Nondimensional Equations of Motion

Contents
The Longitudinal Equations in Non-Dimensional Form:
The Lateral/Directional Equations in Non-Dimensional Form:
Nondimensional stability derivatives

The equations of motion are sometimes used in non-dimensional form, where all the states and
derivatives are non-dimensionalised. Different nondimensionalision schemes can be found, but
they are of the form:

Quantity Divisor Non-dimensional Form

1 2
X, Y , Z ρV S CX , CY , CZ
2

2
L, M , N ρV Sl Cl , Cm , Cn

u, v, w U0 ^ β, α
u,

1
p, q, r ∗ p,
^ q,
^ r
^
t

˙ 1
α̇, β Dα, Dβ
t∗

m ρSl μ

3
I xx , ρSl i xx ,

t t
∗ ^
t

Table 1 Nondimensionalisation Scheme for Equations of Motion

Note that D =
d

^
and t ∗
=
l

Ue
.
dt

The representative distance l is c̄

2
when dealing with the longitudinal equations, and b

2
for the
lateral/directional equations.

We will not use the equations of motion in non-dimensional form, but they are presented below
for completeness and for your future reference. There are advantages to the nondimensional
form:

The stability derivatives become coefficients which enables comparison between aircraft

But the drawbacks are:

A whole new set of nomenclature

⎢⎥ ⎢
⎡

→
2μ

2μ
0

x = [u,
The output from solution of the equations are also nondimensional states so need to be
converted for interpretation

The Longitudinal Equations in Non-Dimensional

Form:

^ α, q,
0

2μ

−C m α

i xx

−i xz

^ θ]
T
0

i yy

−i xz

i zz

0
0

0
⎤⎡

⎦⎣
Du
^

Dθ
⎤

Dα

Dq

1
^

The Lateral/Directional Equations in Non-

Dimensional Form:
0

Nondimensional stability derivatives

⎦⎣
⎤⎡

Dψ

Taking the speed damping derivative, X ,

the X force can be written as

the partial derivative

∂C X

∂u
⎦

Xu =
=

Dβ

Dp
^

D^
r

Dϕ

A = A
⎡

⎤
(C x

=
⎡

⎣
u

Cn

→
+ 2C L

(C z u − 2C L 0 )

C yβ

Cl

0
β

A 1 Dx = A 2 x + B 1 u
Cm

Cl

Cn
0

where the matrices A are taken directly from (eq:latnondimensional) and (83), and
1

. To express this in state space form, one must determine:

Xu =
−1
1

perturbation forward speed, so the product rule must be used

m
A 2 , and B = A

Xu =

X = q S CX

where, q is dynamic pressure and not perturbational pitch rate. Hence

S [q 0
1

m ∂u
1

∂C X

∂u
tan Θ e )

∂X

∂u
−2μ

Cl

Cn

[q S C X ]

the next step is convoluted by the fact that the dynamic pressure is a function of the

is NOT equal to the non-dimensional derivative C

non-dimensional derivatives are, well, non-dimensional so
+
∂q

∂u
r

tan Θ e

sec Θ e

−1
1

The procedure via which the stability derivatives are nondimensionalised is involved and you will
not be expected to repeat the following, but the process will be demonstrated before a
summary of the conversions is included.
Cx

C zu

Cm

B1

⋅ C X0 ]
α

C L0

0
0

2μ

Cm

0
q

⎤⎡

⎦⎣ ⎦
ψ
β

p
^

r
^

Xu
⎤
−C L

−C L 0 tan Θ e

+
0

because the
0

Cl

Cn
0

0
δa

δa
⎤

⎦
(83)

(84)
 ∂C X ∂C X
CX ≜ =
u u
∂u
^ ∂
U0

so
u
∂C X ∂C X ∂ 1
U0
= = C Xu
u
∂u ∂ ∂u U0
U0

1 1 ∂q
Xu =
m
S [qC X
u
U0
+
∂u
⋅ CX ]
0 (85)

where the term C Xu is the rate of change of X force coefficient with non-dimensional forward
speed, and C is the trim value of X force coefficient. The partial derivative will need a
∂q
X0 ∂u

little evaluation

∂q ∂ 1 2
= ρ[U 0 + u]
∂u ∂u 2

1 ∂
2 2
= ρ [U + 2U 0 u + u ]
0
2 ∂u
1
= ρ [2U 0 + 2u]
2

U0 ≫ u

∂q 1
= ρ [U 0 ] ⋅ 2
∂u 2
2 ⋅ q
=
U0

so this can be substituted into (85)

qS
Xu = [C X + 2C X ]
u 0
m U0

various expressions are presented in the literature for C Xu incorporating lift terms, but in
stability axes these are very small, and the only term of significance in C Xu is the compressibility
effect due to drag, −M C DM where M is Mach number. The trim C X0 term is, by definition in
stability axes, −C D0 . Hence

qS
Xu = − [2 C D + M CD ]
0 M
m U0

Similarly it can be shown

qS
Zu = − [2 C L + M CL ]
0 M
m U0

You will appreciate that the process to go from each dimensional derivative to the non-
dimensional derivative is involved, hence I will not expect you to go over the whole process,
rather that you should have an appreciation of the entire process and be able to relate to the
quantities below.

In practice, you will often start with the non-dimensional derivatives and convert to the
dimensional form. For this, the table below will be useful

Converting from nondimensional to dimensional stability

derivatives
Conversion between the nondimensional and dimensional longitudinal stability derivatives is as
follows.

In the tables below, the rates are given as nondimensional rates e.g., C mq
^
to remind you that
they’re nondimensional. You’ll often just seem them listed as C mq in the literature
 X Z M

q∞ S q∞ S q ∞ S c̄
u Xu = [2C X + CX ] Zu = [2C Z + CZ ] Mu = Cm
m U0 0 u m U0 0 u I yy U 0 u

q∞ S q∞ S q ∞ S c̄
w Xw = CX Zw = CZ Mw = Cm
m U0 α m U0 α I yy U 0 α

2
q S c̄ q S c̄ q S c̄
ẇ X ẇ = 2
CX Z ẇ = 2
CZ M ẇ = 2
Cm
2 m U α̇ 2 m U α̇ α̇
0 0 2 m U
0

2
q S c̄ q S c̄ q S c̄
q Xq = CX Zq = CZ Mq = Cm
2 m U0 q
^ 2 m U0 q
^ 2 I yy U 0 q
^

q S q S q S c̄
δ Xδ = Cδ Zδ = Cδ Mδ = Cδ
m m I yy

The same
can be
performed
for the
lateral-
directional
stability
derivatives

Y L N

q∞ S q∞ S b q∞ S b
v Yv = Cy Lv = Cℓ Nv = Cn
m U0 β I xx U 0 β I zz U 0 β

2 2
q∞ S b q∞ S b q∞ S b
p Yp = Cy Lp = Cℓ Np = Cn
2 m U0 p
^ 2 I xx U 0 ^
p 2 I zz U 0 ^
p

2 2
q S b q∞ S b q∞ S b
r Yr = Cy Lr = Cℓ Nr = Cn
2 m U0 r
^ 2 I xx U 0 r
^ 2 I zz U 0 r
^

q S q S b q S b
δ Yδ = Cδ Lδ = Cδ Nδ = Cδ
m I xx I zz

We must be careful as data are often not presented in the form of C Zα , for example, rather as
CL
α
. In such case, we simply note that in stability axes

CZ = −C L
α α

Furthermore, you often wont see data presented for terms like C Xu :

∂C X
CX ≜
u u
∂
U0

or the rate of change of X force with non-dimensional forward speed. But you will often see
this presented as a compressibility effect, C DM . Noting that in stability axes, C X = −C D , then
we can see

C X u = −M C D M

Angle of attack derivatives

There are terms such as C Xα , above, that again aren’t explicitly mentioned in the presented data
for different aircraft. Let’s explore them all - first, C Xα . Though we’re in stability axes, any
perturbation in angle of attack will cause a change to the direction of the lift and drag so:

C X = C T − C D cos α + C L sin α

which, for small perturbations is

CX = CT − CD + CL α
 and hence the rate of change with alpha, assuming small alpha along the way, is

CX = −C D + CL
α α 0

The Z-force derivative, C Zα can be found similarly:

C Z = −C D ⋅ α − C L

⟹ C Z α = −C D 0 − C L

Hopefully it’ll all become clear after an example - look at the worked example and see how the
different nondimensional derivatives feed into the construction of the dimensional derivatives.
The table above, and the notes about the Mach terms, and the angle of attack derivatives are all
that’s needed (and a bit of patience…)

By Harry Smith
© Copyright 2022.

Aircraft Flight Mechanics by Harry Smith is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Based on a work at www.aircraftflightmechanics.com.