strain curves, the curves drop downwards after
necking has occurred. However, this phenomenon cannot be seen in normal true stress-strain
curves, the curves would reach the highest region of fracture. The fracture points of stainless
steel are (434.384MPa , 0.040) whereas for brass is (472.746MPa, 0.040).
 Engineering stress and strains were calculated after the extensometer on the universal
testing machine measured the strain that was applied on each sample specimen. The data on
strain was obtained on the cross head after necking had occurred. The engineering strain, the
changes in length (extensions) were divided by the original length. In calculations of true
stress, the load applied could be divided by the instantaneous area. True strain is calculated
by dividing the change in length by the instantaneous final length. The value of engineering
strain for stainless steel is 0.112 and brass is 0.111. So, the value of percentage of elongation
of engineering strain is 11.2% for stainless steel and 11.1% for brass.

Questions

1. Describe what you observed about the specimen after failure.

After the failure of the specimens, it was broken into two parts in a way that is stretched due
to the pressure applied. Then, we measured the length and diameter of the specimen using a
vernier calliper. This measure was taken to calculate the tensile strength, elongation strain,
Ultimate Tensile Stress, % elongation, % reduction in area, Young's modulus and yield
strength. During the test, the specimens shall undergo tension and at one point called uniaxial
stress time, the specimen will undergo necking process. In this case, it depends on the type of
material used for the test. Here, we have used three types of specimens are not copper,
aluminium and steel. All of them produce necking during testing because their ductility.
However, at some point, when they reach their Ultimate Tensile Force, specimen broke into
pieces.
 2. Compare the stress-strain graph that you have obtained for the specimen with that of
an aluminium specimen. (refer to handbooks and other technical references)

Figure 9: stress-strain graph for representative materials

The stress - strain curve is very important step in the mechanical properties of the material. In
the above graph, we compare the curve aluminium and stainless steel specimens. After
0.2% of the strains had, it indicates that either defect aluminium plastic or it can
return to its original shape but didn't. Aluminium for the first part of the graph, it can
follow Hooke's law which is proportional to each other. On the other hand, for stainless
steel, there are manufactured necking on one of the upper limits as shown in the graph.
During this period, the atoms in the material undergoing internal restructuring of
molecules, in which atoms move, which also defines the ductility of the materials tested. As
in this case, aluminium has more ductility than stainless steel. This is because aluminium has
had a higher limit of proportion while the stainless steel parts have had lower yields. Steel
can become brittle very easy to use some load on it.

Figure 10: stress-strain curve of aluminium

Therefore, from this graph curve aluminium and stainless steel, we managed to identify
that aluminium is more ductile than stainless steel. Furthermore, there is a
dissipation of energy in aluminium specimens when he returned to the authenticity of
it. Energy lost is caused by heat. Areas under pressure - pressure loop will lose energy.

3. What are some of the factors that may affect the precision of your results in carrying
out this test?

One of the important factors that influence the accuracy of the results is the sample preparation. The
sample needs to be cut into a standard size precisely so that cracks can be avoided. The present of
cracks can lead to inaccuracy of the results obtained. Next, another important factor is temperature.
The higher the temperature, the lower the material strength because of the dependency of material
strength to temperature.

Limitations
During the experiment, some precautions were taken into account and is also to
improve the accuracy of the results of the experiment. These are the steps just in case some
should be taken. Firstly, the specimens should be put in a straight position while it is on the
universal testing machine. The machine must hold the specimens by ¾ of the length from the
edge. This actually depends on which specimen being tested. However, for both specimens
tested on in this experiment, it is encouraged to hold the specimens by ¾ of the length from
the edges. It is important that the specimens are tightly gripped onto the specimen grips to
prevent slipping, which will otherwise result in experimental errors. The “Open” and “Close”
direction of the handle is noted on the grip. It should be made sure that the specimen is
vertically aligned, if not a torsional force, rather than axial force, will result. Besides that,
failures of measurement of diameter are faced in this experiment due to the inefficient of
vernier callipers. Measurements using vernier calliper should be taken in a proper way to
avoid errors in calculations later. The results obtained can be affected if the specimens have
been used before. Error may occur during this experiment includes parallax error during
reading of measurement, it is advised to measure the test specimen parameters more than
twice when using the vernier callipers to ascertain the reading. Furthermore, zero error may
also occur due to the lack of vernier calliper before measuring. If the vernier calliper is not
showing absolute zero reading when it is totally closed, the measurements are needed to
minus or add the particular value in each of the measurements. Moreover, it is recommended
to wear eye protection during the tensile test. This is because when the specimens were
extended on the universal testing machine, once fracture occurs, there might have some bits
of broken specimen flings across the room and may hit someone in the eye. It is also advised
not to begin the experiment until the lab tutor begins with the procedures.

Conclusions
Tensile testing is a way of determining how something will react when it is pulled
apart when a force is applied to it in tension. Tensile testing is one of the simplest and most
widely used mechanical tests. By measuring the force required to elongate a specimen to
breaking point, material properties can be determined that will allow designers and quality
managers to predict how materials and products will behave in their intended applications.

In this experiment, two specimens are used to undergo tensile stress, which is
stainless steel and brass. The results for each experiment are different which is actually
accurate. Since their ultimate tensile stress has been exceeded, it has known that these two
specimens have brittle characteristics. Applying extra stress on them has resulted in necking
to occur and the specimens will break into two pieces. Furthermore, the experimental results
for stainless steel and brass came slightly near to each other for the engineering strain and
percentage elongation, but for the engineering stress, ultimate tensile strength, percentage
reduction in area and Young’s modulus were far from these two. For stainless steel and brass
specimen’s graph have two yield strength which are upper and lower points. However, the
lower yield point is used as the yield strength and value is 562.277MPa and ultimate yield
strength is 609.399MPa for stainless steel; whereas the yield strength value is 443.199MPa
and the ultimate yield strength is 501.274MPa for brass. The percentage of elongation that
corresponds to the ductility is 11.2% for stainless steel and 11.1% for brass. The percentage
of reduction in area for stainless steel is 36.02% and 29.44% in brass. Lastly, the Young’s
modulus for stainless steel is 5020.330MPa and 3992.784MPa for brass.

The analysis of the curves for each of the specimens which was force against
extensions, the relevant information for calculation were collected and labelled in table 1 and
2. The yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and fracture points were then taken from the
tables 1 and 2 and by using the formulas given, the stress- strain graph is able to be plotted
according to table 3. To finalise the experiment, tensile test is one of the most important tests
to be carried out on the industries. It allows them to determine the ductility of a metal or alloy.
This surely helps in many compositions such as airplane bodies, building structures, bridges
and many more. It allows engineers to view a material from different perspectives for
enhancement and improvements in the future.

Reference
1. Tensile Test Experiment | Michigan Technological University. [online]. Available at:
https://www.mtu.edu/materials/k12/experiments/tensile/..
2. LAb Manual for Tensile Stress Testing HAndout LAb One.pdf. [online]. Available at:
https://web.eng.fiu.edu/munroen/Classes/LAb%20Manual%20for%20Tensile%20Stre
ss%20Testing%20HAndout%20LAb%20One.pdf..
3. polymer-lab-instron-procedure.pdf. [online]. Available at:
https://www.mse.iastate.edu/files/2011/07/polymer-lab-instron-procedure.pdf..
4. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS- Tensile Test. [online]. Available at:
https://www.educationalstuffs.in/strength-of-materials-tensile-test/..
5. (PDF) LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS TENSILE TESTING. [online]. Available at:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334362506_LABORATORY_EXPERIMEN
TS_TENSILE_TESTING..
6. Norman E. Dowling, Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, Prentice-Hall International,
1993.
7. Tension Testing / Tensile Testing - ADMET. [online]. Available at:
https://www.admet.com/testing-applications/test-types/tension-testing/..
8. Tensile Testing Machines | An Introduction | Instron. [online]. Available at:
https://www.instron.com/en/resources/test-types/tensile-test..
9. Metal Structure – University of Washington. [online] Available at:
https://depts.washington.edu/matseed/mse_resources/Webpage/Metals/metalstructure.
htm
Appendix

Figure 11:Use sandpaper to remove rust from stainless steel specimen

figure 12: brass specimen and stainless steel specimen

Figure 13: necking of stainless steel specimen

figure 14: clamping of brass specimen on universal testing machine

Figure 15: fracture of stainless steel specimen

Figure 16: necking of brass specimen

Figure 17: fracture of brass specimen

Figure 18: after fracture of stainless steel specimen and brass specimen (length and diameter
are measured)
Figure 19: universal testing machine
Figure 20: raw data of experiment 6
Rubrics

1002162633, 1002265669, 1002267948

Arrianna Peter, Tiang Soon Lin, Joel Lee