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Social Sciences and Humanities:
Different Perspectives

Edited By
Ms Sonali Sharma
Dr Arun Dev Pareek

Nitya Publications, Bhopal

First Edition: 2021 (July)

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Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives ii

 Preface

Bringing together these articles from diverse domains of social sciences,

humanities has been a milestone in an ongoing journey - a journey
towards tracing the different perspectives and development in the related
field and domain. The idea of this edited book is vested in the authors
who have contributed with research gist and academic reciprocity.

The articles provide an understanding of generic developments and

changes that have taken place from Economics to Corporate Social
Responsibility, from Human Resource to Psychiatric Treatment, from
Gender Politics to Employability, from Banks to Equation Modelling and
from Online Teaching to Covid19 Pandemic. The research
articles/chapters go on to reconstruct relationships with the research
investigation from the East to the West. This edited book is intended to
arouse and fulfil the academic need of the researchers and the young
academicians.

We appreciate all the authors who vested their voluminous findings for
publication in this book. The academic and research venture started with
these knowledge bearers will reach new milestones in coming years. We
are grateful to Manipal University Jaipur for always being the source of
inspiration and motivation in nurturing our thoughts towards academic
and research advancement. We also thank Nitya Publications, Bhopal, for
providing us the platform to showcase the fresh insights and perspectives
in Social Sciences and Humanities.

Sonali Sharma
Arun Dev Pareek

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives iii

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives iv
 Table of Content

S. No. Title Page No.

1 Achieving Environmental Sustainability through 1
Digital Finance: Possibilities and Challenges
- Paul Lelen Haokip, K. Katini, Maya M, Amalanathan S

2 An Analytical Study of CSR Programme on 15

Environment (A Case Study)
- Kshitiz Maharshi, Kunal Vijay, Swati Vashisth

3 An Investigation of Job Satisfaction among Nursing 28

Staff: A Study on Multi speciality Hospital
- Jaspreet Kaur

4 Ancient, Medieval and Colonial Psychiatric 53

Treatment Practises in India
- Abhijit Pathak, Ramakrishna Biswal

5 Antecedents of Faculty Satisfaction with Online 67

Teaching during the Covid-19 Pandemic
- Tavleen Kaur, Nidhi Sehgal

6 Approaches to Gender and Sociological Paradigms 80

- Haifaa Mohammad Ahsan

7 Gendered Politics in India 93

- Deepika Mann

8 Graduates’ Perceptions on the Predictors of their 105

Employability
- Nidhi Sehgal, Saboohi Nasim

9 Influence of Succession Planning on Banks' 117

Effectiveness - with Special Reference to Select Public
Sector Banks in Udupi District, Karnataka
- S. Saisachidhananda

10 Realistic Information and Source Credibility: The 132

Moderating Role of Conscientiousness and
Extraversion
- Tavleen Kaur

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives v

 11 Structural Equation Modeling 144
- Surbhi Cheema, Ritu Srivastava, Amrendra Pandey

12 The Game Changer Covid-19 Edition 154

- Mohammad Johar, Shah S Dhawal

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives vi

 Chapter 4
Ancient, Medieval and Colonial Psychiatric
Treatment Practises in India

Abhijit Pathak1*, Ramakrishna Biswal2

1M.A.
in Social Work
Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences,
National Institute of Technology Rourkela, India

2PhD
in Developmental Social Cognitive Neuroscience
Assistant Professor, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences,
National Institute of Technology Rourkela, India

*Corresponding Author: Abhijit Pathak

Email: abhijitpathak29@gmail.com

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 53

 Ancient, Medieval and Colonial Psychiatric
Treatment Practises in India
Abhijit Pathak1*, Ramakrishna Biswal2

Abstract: Indian traditional medicinal system was an alternate form of

the medical treatment system of physical and mental or psychiatric
disorders in India when the world was sublime to superstitious beliefs
during the palaeolithic and neolithic epoch. The Indian medicinal
treasure witnessed the pinnacle of glory. Mental illness or psychiatric
disorder is a state of abnormality observed in an individual's thinking
and behaviour. Earlier civilisation focused chiefly on protecting
themselves rather than empathising, treating, and comprehending the
pain and suffering of one. Indian traditional medicinal systems in the
form of Ayurveda, Siddha and many more put up a clear description of
the aetiology and treatment of mental illnesses. The vivid description of
types of personality based on “tridoshas” gives a deep insight into one’s
prognosis. However, colonial India witnessed the modern medicinal
system pushing traditional medicine behind the veil. Therefore, the book
chapter comes with the narration of the rich wisdom of the Indian
traditional therapeutic system. Further, the chapter provides detailed
inscriptions on diagnosis, treatment of mental or psychiatric disorders,
and practice to prevent onset of mental illness to the inception of
colonial psychiatric setup, which is still prominent in modern India.

Keywords: Indian Traditional Medicine, Mental Illness, Psychiatric

Disorder, Ancient, Medieval, Colonial, India

INTRODUCTION

The ‘mental health’ is not a new club of words or; it is to be

misunderstood that it has now been in trends. Since the origin of
civilization, several societies and cultures have explained and conceived
Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 54
it differently, thus remaining heterogeneous in drawing meaning of this
mind-body situation. But countries came together and standardised this
phenomenon in 1946, when the ‘International Health Conference’, held in
New York, led to the World Health Organization & Mental Health
Association in London (Bertolote, 2008). Mental health clearly states the
optimal functioning of the mind supported by a healthy body, which
helps a person take an appropriate decision, judgment, reasoning, and
behaviour in social, occupational, and family settings. Therefore, mental
health has been defined by WHO (2005) as “a state of well-being in which
the individual realises his or her abilities, can cope up with normal
stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and can contribute
to his or her community.”

Before reaching this holistic definition of mental health, it took almost a

thousand years to realise the importance of sustaining mental health.
Earlier civilisations had polysemic causes for mental illness, and instead,
for preventive measures, they went for some bizarre treatment methods.
These polysemic causes were clubbed into three prime explanatory
factors for dysfunctioning of emotion, behaviour, reasoning, and
judgment throughout history. But ancient, and medieval historical
accounts provide rich knowledge of psychiatric treatment and lifestyle
for conserving mental health in Vedas, Puranas and other ancient
scriptures.

History of Psychiatry in India

The Indian history of health systems dates back earlier than Indus Valley
Civilization, and discourses on insanity exist from that point. Ancient
Indian scriptures define mental illness, account for the events, and
provide descriptions of treatment existing then. The period lasted
between the Old Stone and New Stone Age during the civilisation of
Harappa. The living community believed in the supernatural, and all
diseases were attributed to divine and devil’s curses or possession. The

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 55

Atharva Veda accounts for this period, which talked about the
demonology and treatments lies in chanting mantras, prayers, amulets,
and talismans (J.G Howells, World History of Psychiatry, 1975).

The Ancient Scriptures

In addition to charms and magic for curing illness, fits, and other forms
of health adversities described in Atharva Veda, it also recognised the
irregular dietary factors. It tried to fix it by instructing proper diet with
appropriate time and with internal amulets as medicine. Thus, it was a
period when shifting from supernatural to logic and medicine was going
on (Rao, 1962). The ‘Vedas’ are inception to culmination of various
philosophies and Indian medical schools. Due to the inculcation of
‘Vedas’ in the curriculum, the religion's supernatural element and
philosophy separated their path.Rig Veda considered ‘manas’ to be a
regulator of thought and emotion. Nyaya Vaiseshika school of thought
said the mind is an inner instrument of perception. Sankhyan School of
thought is believed to be mind, ego, and intellect, forming an ‘internal
organ’ whose chief function is to receive impressions from the external
environment and respond to their suitability. Important figures in Indian
medicines and, especially in this period, were Charaka, Susrutha & Bhela.
Both Charaka and Sushrutha considered the heart to be the centre of the
sensory system, consciousness and mind; it was Bhela who was first to
think the brain to be the centre of the mind. Bhela distinguishes between
Manas (cognition), Citta (emotions), and Buddhi (intellect) (Gautam,
1999).

The Upanishads had stressed personality by the term “Prakriti” which

has been divided into three types, i.e. Sattva, Rajas & Tamas. The status
of mind has been described into four classes in the name of “avasthas”
i.e. Jagrat (Walking State), Svapana (Dreaming State), Sushupti (Deep
Sleep State) and Samadhi (Deep Meditation State) have been discussed
apart from that. Elaboration of abilities of mind has also been highlighted

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 56

in the Upanishads in the form of Vedana Shakti (power of perception),
Smarana Shakti (power of memory), Bhavanashakti (Power of emotion),
Manisha Shakti (Power of judgement), Sankalpashakti (Will or volition)
and Dharana Shakti (Power to hold) (Sivananda, 1983). A glimpse of
mental Illness is also found in Ramayana. The period accounts for great
drama that also carried the cases of mental illness as King ‘Dasaratha’,
father of Rama, suffered from 3 episodes of acute depression and the final
one proved to be fatal. The hereditary characteristic of depression has
been found in the records of events pertinent to the Ikshvaku Dynasty,
and the lineage was affected through mood disorder (De Sousa, 1984).

Bhagavad Gita is a source of mindfulness. Bhagwad Gita’s shlokas can be

related to modern western psychotherapeutic techniques. It has been
mentioned that our sense is always destructive by nature and we are
carried away by its desire. The statements drawn here are vividly
mentioned in ‘Kathopanishad’. Even Freud was near to it and noted that
the mind gets always taken away by the desire of the senses forcefully
(De Sousa, 1984). Bhagavad Gita stresses yoga and meditation and
teaches for self-realisation, which is the ultimate goal of this world,
similar to the Maslow Theory of Hierarchy of Human Needs (Ram, 1978).

Ancient Treatment in India

The Indian medicinal system was based on aetiology and the three
humours Vatta, Pitta, and Kapha were in the centre, which was linked
with the Manas Rog (mental illness). The psychotherapeutic management
essentially covered Ahar (edibles), Vihar (Behavioural lifestyle), yoga,
meditation, and medicinal herbs for treatment. The psychotherapeutic
principles involve reducing guilt, providing assurance, prayers,
performance of Yagna, and prescribing of stones related to various things
through astrological study (Gautam, 1999). Ancient assessment of
psychological disorder was similar to the present style of examining the
mental status of the patient. It was assessed in the order of manas (mind),

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 57

buddhi (intellect), sanjna jnana (disorientation with time and place,
deluded perception and thinking), smriti (memory), bhakti (inclination),
sheela (mannerism), chesta (activities) and achara (conduct) (Balsavar et
al, 2014). The medicinal plants widely discussed in the ancient ayurvedic
texts were 1) Medhya (meant for improving memory), 2) Madkari (for
intoxication) 3 Sangyasthapan (these are analgesics for sharpening
faculties and improving consciousness), 4) Jivniya (stands for tonics), 5)
Shiro Virechana (meant for applying on head), 6) Unmad Nashak (stands
for antipsychotics), 7) Apasmar (stands for anticonvulsants). 8) Madatyay
(meant for deaddiction) (Gautam, 1999).

The treasure of the Indian tradition of medicine, mainly Ayurveda, has

been unlocked in Charaka and Sushrutha in the form of Charaka Samhita
(1400 B.C) & Sushrut Samhita (1500 B.C). These two books have
discussed the mental disorders, personality types as per trigunas, i.e.
Satva, Rajas, and Tamas and 3 humours and through three humours
known as Tridoshas found in the body Pitta, Kapha (Gautam, 1999).

Manas Rog (mental disorder) has been caused due to 14 reasons, these 14
causes were described in these two classics and they were-

1. Pragyaparadh. It comprises all unsanctioned, undesirable, and

disorganised behaviour that involves envy, pride, fear, anger, greed,
attraction, proud & deluded thinking.
2. Anuchitbramhacharya. Bramhacharya involves one of the most
important components of controlling instincts, i.e. Indriya Nigrah. But
when who don’t wish to follow it and try to satisfy what it senses asked
for, the person is being trapped in his inner conflicts and being eaten by
mental disorders like depression, anxiety, irritability, fears and phobias
which gradually changes into common to severe mental illnesses.
3. Durbal Satva. Here, imbalances of ‘Prakriti' have been described and
stressed that weak satva and strong rajas and tamas account for frequent
rage and mood swings, leading to mental disorder.

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 58

4. Durbal Sharir. Here, body weakness due to insufficient intake of
nutrients is the cause of mental disorders.
5. Sharir Dosh Vikratt. Here, the balance of three humours, i.e. Vat,
Pitta and Kapha, are in the centre stage. It has been mentioned that rise in
Vat leads to insomnia, while rise in Pitta leads to decreased sleep and
unconsciousness and a fall in Kapha also leads to insomnia. Increased
Pitta proliferates deluded thinking, fear and anger.
6. Manas Dosh. (Psychological Factors), which arises due to imbalances
in rajas and tamas.
7. Manobhighat Kardravya. Here intake of substances and abusing
them has been claimed for mental illness.
8. Agantuk Karan. (Exogenous Factor) infections caused by Krimi
(bacteria) possession by a demon (Rakshas), evil spirits (Paishach, Pret)
are the reason for mental illness.
9. Malinahar Vihar. Here inadequate and bad food with a sluggish
lifestyle has been described as the culprit of mental illness.
10. Manobhighat. Here exposure to adverse life events can lead to
trauma and other mental illnesses.
11. Ashasht Manah. Any actions mentioned in the ‘pragyapradh’ can
lead to inner conflict resulting in mental illness.
12. Ojokshaya. Here losing confidence results in depression and other
common mental disorders.
13. Ayukta Nidra. Sleep irregularities and at an inappropriate time can
lead to mental illness.
14. Chintya Man. Here anticipation of the situation can give rise to
anxiety and other forms of neurotic disorders.

These causative factors include disorders like sleep disorders, Epilepsy,

substance abuse, mania, and its different forms (vatajunad, pittajunmad,
kaphoumad, and agantuj unmad) have been discussed vividly and with
detailed methods of treatment. Interestingly, Ayurveda has a scientific
explanation and systematic classification since its origin (Gautam, 1999).
Apart from it classification of mental disorder, based on exogenous and
Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 59
endogenous factors comprised of ‘trigunas and tridoshas’ has been done
smartly in ancient ayurvedic text. The classification below as follow-

● Nijmanas rog (endogenous mental illnesses).

● Agantujmanas rog (exogenous mental illnesses).

Nijmanas rog has been portioned under the head-

A) Manas Dosh janya, which is caused by psychological factors.

B) Sharir Doshanubandh Janya caused by physical illnesses.

‘Agantujmans rog’ has been caused by Kirmi (bacteria), evil spirits, and
possession of demon over body described in one of the causative factors,
i.e. ‘Agantuk Karan.’

Psychological factors accounted for Manas Dosh Janya in the

‘Pragyaparadh’ and are equated with neurotic disorder. In comparison,
‘Sharir Doshanubandh Janya’ has been accounted with physical
disequilibrium leading to Mania and organic disorders (Gautam, 1999).

Yoga and Meditation

In Upanishads six yogic disciplines were mentioned, these are 1) ‘Karma

Yoga’ (Yoga of action), 2) ‘Jnana Yoga’ (Yoga of Knowledge and wisdom),
3) ‘Hatha Yoga’(Yoga of attaining physical and mental purity, suddhi), 4)
‘Raj Yoga’ (Yoga of awakening the psychic awareness and faculties), 5)
‘Mantra Yoga’ (Yoga of freeing the mind by utilising sound vibration),
and 6) ‘Laya Yoga’ (the yoga of conscious dissolution of individuality), the
whole purpose of these activities is concerned with the attainment of
highest enlightenment (Paramhansa, 1993).

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 60

Buddhist & Jainist Culture

Buddhism and Jainism influenced ‘Nyaya’, ‘Vaiseshika’, ‘Samkhya’, and

‘Yoga’ School of philosophy, which led to the more rational way of
thinking and helped their preachers give away beliefs of the supernatural
(Rao, 1978). These religions introduced mindfulness-based stress
reduction technique where a person tries to understand present self by
internalising and externalising; the following technique has been used
extensively in the treatment of removing depressive symptoms, anxiety
and even helped in the patient suffering from substance abuse (Kabat-
Zinn, 2003; Hofmann et al., 2010).

Siddha Culture

Siddha means ‘success’ which Siddhas practised, groups of saints in

ancient India. Sage Agastya introduced ‘Agastiyarkirgai Nool’ (6-7 B.C),
which described the treatment methods for 18 different types of
psychological disorder (Parker et al, 2001). Apart from it, ‘Peranda
Bhasmam’, a powder made up of human and dog skull, is still practised in
the National Institute of Siddha Medicine, affiliated with M.G.R. Medical
University, in Chennai for the treatment of psychiatric patients.

Unani Culture

Najabuddin Unhammad (1222 A.D) described 7 disorders; they are

Sauda- a- Tabee (Schizophrena), Muree – Sauda (Depression), Ishk
(Delusion of Love), Nisyan (Oragnic Mental Disorder), Haziyan (Paranoid
State) and Malikholia- amaraki (Delirium). Ilaj- I- Nafsani in Unani
medicine is known as psychotherapy prescribed in the condition above.
Other than this, prescribed treatment included Bleeding & Purgery with
nutritional diet. Massage with milk on the head and body, climate change
(Nizamie & Goyal, 2010).

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 61

Colonial Times

During colonial times, there were lots of tussles between the different
colonial nations to occupy coastal territories and important ports; in the
end, the British East India Company defeated the French and asked them
to retreat from India. During this time, the proposal and construction of
lunatic asylum took place in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras (Sharma,
2006). The proposal of setting up lunatic asylum in Kolkata can be found
in the minutes of Calcutta Medical Board dated 3 April, 1787, which
marked the beginning of western influence on psychiatric treatment and
care in India (Sharma & Verma, 1985). The other lunatic asylum in this
period includes in Monghyr in Bihar to keep insane soldiers, 1794 in
Madras under General Vallentine Conolly and 1806 in Collaba, Bombay
and 1821 in Patna. The earlier asylum was only custodial and primarily
meant for British and Indian soldiers. In contrast, common mass suffering
from mental illnesses were deprived of any such treatment during the
British East India Company.

After the crown took control of the affairs of colonial India, the first act
which was passed after the first war of independence was ‘Act No. 36,
also known as the first Lunacy Act’ in 1858. The act laid the provision of
the establishment of asylum and criteria for admission of patients. Later a
committee was appointed in 1988, which recommended guidelines for
treating criminal patients with a mental illness. Parallel with the
expansion of the British Empire, more asylum came into existence as in
1874 asylum started in Bhowanipore, i.e. in Calcutta, Patna, Dacca at
present Dhaka, Berhampur, Dulanda (Calcutta) and at Cuttack, 1876
asylum was started in Tezpur, Assam. Another asylum came in Madras
Presidency in 1871 at Waltair and Tiruchinopally. The Bombay
presidency of 1865, led to the formation of asylums at Colaba, Poona,
Dharwar, Ahmedabad and Ratnagiri.

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 62

Similarly, in 1866 asylum was opened in Jabalpur and Ellichpur in Berar,
1858. A hospital had started in Banaras in 1858 at Agra and in 1862 at
Bareilly. These expansions allowed the Indian mass to receive or avail
themselves of mental health services for themselves and their relatives
(Agarwal et al., 2004).

With the efforts of Lord Morley, in 1905, the control of the mental
hospital transferred to the Directorate of Health Service from the
Inspector General of Prison. It was decided that a psychiatrist should be
appointed as a full-time psychiatrist in these asylums. In 1912, the Indian
Lunacy Act was legislated by keeping in mind the reports of the Indian
hospitals' miserable conditions and asylums, which needed to be
upgraded as per humanistic approach with more addition of new mental
health institutions.

In 1918 establishment of the Central European Hospital known as the

Central Institute of Psychiatry opened at Ranchi with arduous efforts of
Col.(Dr) Owen Berkeley Hill. He raised the treatment standard, and
because of his action, the term asylum was changed to hospital in 1920.
But there was still a concern of human resources mainly from Indian
origin since few psychiatrists were of British origin (Agarwal et al., 2004).

In 1922, Central European Hospital at present Central Institute of

Psychiatry (C.I.P.) got affiliated with the University of London to begin
Diploma in Psychological Medicine to fill the shortage of professional
medical staff in psychiatry. Parallelly, the need to enable and make
patients socially able, occupational therapists, and psychologists was
employed. Family units were established to establish a direct link with
the patient. Associations of Medical Superintendents were also made.
With these initiatives and practices, Central European Hospital Ranchi
became the intuition of excellence during the 1920- 30s. As per Mukherji
(1930), the hydrotherapy in which patients were immersed in water at
agreeable or bearable temperature to control excitement, and it had been

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 63

reported that free social intercourse was allowed between the male and
female patients at that time.

The year 1939 led to establishment of the Department of Neurology and

Psychiatry at the Calcutta Medical College by the Govt. of Bengal.
Gananath Sen and Karthick Chandra Bose presented a paper that
introduced pharmacology in the field of psychiatry. The article discussed
the alkaloid properties of the Rauwolfia Serpentina plant, whose extracts
can help to manage hypertension, extreme excitement and symptoms of
violence (Sen, 1931). Siddiqui & Siddiqui (1931) were the two chemists
from Aligarh Muslim University, extracted with various compounds
taken as pharmacological treatment such as Ajmaline, Ajmaciline and
Serpentine from the Rauwolfia Serpentina Plant.

In the 1940s, treating mentally ill patients changed from custodial care to
a curative approach. The methods of treatment conventionally applied at
those times were Electro-Convulsive Therapy (E.C.T.), Insulin- coma
treatment and psychosurgery. Electroencephalography (E.E.G.) was the
first tool for diagnosing the abnormalities of the brain in those times. The
curative approach led to the further development in the form of opening
of the Outpatient department in psychiatry at R.G. Kar Medical College,
Calcutta by Dr G.S. Bose in 1933 and J.J. Hospital, Bombay in 1938 by Dr
K.R. Masani. But that remained confined to those two metropolitan cities
only. Against this scenario, the Govt of India in 1946 appointed one of the
nuanced committees whose recommendations are still indispensable to
do the survey. To know the existing public health scenario at that time,
the committee was led by Sir Joseph Bhore, famously known as ‘Bhore’
committee report.

CONCLUSION

The Indian medical system has always remained ahead of all civilisations
in every era but gradually replaced by modern medical practices. When it
comes to mental health, not a single book, scripture or relics have shown
Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 64
adequate accounts of aetiology and treatment methods around the world
as shown by Indian textbooks and scriptures. The government is
promoting the alternative system of medicine, but efforts seem meagre.
People are unaware of vast medical treasure or hesitant to opt for it due
to ignorance. The new form of media can cater to the masses and invite
professionals from alternative medicine to inculcate practice among
people leading to adequate mental health.

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Substance Abuse in collaboration with the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation and the
University of Melbourne. World Health Organization.

Social Sciences and Humanities: Different Perspectives 66

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