Accepted Manuscript

Computational Modeling for Large Wood Dynamics with Root Wad

and Anisotropic Bed Friction in Shallow Flows

T. Kang , I. Kimura

PII: S0309-1708(18)30560-8
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2018.09.006
Reference: ADWR 3197

To appear in: Advances in Water Resources

Received date: 28 June 2018

Revised date: 8 September 2018
Accepted date: 11 September 2018

Please cite this article as: T. Kang , I. Kimura , Computational Modeling for Large Wood Dynamics
with Root Wad and Anisotropic Bed Friction in Shallow Flows, Advances in Water Resources (2018),
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2018.09.006

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Highlights

 We developed a computational model for motion of large wood (LW) in shallow flows.

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 Lagrange type LW motion model was coupled with Euler type shallow flow model.

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 The laboratory tests were performed with different flow discharge and channel slope.

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 Rolling, sliding and depositing motions of LW were simulated accurately.

 The root wad of wood piece reduced the velocity of wood motion in shallow flows.

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Computational Modeling for Large Wood Dynamics with Root Wad and Anisotropic
Bed Friction in Shallow Flows

T. Kang1 and I. Kimura2

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1
Hydraulic Research Laboratory, Hokkaido University, Japan
2
Faculty of Sustainable Design, University of Toyama, Japan

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Corresponding author: Taeun Kang (kangxodns@gmail.com)

Abstract

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This study developed a computational model for large wood deposition patterns in shallow flows
considering the effect of a root wad based on laboratory experiments. We used the Nays2DH
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depth-averaged two-dimensional model of iRIC to simulate shallow flows. A newly developed
large wood simulation model was combined with the shallow flow model. The laboratory tests
were performed by changing several hydraulic parameters. In shallow water with a depth similar
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to the diameter of large wood, the root wad decreased the draft for wood motion (the depth at
which large wood contacts the river bed) by lifting the head of large wood. The experimental
results showed that the large wood tends to move toward the side walls and deposit on the bed
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after passing an obstacle. Computational results reasonably showed that the proposed coupling
model reproduced the fundamental and physical aspects of the phenomena.
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1. Introduction

In rivers, large wood is transported along with water and sediment. Deposited large wood
affects river morphology by causing local scour and deposition of bed materials. Such large
wood may initiate the formation of an island as a midchannel bar [1]-[8]. Large wood and

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deposition patterns can change in response to input processes, channel morphology, and

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hydrological parameters, including flood events [9]. Previous research showed that the relative
influence of these factors changes along the river system [1],[10]-[13], resulting in distinct

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downstream trends in large wood accumulation style [1],[14]-[16]. The ratio of wood length to
channel width is a key parameter that affects large wood deposition patterns [18]. In addition, the
patterns are influenced by diverse parameters such as drag force, water level, bed friction, and
obstacles.
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Numerous researchers have studied large wood dynamics. Braudrick et al. (1999) [18],
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Braudrick and Grant (2000) [19] and Braudrick et al. (2001) [20] provided the basic framework
to approach large wood mobility and entrainment in rivers. Based on these frameworks, several
researchers investigated large wood transport dynamics (e.g., [10], [21]-[25]). These studies
successfully predicted a wood motion relationship between hydrodynamic and resistance forces,
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and a few of them examined transport systems. In studying large wood transport, the large wood
shape and density for motion are considered first [16],[17]. A piece of large wood may consist of
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a stem, branch, and/or root wad. Among these, the stem and root wad are the major components,
and they actively affect the motion of large wood. Large wood deposition is particularly sensitive
to the characteristics of the root wad because this part increases the friction with the bed.
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In addition to experiments and observations, computational models for large wood

dynamics have been developed, such as the Iber-wood two-dimensional (2D) hydrodynamic
model [26]-[28] and the NaysCUBE [29] three-dimensional (3D) Reynolds-averaged Navier–
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Stokes model [30],[31]. Both models address large wood dynamics following a Lagrangian
method, coupling water flow with wood transport. The Iber-wood model considers the wood
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shape to be a simple cylinder. In contrast, the NaysCUBE large wood model applies a particle
method to consider the impinging motion of large wood using a discrete element method. These
studies showed the mechanism of large wood dynamics in deep water flows (where water depth
is larger than wood diameter) to demonstrate floating motion only, and they accurately
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reproduced large wood motion. However, the analysis of large wood dynamics through the
integration of river bed and large wood, such as the root wad effect and anisotropic bed friction,
is neglected in these models even though large wood dynamics show floating motion, sliding
motion, and deposition in a natural river system. Clarifying such phenomena by coupling

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motions (floating, sliding, and settling motions) is crucial in understanding large wood behavior

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in rivers and the role of large wood floating advection. Thus, it is required to study sliding
motion and deposition with the root wad effect and anisotropic bed friction as the key parameters

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of large wood dynamics for improving computational methods.

The main aim of this work is to develop a numerical method for simulating the transport
of large wood along with hydrodynamics in shallow flows, considering the root effect under

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various hydrologic parameters (flow discharge and channel slope). This study presents a newly
developed numerical model that can simulate various behaviors of large wood. We use a 2D
depth-averaged flow model (Nays2DH [32] of iRIC: International River Interface Cooperative
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[33]), which is an Eulerian model, for calculating water flow and bed morphology. A Lagrange-
type large wood model is newly developed and combined with Nays2DH. The applicability of
the present model is discussed through a comparison with experimental results.
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2. Experimental setup

2.1 Scale of the experiment

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Among several studies related to large wood and river morphology, Gurnell et al. (2002)
[10] first presented the classification of river scales (small, medium, and large). Kramer and
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Wohl (2017) [34] recently systematically categorized four river scales in relation to large wood
(Table 1). We conducted laboratory tests on a medium scale river, which was arbitrarily selected,
for a simplified experiment to examine the reproducibility of the large wood model. As obstacle
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was used to clearly describe the process of wood deposition with change in channel width. In
addition, we could observe the transition of large wood motions, such as floating, sliding,
settling, and re-moving in shallow flows. The root scale (diameter: approximately 0.01 m) was
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taken from Bertoldi et al. (2014) [25].

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Table 1. Main classification of the river scales based on Kramer and Wohl (2017) [34]
Scale River size Transport
Wood not reorganized or transported except during
Channel width/stem length of large
uncommon floods or debris flows with N decadal
Small wood >1–2
recurrence intervals; large pieces mostly immobile;
river Water depth/diameter of large wood
long residence times regulated by decay and

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>1–2
physical breakdown rather than fluvial transport
Hydrologic regime is dominant control; drives

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Channel width/stem length of large periodic transport of stored and newly recruited
Medium wood >2–4 pieces during high flows; key pieces and jams
river Water depth/diameter of large wood remain in place during smaller floods, accumulating

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>2–4 smaller pieces; larger, more infrequent floods break
up and rearrange jams
Channel width/stem length of large Wood exported downstream, laterally onto
wood >5 or channel width> all wood floodplains, or buried; wood exported regularly
lengths during high flow; amount of wood transfer highly
Large
river
of large wood
(note that the transition between
medium and large rivers at channel
widths: ~20–50 m wide because
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Depth of flooded channel > diameter variable and largely dependent on pattern of
antecedent peak flows; high variability in water
levels during flooding creates numerous
opportunities for wood sequestration in long-term
storage on the floodplain, causing large variability
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longest wood pieces are in this range) in wood residence time
During most flows, rapid transfer of wood to
deposition zones such as deltas, estuaries, or the
ocean; lesser rapid fluctuations in discharge stage
~106 km2 or larger than large rivers create fewer opportunities for
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Mean annual discharge > 103 m3/s
Great (note that the perennial flow,
river commonly have vast, seasonally,
inundated floodplains, large fine
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trapping of wood within channel or overbank
deposition; wood transfer largely controlled by the
spatial distribution and timing of wood recruitment
from large tributaries; floodplain wood likely

sediment loads, and deep channels) transported and redeposited within the floodplain
rather than retransported to main channel; wood
buried within channel bed may be transported
downstream annually as part of the bed load
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2.2 Experimental model for large wood and flume

The flume channel measured 0.3 m 2 m (Figure 1(a)), and the flume bed was created
using extremely smooth wood panels (Figure 1(d)). Obstacle size was 10 cm 10 cm 10 cm,
and two obstacles were attached to the side wall (Figure 1(a)).

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The large wood models were created using wood cylinders with diameters of 1 cm and

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lengths of 10 cm. The density of the large wood models was 650 kg/m3 in wet conditions (i.e.,
when floating on water). The root model was developed by attaching two thin wood cylinders

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(0.18 cm in diameter and 2 cm in length) as a cross shape “+” at 90° to the end of the large wood
model [24],[25]. The shape of the stem was cylindrical; hence, the resistance to the motion in the
lateral direction was considerably smaller than that to the motion in the stem-wise direction
because of rolling motion. Hence, small pieces of wood (0.1 cm
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middle of the stem to increase the resistance to rolling motion (Figure 1(b)).
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Table 2 shows the experimental cases. This study considered large wood deposition in
relation to channel slope, flow discharge, and the root effect. In the experiments, we used two
different flume slopes, i.e., 0.0045 and 0.007 (m/m), to consider the change in flow velocity
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under the same flow discharge. The following two cases of discharge were selected based on the
minimal discharge (smaller case) for the motion of the wood piece with a root wad and
approximately twice the minimal discharge (larger discharge): a smaller case (0.00065 m3/s and
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0.00060 m3/s) and a larger case (0.0010 m3/s and 0.0011 m3/s). In addition, the root effect was
examined for two cases, i.e., with and without roots. Therefore, eight cases were investigated in
the experiments and computations. Each case was repeated thrice to verify reproducibility. Then,
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a typical case was selected.

Wood pieces were supplied one by one at intervals of 4 s after the flow reached an
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equilibrium state (no wave with the back water effect). Ten wood pieces were supplied in each
case. The initial input direction of the wood pieces was random. The range of the initial positions
of the wood pieces was also random but limited within a circle with a radius of 5 cm (starting
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zone, Figure 1(a)) because the initial angle and position were difficult to control. These settings
were identically applied to the computational conditions.
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Table 2. Experimental and simulation cases (for simplification cases: no prototype exists)

Cases Flow discharge (m3/s) Channel slope (m/m) Root wad

1 0.00065 0.0045 No

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2 0.0010 0.0045 No

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3 0.00060 0.0070 No

4 0.0011 0.0070 No

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5 0.00065 0.0045 Yes

6 0.0010 0.0045 Yes

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0.00060

0.0011 US
0.0070

0.0070
Yes

Yes
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a) b)
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c) d)
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Figure 1. Experimental flume and wood piece: a) flume design, b) large wood design, c) large
wood samples, and d) experimental flume.
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3. Simulation method

We used a 2D plane numerical solver developed based on Nays2DH [32] of iRIC [33] to
simulate the flows. A third-order total variation diminishing-monotonic upstream centered
scheme for conservation laws method was used for the advection term, and a zero-equation

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model was used for the turbulence model. The coupled model was a two-way model that

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considered the drag force exerted by the large wood on the flow. We estimated the Manning
roughness coefficient as 0.006 because the bottom of the flume was flat and smooth. Grid size

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was set as 1 cm 1 cm (the number of grids was 200 and 30 in the x-direction and y-direction,
respectively) to resolve the flows around the large wood with a diameter of 1 cm. The initial time
step t) was 0.0035 s, and the total simulation time was 70 s. Large wood pieces were supplied

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one by one every 4 s after the flow reached a stable condition (no back water effect close to the
obstacle) in the same manner in which 10 pieces were supplied in the experimental cases. We
reduced the simulation time using the parallelization method (OpenMP).
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Figure 2. Bed friction depending on the stem-wise angle of large wood (where the root wad
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component is expressed as a sphere with twice the diameter at one end of the large wood piece
in the simulation).
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3.1 Particle method for modeling large wood dynamics

3.1.1 Governing equation for the large wood motion

The large wood dynamics equation ([29]-[31]) in Cartesian coordinates is described as

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follows:

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{ (1-1)

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where

| | (1-2)

(
( )

)
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(1-4)
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{ (1-5)
| |
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The bed friction coefficient ( ) in Equation (1-5), which is an anisotropic friction

coefficient, is changed by the stemwise angle of the wood piece (Figure 2). This parameter is
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expressed by Equations (1-6) and (1-7).

√ (1-6)
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√ (1-7)

where ρ is the water density; σ is the density of large wood; CM is an additional mass coefficient
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(CM = 0.5 was used in this work); CD is the drag coefficient; A2 is the 2D shape coefficient (π/4
in this work); A3 is the 3D shape coefficient (π/6 in this work); d is the diameter of the particle
sphere; u is the fluid velocity around the sphere; up is the velocity of the sphere; ν is the
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kinematic viscosity coefficient; t is time; g is gravitational acceleration; and are the x and y
components of the friction coefficient, respectively; is the stemwise angle ( = 0 indicates the
angle matching the x axis direction); is the number of particles for one large wood piece; s or k

is the sliding friction coefficient (s = static, k = kinematic); Fbed is the bed friction force; A-sub is
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the submerged area rate; V-sub is the submerged volume rate; FD is the drag force; Fwa is the
effect of the acceleration of surrounding water; Fam is the effect of the added mass of water; hc is
the critical draft for wood motion. When calculating sliding friction (Equations (1-6) and (1-7)),
the sliding friction coefficient ( s or k) should be multiplied by the total number of spherical

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particles ( ) in the large wood because the sliding frictions of all particles are in the same

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direction and move as one material. The following drag force terms caused by the large wood are
added for the Eulerian momentum equation for water flows:

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N cell
Fdr  
1
2
ρCD
1
hAcell A n 
ui -uip ui -uip  (1-8)
n =1

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where An is the projected area of a particle toward the flow direction; Acell is the area of a grid
cell; and i is the number of particles in the large wood piece.

The present study neglects the effect of collisions among large wood pieces to focus on
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the large wood advection and deposition patterns. Therefore, each large wood dynamic is
independent. However, this numerical analysis includes motion that is indirectly changed by the
water alterations due to adjacent large wood because such a large wood piece is modeled as
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causing drag force and changing water depth.

3.1.2 Anisotropic friction coefficient

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The static friction coefficient between the wood used to construct the flume bed and the
large wood is generally approximately 0.4–0.6 [35]. The friction coefficient under submerged
conditions is uncertain; however, it may be expected to decrease. Therefore, we conducted trials
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to compare the experiment and simulation and adjusted the friction coefficients accordingly
(Table 3). The static ( s) and dynamic ( k) friction coefficients refer to the cases when large
wood is deposited and sliding, respectively. These coefficients are valid in the stemwise
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direction of the wood piece. If large wood slides in the direction perpendicular to the stemwise
direction, the large wood rolls, and rolling friction becomes dominant. Table 3 shows the static,
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kinematic, and rolling friction coefficients.

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Table 3. Bed friction coefficients

Friction coefficient Value
Static friction coefficient ( ) 0.4
Kinematic friction coefficient ( ) 0.05

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Rolling friction coefficient ( ) 0.001

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3.1.3 Buoyancy and critical draft for wood motion

One important factor that affects large wood deposition is its buoyancy. This study

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considers the sphere-by-sphere transition of the submerged volume based on the change in flow
depth and the presence of a root wad. In addition, the inclination of the settled large wood based
on the root wad shape is considered to evaluate buoyancy. The large wood is deposited if

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buoyancy is less than the weight of the large wood. The large wood floats if buoyancy is larger
than gravitational force. If the density of the large wood is less than the water density, the draft
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of the large wood is determined by the balance between buoyancy and weight. The water depth
that is the same as the draft is referred to as the critical draft for wood motion (CDM). In other
words, the CDM is the minimum depth at which the large wood does not touch the bed. The
CDM (hc) is the same as the maximum draft in the floating condition, which can be obtained as
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follows. The maximum unsubmerged volume of the large wood is calculated using Equation (2-
1).
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𝑉 ,𝑊 𝜋 ,𝐵 𝜋 (2-1)

where r is the diameter of a large wood particle; Wd is the weight of a large wood particle under
the totally submerged condition; Bw is the buoyancy under the totally submerged condition; Ve is
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the unsubmerged volume of a particle under the totally floating condition (Figure 3).

We can obtain the maximum unsubmerged volume, Ve, from Equation (2-1) and the
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submerged volume, Vs, using Equation (2-2).

𝑉 ∫ 𝑓 𝑦 𝜋 𝑦,
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𝑓 𝑦 √𝑟 𝑦 𝜋∫ 𝑟 𝑦 𝑦 𝜋 [𝑟 𝑦 𝑦 ]
(2-2)
𝜋 [(𝑟 𝑎 𝑎 ) (𝑟 𝑟 )]
3 3
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The unsubmerged volume, Ve, can also be calculated by Equation (2-11) from Equations
(2-1) and (2-2).

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉, 𝑉 𝜋𝑟 (2-3)

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where Vs is the submerged volume of the large wood particle; Vt is the volume of the large wood

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particle; ac is the water level from the center of the particle (Figure 3). We can obtain the CDM
by iteratively executing these equations.

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We assume that the diameter of a root wad particle is twice the diameter of a stem
particle to model the different drag force and buoyancy of the root. The drag force of a root
particle is larger than that of a stem particle because of the larger projection area of the root,

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whereas the weight of the root is large because of its increased volume at the same density.
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Figure 3. CDM concept for each large wood particle in cross-sectional view: (left) structure of
submerged large wood particle and (right) geometry of critical draft for wood motion.
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3.1.4 Change in water depth by root effect

When a root wad of floating large wood (Figure 4(a)) becomes deposited on the bed at a
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lower water depth than the CDM, the root wad effect is activated, thereby decreasing the draft of
the wood piece (Figure 4(b)). The root wad lifts one edge of the stem up from the river bed; thus,
the submerged volume of the large wood decreases. Then, the influence of buoyancy is
decreases, and the normal force to the bed increases compared to the case of a large wood piece
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with no root wad. In the computation, we first determine the CDM of each particle in the large
wood piece. Then, the change in water depth caused by the root wad effect is applied as follows
if the average CDM of the large wood particles is lower than the present water depth (Figure
4(c)):

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, , √ (3-1)

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where hs is the present water depth under the root particle; hp is half the difference between the

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stem diameter and root diameter; Ld is the stem length; La is the projection length of the stem into
i
the river bed; hr is the increase in height caused by the root effect; hsn
p
is the calculated water
depth caused by the root effect for each particle; ipn, is the total number of particles in the large
wood; ip is the index of each particle.

a) b)
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c)
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Figure 4. Change in draft of large wood because of the root wad effect: a) floating large wood,
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b) deposition of large wood, and c) change in draft of large wood.

3.2 Interaction between water flow and large wood in the computation
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In this solver, the calculation schemes for water flow and large wood are different. In the
present large wood dynamics model, one large wood piece is expressed as connected particles,
which are driven following the Lagrangian method. Therefore, a method for modeling the
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interaction between grid-based water flow and particle-based large wood motion is required.
Accordingly, we use linear interpolation (Figure 5) to obtain the flow velocity and water depth at
target points on the particles that compose the large wood. If each particle is located at an
arbitrary position, the relative length (la, lb) from a standard grid point (F1) to the center of the

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particle can be calculated to determine the inverse distance weight. Here, all grid lengths

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between all grid points are 1 on the generalized curvilinear coordinate system. Then, the value at
the particle center (Fip) is calculated with reference to the values at four surrounding grid points

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using Equations (4-1) and (4-2).

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Figure 5. Linear interpolation in the particle characterization area to determine the flow
velocity and water depth based on a generalized curvilinear coordinate system.
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A
Fk
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k 1
Fip  4
k
(4-1)

1
k 1 Ak
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A1  la  lb , A2  la  1  lb  , A3  1  la   1  lb  , A4  1  la   lb (4-2)

where Fip is the interpolated value at the particle center; F1–F4 are the grid nodes in the  and 
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directions ( and  are generalized curvilinear coordinates); A1–A4 are the weighting areas
considering the inverse distance from the particle (Fip); la and lb are the relative lengths from the
target point based on the standard grid point (F1). The values of la and lb are 0 if the positions of
F1 and Fip are the same. k is the index for the grid point.
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Through this interpolation, we can obtain the interpolated flow velocity and water depth
values at each particle location from a grid node point in the generalized curvilinear coordinate
system. Figure 6 shows the process of calculating the interaction between water flow and large
wood motion. The specific calculation procedure is as follows:

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1) Water flow is calculated using the 2D shallow flow model based on Nays2DH.

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2) The submerged volume of the large wood is calculated considering buoyancy and the CDM. If
the large wood contains a root component, the CDM and submerged volume are recalculated.

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3) The bed friction acting on the large wood is determined considering the CDM. No bed friction
is applied to the large wood motion if the large wood is located at a water depth higher than the

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CDM. The bed friction coefficient models static friction with rolling friction if the large wood is
stopped; otherwise, the bed friction coefficient models kinematic friction with rolling friction.

4) Large wood particle velocity is calculated based on drag force with reference to water flow
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velocity. Bed friction is considered if the draft of the large wood particle is less than the CDM.

5) From the particle velocity calculation, the advection of each particle is calculated separately
without connection for one time step (t). Then, the new location of the gravitational center of
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the large wood is determined by averaging the new particle locations. In each particle, the
rotation angle of the large wood is calculated by averaging the rotation angle of each particle in
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relation to the center of gravity of the large wood piece (Figure 6(b)).

6) The position of each particle is rearranged into the shape of the large wood considering the
averaged rotation angle and center of gravity (Figure 6(b)).
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7) From the rearranged large wood, drag force is calculated and applied to the water flow
calculation in the next time step.
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AN
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Figure 6. Calculation process of the water flow model and large wood dynamics model: a)
algorithm for calculating the coupled dynamics of water flow and large wood motion and b)
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concept of the large wood dynamics model (cross shape indicates the center of gravity).

3.3 Validation of simulation results for flow depth

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Figure 7 illustrates the final pattern of the flow velocity vector and water depth in the
computational domain. The constriction caused by obstacle forces can cause a transition to
subcritical flow upstream of the obstacle because the energy of the flow is lower than the
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minimum energy required to pass through the narrow section. Water depth rapidly decreases
close to downstream obstacles because supercritical flow is dominant owing to the smooth bed.
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The effect of localized narrowing depends on the Froude number of the unaffected flow
(upstream of obstacle) and on the constriction ratio (width of narrow section/width of wide
section). In other words, water flow is supercritical with higher velocity and lower depth with
respect to the nonuniform flow conditions. In addition, it tends asymptotically to uniform flow.
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Similarly, in the experiment (Figure 8), a hydraulic jump was observed because of the transition
of water flow from supercritical flow. Figure 8 compares the water depth along the centerline
between the simulations (at the final computation step) and experiments. The red box in these
figures marks an obstacle section. Even though the simulation result overestimates the flow

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depth upstream of the obstacle, this inconsistency can be neglected because we focused on the

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area downstream of the obstacle. In the downstream section, the difference between the
simulation and experimental results is small. Therefore, the present flow model can be

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considered to capture flow depth well.

a) S = 0.0045, Q = 0.00065

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b) S = 0.0070, Q = 0.00060
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c) S = 0.0045, Q = 0.0010
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d) S = 0.0070, Q = 0.0011
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Figure 7. Final pattern of flow depth and the velocity vector in the simulation result (S is the
channel slope (m/m), and Q is the flow discharge (m3/s)).
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Figure 8. Comparison of water depth between the experiments and simulations (red box
indicates an obstacle): a) low discharge case (Sim1 and Exp1: S = 0.0045, Q = 0.00065, Sim2
and Exp2: S = 0.0070, Q = 0.00060); b) large discharge case (Sim3 and Exp3: S = 0.0045, Q =

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0.0010, Sim4 and Exp4: S = 0.0070, Q = 0.0011); S: channel slope (m/m); Q: flow discharge
(m3/s).
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4. Results of the experiments and simulations

4.1 Large wood pieces with no root wad (cases 1–4)

As shown in Table 2, we conducted eight cases of experiments and simulations. This section

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describes the results of cases 1–4, which considered the wood piece without a root wad. Note that no

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figure for the simulation results is presented in this paper. Only experiment results are shown in Figure
9 because none of the wood pieces without a root wad were deposited in the simulation results. The

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experimental results show that the wood piece without a root wad can become deposited close to the
side wall (Figure 9). This is in contrast to the simulation results, which indicated that no deposition of
wood pieces occurred in the flume channel. Rolling friction was dominant in the experiments; hence,

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when the wood piece was touched the bed, it was immediately flowed by floating and rolling motion.
We considered that the applicability of the depth-averaged 2D model was relatively poor close to the
side wall because the strong secondary current at the corner between the bed and sidewall was not
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considered in the present 2D flow model, and this secondary current increased flow resistance. In
addition, the simulations only considered the motion of the wood piece in the horizontal direction and
neglected the advection in the vertical direction; thus, the downward motion of the wood piece induced
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by secondary flow was neglected.

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Figure 9. Results of the experiments using the wood piece without root wad: a) Case 1, b) Case
2, c) Case 3, and d) Case 4.
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4.2 Large wood pieces with root wad (cases 5–8)

In the simulations, the wood pieces without a root wad showed no deposition. However,
the wood pieces with a root wad clearly exhibited deposition. Figure 10 illustrates the change in

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the proportion of the deposited wood with time. The range of the final proportion of the
deposited wood pieces in the simulation results (30–100%) reproduced the experimental results

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(20–80%) well. In particular, the deepening on the discharge increased, and the decrease in the
proportion of the deposited wood pieces with time was similar between the simulation and

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experimental results. On the contrary, the responses of the changes in channel slope were unclear
because channel slope changed only flow dispersion (Figure 7), which may be insufficient to
affect the motion of the wood pieces.

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We measured the final averaged position considering the center of gravity of a wood
piece in a normalized coordinate system using flume width and length to compare the final
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deposition patterns obtained through the experiments and simulations (Figure 10). Figure 11(a)

a) b)
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c) d)
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Figure 10. Change in the number of stored wood pieces with time: a) Case 5, b) Case 6, c)
Case 7, and d) Case 8. (Exp. D and Sim. D: the number of stored wood pieces).
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a) b)

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Figure 11. Final average position in the deposition of the wood pieces: a) average position in the
streamwise direction and b) average position in the lateral direction.

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shows the final averaged deposition in the streamwise direction, while Figure 11(b) presents the
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distribution of the wood deposition in the lateral direction (mean deviation value). In Figure
11(a), values of 1 and 0 indicate that all wood pieces are deposited downstream and upstream,
respectively. Figure 11(b) indicates the wood deposition in the lateral direction, where values of
0 and 1 indicate that the wood pieces are deposited along the channel centerline and close to a
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wall, respectively.

According to Figure 11(a), if flow discharge is larger (cases 6 and 8), the value of the
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average position increases in the streamwise direction because the larger flow discharge
increases water depth and flow velocity. Thus, drag force increases, and the influence of
buoyancy becomes strong. The average values in Figure 11(b) show an unclear relation between
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wood piece deposition and two parameters (i.e., discharge and channel slope) because the wood
piece deposition in the lateral direction depends on several parameters such as the strength of
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secondary flow, the angle of stem direction, and the initial position in the lateral direction. The
initial conditions must be controlled more strictly (e.g., the input stemwise angle of the wood
piece and input position should be set uniformly) to analyze this relation.
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Figure 12 shows the experimental and simulation results for the wood pieces with a root
wad. In the simulation results, the yellow items represent the wood piece, where the large head is
a root and the small head is the opposite side. Two types of contours are indicated, i.e., water
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Table 4. Averaged final stemwise angle of the wood pieces (°)

Case 5 Case 6 Case 7 Case 8
Simulation 20.41 12.98 20.84 17.84
Experiment 24.40 15.25 32.75 8.50

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depth (0–0.025 m) and flow velocity (0–1 m/s). In this work, we focus on distances up to 80 cm
from the obstacles.

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Once a wood piece is deposited on the center of the flume bed, other wood pieces can
easily become deposited around the first piece because the settled wood piece exerts drag force
on flow, decelerating flow velocity and increasing water depth. Thus, when the large wood

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settles on the bed, it acts like vegetation. This implies that future work should carefully consider
the bed morphology around settled large wood in actual rivers. Vegetation is known to increase
the flow resistance and water level around it such that the vegetation area captures sediment even
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though the immediately adjacent area is eroded by increased flow velocity (e.g., [36]-[38]).
Similar bed shape changes can be expected around settled large wood.

The wood pieces with a root wad face upstream because the root lifts the wood piece
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from the bed when the wood piece flows into a zone with lower water depth. This lifting
decreases the draft for the root wad section. The deposited wood piece tends to maintain the
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deposited state by reducing the projection area of the wood piece (e.g., [39]); hence, the stem
section is immediately rotated to be parallel to the flow direction. We found that the angle of the
deposited wood piece tends to depend on the flow discharge (Figure 12). As shown in Table 4,
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when the flow discharge is larger (cases 6 and 8), the angle between the streamwise and
stemwise directions of the wood piece decreases as compared to the angle in the cases with
smaller discharge (cases 5 and 7). This result indicates that the change in the deposition angle is
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associated with the projection area affected by the flow discharge [40]. However, the strength of Comment [21]: R-1

the relationship between the discharge and the deposition angle due to the projection area is I added reference (Wilcox and Wohl, 2006).

unclear and should be further analyzed

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a) b)

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c) d)

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e) f)
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g) h)
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Figure 12. Experimental and simulation results for the deposition of wood pieces with root wad:
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Experimental results are for a) Case 5, c) Case 6, e) Case 7, and g) Case 8 and Simulation results are for
b) Case 5, d) Case 6, f) Case 7, and h) Case 8.
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5. Discussion

The results of the simulations and experiments showed that two deposition patterns are
dominant in the presence and absence of root wads i.e., at the center of the flume and close to the
side walls (Figure 13).

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The water depth upstream of the obstacle is larger (>1.2 cm) than that of the CDM (root:

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1.2 cm, stem: 0.6 cm); hence, all the wood pieces flow downstream. After passing the obstacles,
the water depth becomes smaller than that in the CDM, and the wood pieces touch the bed

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around the center of the flume. In this region, if the drag force is sufficient to drive a wood piece,
sliding motion of the wood piece occurs and the piece may gradually flow downstream. In
addition, the wood piece rotates in its stemwise direction along with the flow direction because

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the increased flow velocity in the narrowing section enhances the drag force around the obstacle
(Figure 13(a) and (b)). The wood piece with a root wad can easily be deposited after passing the
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obstacle because of the decrease in draft for wood motion at the root wad part, even though the
diameter of the root wad is larger than that of the stem. The wood piece with the root wad is
easily subjected to a larger drag force because the root wad can lift the head of the wood piece
from the flume bed. This is because when the root first touches the flume bed, the buoyancy of
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the wood piece decreases owing to the decrease in the draft caused by the root wad [41],[42].
After the wood piece comes into contact with the flume bed, the water depth around the wood
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piece and the velocity head increase because the wood piece affects the flow of water. This
increases the buoyancy and drag force, and thus, the wood piece shifts toward the flume walls by
rolling, even though the friction force in the stemwise direction remains larger (Figure 13(c)). If
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the root wad of the wood piece sticks to the flume walls, the wood piece settles in a stable
manner and decelerates the water flow around it. Then, the wood piece can be considered to be
completely deposited near the walls [40]. Braudrick et al. (1997) [18] demonstrated that wood Comment [22]: R-1
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pieces are frequently deposited on the lateral margins (wall or bank) of a channel through a I added this sentence considering the reference
(Wilcox and Wohl, 2006).
flume experiment, and Braudrick and Grant (2000) [19] presented three equations to analyze the
flotation threshold for wood motion for diverse densities. However, these studies neglected the
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bed friction for wood motion in the presented equations. On the contrary, the present study
shows that rolling motion is a factor for deposition on lateral margins. Moreover, the flow
velocity downstream of the obstacle has a component directed toward the wall as steering flow
caused by the channel geometry close to the obstacle (Figure 7). This rolling occurs because the
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sliding friction (static = 0.4 and kinematic = 0.05) along the stemwise direction is
considerably larger than that along the lateral direction, in which the friction for wood motion is
governed by rolling friction ( = 0.001) to a higher extent compared to sliding friction. Therefore,
the wood piece cannot move in the stemwise direction. However, it can move in the lateral

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direction; thus, it moves toward a flume wall. The wood piece flows downstream if drag force

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and the stemwise angle are larger (Figure 13(d)). The wood piece without a root wad flows more
easily downstream because its draft is larger than that of the wood piece with a root wad.

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Such a deposition pattern, which is parallel to the flow direction, was observed in the
experiments ([24],[25]) and field observations (e.g., Piegay and Gurnell (1997) [43] in the
Drôme River (France) and by Gurnell et al. (2000) [12] and Bertoldi et al. (2013) [44] in the Comment [23]: Other

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Tagliamento River (Italy). However, rolling motion can be limited to occur within the artificial
hydraulic structure, which contains a rigid and flat channel bed. This is because in the natural
system, most channel beds are not flat in shape owing to sediment (e.g., sand, gravel, and
I corrected this reference.
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boulder).

The results of the experiments and simulations showed that the presence of a root wad
and the CDM had the most important roles in controlling deposition. Braudrick et al. (1997)[18]
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Figure 13. Schematics of large wood deposition patterns.

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experimentally showed that large wood was mainly deposited at the most shallow water depth.
Davidson et al. (2015) [45] demonstrated that root wads significantly decreased travel distance.
Braudrick and Grant (2000) [19], Merten et al. (2010) [40], and Schenk et al. (2014) [46] showed
that the presence of root wads is the most important determinant of mobilization and travel

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distance.

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In this study, the root wad particles were regarded as having a diameter larger than that of
the trunk particles by a factor of 2. Thus, the root wad particles were more easily subjected to

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larger drag forces because of the larger projection area compared to the trunk particles. However,
the root wad particles weighed more than the trunk particles, which had the same density, and
thus, they had a higher CDM compared to the trunk particles. Moreover, we considered the

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change in water depth caused by the root wad effect (Figure 3). Therefore, the deposition of a
larger number of wood pieces with a root wad was observed in the simulation and experimental
results, and the proportion of the deposited wood pieces with a root wad was clearly in good
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agreement with the experimental results (Figures 10 and 12). Thus, we have shown that the root
wad effect is reasonably reproduced by the proposed numerical method and that wood motions
can be accurately simulated using more diverse root wads (size and density). However, the root
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wad effect should be carefully refined using more detailed measurements. The present simulation
model employed an empirical bed friction coefficient, and the bed friction coefficients of the root
wad particles and trunk particles were tuned using a trial and error approach through a
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comparison with the experimental results. In addition, the deposition close to the wall was not
reproduced for the wood pieces without a root wad. Thus, the motion of such wood pieces should
also be improved considering several parameters such as the secondary flow and projection area
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of a wood piece.

This simulation considered a random stemwise angle of the wood piece at the starting
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zone because the stemwise angle cannot be controlled prior to an obstacle. Therefore, the
positions of the wood pieces and the number of wood pieces may show slightly different patterns
between the simulations and experiments. In the experiments, we observed floating wood pieces
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close to the obstacle in the upstream direction; these pieces did not flow downstream. This may
be because the variable stemwise input angle caused different projection areas for wood motion.
If we make the stemwise angle of the wood pieces constant before they pass the obstacle in the
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experiment and simulation, both sets of results may show more regular patterns of wood piece
deposition and advection.

The responses of the wood motion to the change in the channel slope exhibited an unclear
pattern. The debris flow on the steep channel exhibited the active motion of large wood because

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the steep channel can cause gravity flow through higher potential energy (e.g., [46]-[52]). In this

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steep channel, the large wood can move downward more easily compared to in a mild channel
such as an alluvial river, because of the gravity flow. Such gravity flow was neglected herein

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because we used a mild channel slope in the simulations and experiments. Therefore, the change
in channel slope should be large to consider the gravity flow due to a steep channel; this will be
performed in subsequent studies.

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In contrast, the present study showed that the motion of the wood pieces is considerably
affected by flow discharge. Wilcox and Wohl (2006) [40] conducted an experiment with a
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laboratory flume for investigating the flow resistance dynamics in step-pool channels,
considering diverse wood profiles, such as the effect of root wad, length of wood piece, and
density. Their experiment showed that the wood pieces on the step-pool channels increase the
water depth because these wood pieces increase the flow resistance. Moreover, they indicated
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that the position of deposited wood pieces is an important parameter for the flow resistance. The
wood pieces in the present study exhibited two deposition positions (near walls and at the center
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in the flume), indicating the occurrence of sliding and rolling motions due to flow discharge. In
addition, the deposition angles of the wood pieces were clearly dependent on the flow discharge
(Table 4). Thus, our study also demonstrated that the flow discharge is an important factor for
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large wood dynamics. Comment [24]: R-1

I added the part of discussion, considering

Interestingly, the experiments in this study showed simple jam formation by the Wilcox and Wohl (2006).
deposited wood pieces (Figure 12). This jam formation was clearly observed when flow
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discharge was smaller (cases 5 and 7). The jam formation could be accelerated by the first wood
piece, which could interrupt the motion of subsequent wood pieces. Several researchers (e.g.,
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[18],[24],[25]) showed the characteristics of jam formation based on wood supply, bed elevation,
and flow discharge through experiments. However, these studies only conducted a flume
experiment, and several researchers are attempting to investigate this using a computational
model for jam formation. The computational model is challenging to apply as a large wood
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dynamics model because multiple parameters should be considered, such as wood collision, large
wood shape, profile of the channel bed, and water flow. A large CPU time with a high-
performance workstation is required to reproduce a number of wood motions similar to the
experiments for jam formation. Therefore, our study would provide informative data for the

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development of the computational model considering anisotropic bed friction, change in draft for

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wood motion, and the root wad effect.

The present study focused on the flume scale experiment and the computational model

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was validated under such flume scale conditions; however, this model is required to be expanded
into large-scale cases for practical purposes. Thus, in a future study, the large wood dynamics
model should be considered for the natural system associated with the large-scale problem. For

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instance, the large wood dynamics model can simulate larger scale experiments [24-25] and river
scale observations [12][44]. Through comparisons among the simulation results, the results of
the large-scale experiments, and the observations, the applicability of the present computational
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model to large-scale cases should be examined in a future study. Comment [25]: R-2

I added sentences.
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6. Conclusions

This study developed a numerical model for simulating large wood dynamics with
floating, sliding, and settling motions in shallow flows by coupling a depth-averaged 2D flow
model and a Lagrange-type large wood dynamics model. In the present numerical model, we

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considered the change in draft for wood motion, anisotropic bed friction, and the root wad effect.

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The reproducibility of the proposed computational method is generally good. In addition, the
method produces a reasonable simulation of the different deposition patterns in relation to the

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changes in flow discharge and the root wad effect based on the experiment. The detailed
conclusions are as follows:

1) Responses of the wood motion to flow discharge and channel slope

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A wood piece tends to move toward the side walls after touching down on a lower water
depth zone because of small rolling friction. Such motion becomes more dominant when flow
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discharge decreases. In addition, drag force and water depth increase with flow discharge.
Moreover, the wood piece easily flows in the streamwise direction. However, the responses of
wood motion to the change in channel slope show an unclear pattern because the employed
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values of channel slope are insufficient to affect wood piece motion.

2) Root wad effect

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In the experiments, a wood piece can become deposited more easily if it contains a root
wad because the root wad decreases the draft for the wood motion in the wood piece by lifting its
head, even though the weight and volume in part of the root wad are larger than the stem of the
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wood piece. The simulation results clearly reproduce the root wad effect well. However, in cases
of wood pieces without a root wad, the experimental results only show deposited wood pieces
close to the wall. Through these results, we discovered a relationship between the deposition
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angle of the large wood and flow discharge. The stemwise angle of the deposited wood piece
becomes smaller when flow discharge is larger. Consequently, this implies that the deposited
wood angle is associated with the projection area between the flow discharge and wood piece.
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Thus, further study should consider additional parameters, such as the projection area of the
wood piece, considering the angle between the stemwise and streamwise directions.

3) Limitations of the developed model

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In the experimental and simulation results, the wood piece with a root wad tends to move
toward the side walls because of the smaller rolling friction coefficient. We considered the shape
of the wood piece stem to be a cylinder in the experiment. In the simulation, we considered the
wood piece as a spherical particle. Therefore, the rolling friction coefficient is relatively smaller

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than that of natural large wood, which contains branches, rough surfaces, and irregularly shaped

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cross sections.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We are thankful to the Ministry of Science & Technology (MEXT) and The River Foundation
for providing funding for this research.

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