VIETNAM AVIATION ACADEMY

FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

____________________________

ASSIGNMENT

INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS
THE SOUNDS PATTERNS OF
HUMAN LAGUAGUE
Instructor:
Nguyễn Kim Loan

Student’s name:
Phạm Mạnh Trường
Vũ Huy Hoàng
Trần Châu Giang
Trần Thị Thùy Dung

February, 2023
Ho Chi Minh City, VietNam

i
 INDEX
FIRST WORD ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

THE SOUND PATTERN OF HUMAN LANGUAGE ................... 1

ASSIMILATION AND ELISION ..................................................... 9

ASSIMILATION ............................................................................... 10

ELISION ............................................................................................ 11

SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 12

ii
 THE SOUND PATTERN OF HUMAN LANGUAGE

Human language is an intricate and complex system of communication that has

been used for centuries in order to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas. A
significant feature of human language is the sound pattern that it follows. Sound
patterns are created when words, syllables, and phonemes are combined in a
certain way to create meaning. This essay will explore the sound patterns of
human language and how they shape the way we communicate.

The sound pattern of human language is made up of two fundamental

components: phonemes and syllables. Phonemes are the individual sounds that
make up words and syllables are groups of phonemes that create larger units of
meaning. For example, the word “cat” is composed of three phonemes: /k/, /a/,
and /t/. The three phonemes are combined in a specific order to create the word
“cat”. Syllables are also composed of phonemes but they represent larger units
of meaning. For example, the word “cat” is composed of two syllables: /kat/ and
/əl/. These two syllables combine to form the word “cat”.

The sound patterns of human language are shaped by a set of rules known as
phonological rules. These rules govern how phonemes and syllables should be
combined in order to create meaning. They also determine the stress and
intonation of words and phrases. For example, the rule of syllable structure
states that all syllables must contain at least one vowel sound. This rule dictates
that the word “cat” must be pronounced with two syllables: /kat/ and /əl/.
Moreover, the rule of stress states that words with more than one syllable must
have one syllable that is emphasized. In the case of “cat”, the emphasis should
fall on the first syllable (/kat/).

In addition to phonological rules, there are also morphological rules that shape
the sound patterns of human language. Morphological rules govern how words
and phrases should be formed. For instance, the rule of affixation states that
prefixes and suffixes can be added to words in order to create new words with
new meanings. For example, the addition of the prefix “un-” to the word
“happy” creates the word “unhappy”. Thus, the combination of phonological
and morphological rules helps to create the sound patterns of human language.

1
 PHONETICS
1. Introduction
Phonetics may be defined as the science of speech. It is concerned with
all aspects of the production, transmission, and perception of the sounds of
language. According to one’s view of the scope of the term “linguistics,”
phonetics may be regarded as an independent discipline alongside linguistics, or
alternatively as a component within it, though the second interpretation may
imply a narrowing of subject matter to only those aspects considered directly
relevant for linguistic analysis and theory. The terms “speech science(s)” or
“phonetic science(s)” encountered in book titles or in the names of academic
programs and departments are equivalents to phonetics in its wider sense, used
to insist on the broad remit and scientific basis of the discipline. The word
“phonetic” and its derivatives began to be used in English in the 1840s, and
although significant insights in the science of speech can be traced across a
range of cultural traditions (and back through history into Antiquity) the modern
form of the subject is largely a 19th-century European creation. Contributions
from British pioneers A. J. Ellis (b. 1814–d. 1890) and A. M. Bell (b. 1819–d.
1905) were especially important, and the subsequent establishment of phonetics
as the basis of linguistic science as a whole can be attributed particularly to the
influence of Henry Sweet (b. 1845–d. 1912) and Eduard Sievers (b. 1850–d.
1932). The dominant comparative-historical linguistics of their day has since
been overtaken by several changes of paradigm, though phonetics has retained
its position as what Sweet called “the indispensable foundation” of language
study. Since the mid-19th century, therefore, phonetics has had a continuous and
cumulative history as an interdisciplinary field sited at the three-way intersection
of biomedical science (at first, mainly physiology), physical science (in the early
days, chiefly acoustics), and linguistic science. Each of those areas has
undergone radical diversification and development, with the result that the total
field of phonetics is now huge. Any attempt at a bibliography must therefore be
highly selective.

2. What is the brief definition of phonetics?

Phonetics, the study of speech sounds and their physiological production
and acoustic qualities.
- It deals with the configurations of the vocal tract used to produce speech
sounds (articulatory phonetics), the acoustic properties of speech sounds
(acoustic phonetics), and the manner of combining sounds so as to make
syllables, words, and sentences (linguistic phonetics).

3. What is the use of phonetic?

- To produce sounds that form meaningful utterances.

2
- To recognize a foreign accent.
- To make up new words.

4. What is phonetics example?

- An example of phonetics is how the letter “b” in the word “bed” is spoken –
you start out with your lips together.

PHONOLOGY
1. What is phonology?
- Phonology is the study of the patterns of sounds in a language and across
languages. Put more formally, phonology is the study of the categorical
organisation of speech sounds in languages; how speech sounds are organised in
the mind and used to convey meaning

2. Why is phonology important?

- The English language is very complex, with a large number of different
sounds that is the reason why this can make it difficult for non-native speakers
to produce and understand English. Phonology can help to make the task of
learning English easier by providing a better understanding of the sound system
of the language.
- Phonology is also important for English communication because it can
help to clarify the meaning of words. For example, the word “cat” can be
pronounced in many different ways, depending on the context.
- Phonology can help to disambiguate words that are pronounced in the
same way but have different meanings.

3. What is phonology example?

- Bakes and Waves
- The word “bakes” ends with the sound of “s” whereas “waves” end with
the sound of “z”. The reason behind this difference can be studied through
Phonology. It is the study of speech sounds and how they transform depending
on situations or their position in syllables, words, and sentences.

4. What are the different between phonetics and phonology?

- The distinction between phonology and phonetics must also be
understood. In linguistics, there is a distinction between phonology and
phonetics, which is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds
such as voiceless and voiced sounds, duration (how long a sound lasts), and
intonation (the way a sound is pronounced).

3
- The key differences: Phonology is concerned with the abstract, whereas
phonetics is concerned with the physical properties of sounds. In phonetics we
can see infinite realisations, for example every time you say a ‘p’ it will slightly
different than the other times you’ve said it. However, in phonology all
productions are the same sound within the language’s phoneme inventory,
therefore even though every ‘p’ is produced slightly different every time, the
actual sound is the same. This highlights a key difference between phonetic and
phonology as even though no two ‘p’s are the same, they represent the same
sound in the language.

PHONEMES
1. What is phonemes?
- A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that carries meaning. Readers use
phonemes to distinguish between words. For example, the difference between
''hat'' and ''cat'' is one sound, or phoneme—the phoneme at the beginning of the
words. These phoneme facts will help explain the phoneme definition.
• A phoneme is not a letter. English has 26 letters, but 44 phonemes.
• Most words are made up of two or more phonemes. For example, the
word ''is'' contains two distinct sounds, or phonemes.
• Phonemes can be spelled differently. The words bait, weight, and plate all
have the same phoneme in the middle of the word, but that phoneme is spelled
in three different ways (ai, eigh, and a).
- Two important literacy skills are phoneme segmentation (separating the
phonemes in a word) and phoneme blending (combining separate phonemes to
make a pronounceable word). Phoneme segmentation helps with spelling, while
phoneme blending helps with decoding.

2. What Are the Signs That Children Are Aware Of Phonemes?

- There are different ways to determine that a child is aware of phonemes
when they react differently to various words. One way is when they recognize
words with the same type of sounds at the beginning of the words.
- Examples of these are the words bee, bike, bell, or boy, which all have the
same letter with the same sound at the beginning. You will also determine their
phonemic awareness if they can isolate or say the first and last sound of the
word.
- An example of this is when they can say the beginning sound of dog and
the ending sound of the word sit. Where the d is the first phoneme of the word
dog, and the t is the last phoneme of the word sit.

4
- More advanced phonemic awareness is evidenced when they can blend
the separate sounds of the word, as in the case of m a p for map. They will also
break the word up into its different sounds, such as in the u and the p of up.

3. What is Segmenting?
- Segmenting words involves breaking down a word into each of its
phonemes and graphemes. Phoneme is a term that just means a unit of sound,
while graphemes are the groups of letters that are used to represent these sound.
For instance, the phoneme /sh/ can be written down as ‘sh’, c’h’, ‘si’ or even
‘ti’.
- Segmenting is a vital skill that learners will pick up over the course of
their early phonics education. By segmenting words into their different sounds,
kids will be able to see how a word is sounded out and written down. This will
help them develop their reading and writing skills in the long run.
- Let’s take the word “cat” for instance, If you segment the word orally
(through speech), you’ll find that the word ‘cat’ is made up of three separate
phonemes: /k/, /a/ and /t/. These sounds can be represented in writing using the
graphemes ‘c’, ‘a’ and ‘t’. And just like that, you end up with the word ‘cat’
again!
- Another a bit complex example, using the word ‘bubbles’. Once we
segment this word, we’re left with five different phonemes. Once we write these
with the graphemes ‘b’, ‘u’, ‘bb’, ‘le’ and ‘s’, we again end up with
‘bubbles’.From these examples, we can see how segmenting words allows us to
take a word apart, see the different sounds it’s made up of and then piece them
back together. Combining sounds to form words is called blending, and in this
next section we’ll take a look at the relationship between blending and
segmenting phonemes in phonics.

Phones and Allophones

Phones is a different way of pronouncing the sound same sound type. They are
represent in square brackets [ ]. A set of phones is called allophone, we also
refer them as allophone of that phoneme.
Several language do recognized these allophones as an independent letter.
Phones and allophones are also pay a huge contribution in figuring out accents
but importantly restoring ancient pronunciation as sounds tend to weirdly
change into an phones of itself with the passing of time. As you can in the Indic
Consonant Compass, a compass that shows how sound changing through time in
the languages with Chinese influences, which include Thai, Mongolian, Brunei,
Korean, Japanese, Vietnamese and some more:

5
Picture 3: Indic Consonant Compass
The time that words changes are from left to right. If you have understanding
about phones, you will soon realize that many words of here are allophones of
each other when it is transitioning. Words for C can have allophone that
pronounced dental which soon becomes the CH sound.
For English, these allophones are hardly noticed as it is not represent as a letter
but it’s still pronounce normally without realizing that we say it. Most famous
being allophones for the /t/ sound as it has 4 different phones:
Alveolar Flap t [t̬ ] or [ɾ]: Letter, Atom, get in, …
Glottal Stop [ʔ]: atlas, beaten, forgotten, …
Aspirated t [tʰ]: table, attack, empty, …
Unaspirated t [t˭]: amount, ancient, boat, …
Aspiration
When we are producing the same sound in different words, sometimes extra puff
of air is produced for the same sound. This feature is just for stops ( p, t, k) e.g.
pit, kit, sit.
Aspiration is a very common thing that tend to happen across multiple languages
and many of them doesn’t recognize the aspirated sound as letter. Korean and
Thai are some that do recognized these as its own letters.

6
 Minimal Pairs and Sets
A very simple concept, minimal pairs are words that pronounce exactly the same
except on one phoneme and at the same position, usually they are at the nucleus.
Words such as feat, fit, fat, fate, …\

Phonotactics
Phonotactics (from Ancient Greek phōnḗ "voice, sound" and taktikós "having to
do with arranging"), a subfield of phonology, deals with limitations imposed by
a language on the permitted combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics is derived
from the Ancient Greek words phn "voice, sound" and taktikós "having to do
with arranging." Phonotactic limitations determine the acceptable syllable
structure, consonant clusters, and vowel sequences.
Language-specific phonotactic restrictions are very important. For instance,
consonant clusters like /st/ do not exist in Japanese. Similar to how they are
permitted in German and Dutch (where the latter appears as /n/), the clusters /kn/
and /n/ are not allowed at the beginning of words in Modern English but they are
in Old and Middle English. In contrast, /l/ and /r/ are sometimes employed as
syllable nuclei along with vowels in several Slavic languages.
Internally, syllables are segmented as follows:
. Onset (optional)
. Rhyme (required; includes nucleus and coda):
. Nucleus (obligatory)
. Coda (optional)
An empty onset and coda can create a syllable with solely vowels, or the nucleus
can be filled with a syllabic consonant. Acquiring vocabulary in a second
language is known to be impacted by phonotactics.
Syllables and Clusters
A syllable is a unit of rhythm. It's a unit of sound that gives a word one "beat." A
vowel begins a syllable. Moreover, it could have a vowel followed by a vowel
and one or more consonants.
In addition to vowels, syllables can also contain syllabic consonants. A
stretched-out consonant that functions as a vowel is known as a syllabic
consonant. For instance, the final consonant in the words button [b!"/ n] and
middle [m I d l] is typically pronounced as a syllabic sound.
For example...
• Eye has one syllable (just one vowel sound: /a y /)
• Bee has one syllable (one consonant and one
vowel: /b i y/

7
• Strength also has one syllable (three consonants, one
vowel, two consonants: /streŋθ/
• Potato has three syllables: po-ta-to /pəˈteɪtəʊ/
• Pronunciation has five syllables: pro-nun-ci-a-tion /prəˌnʌnsiˈeɪʃn/
A consonant cluster is created when two or more consonants are combined. (The
word "cluster" is a group.)
There are boundaries on which consonants can occur together and how many
consonants can present in a given place.
For instance, in English, the letter combinations /sk/, /pl/, and /spl/ can be used
at the beginning of a word, whereas /sd/, /fp/, and /zpr/ cannot.
While not being actual words, skeb, plore, and splib have an English-like ring to
them.
English cannot support the following words: fpore, zprib, and sdeb
A syllable must have a vowel sound and is made up of one or more phonemes.
Each syllable has a nucleus, which is typically a liquid or nasal vowel. The onset
(one or more consonants) and rhyme are the two fundamental components of a
syllable. Moreover, any subsequent consonants are treated as the coda.
When a coda is present, the syllables are known as "CLOSED SYLLABUS"
while the ones without a coda are known as "OPEN SYLLABLES."
Cup => closed syllable
No => open syllable
Both onset and coda can consist of more than one consonant known as a
CONSONANT
CLUSTER. /s/ + (/p/, /t/,/k/) + ( /r/, /l/, /w/ )
Coarticulation Effects
For at least the previous 60 years, phonetic researchers have devoted significant
attention to the study of coarticulation, or the articulatory modification of a
specific speech sound caused by coproduction or overlap with nearby sounds in
the speech chain. The planning processes for successive consonants and vowels
as well as the execution of coordinative articulatory structures throughout the
generation of those segmental units should be understood through knowledge of
coarticulatory patterns in speech. Coarticulatory effects involve shifts in
articulatory position over time toward the left (anticipatory) or right (carryover)
of the trigger. The type and magnitude of these effects depend on the articulator
under study (the lip, velum, tongue, jaw, or larynx), the articulatory
characteristics of the individual consonants and vowels, as well as nonsegmental
factors like speech rate, stress, and language. Different speakers may employ
different coarticulatory mechanisms to produce a given phonemic sequence, and
they may also use coarticulatory information differently for phonemic
identification in perception. This presents a difficulty for the research of

8
coarticulation. Coarticulation deficits in speakers with speech disorders, the
development of coarticulation from childhood to adulthood, and the extent to
which the inability to compensate for coarticulatory effects may result in sound
change should all be better understood with more information about all of these
research topics.

The sound patterns of human language are also shaped by the languages of
different cultures and regions. Different languages have evolved over time to
reflect the culture and environment in which they were spoken. As a result,
different languages have developed unique sound patterns that distinguish them
from other languages. For example, English is characterized by its use of stress
and intonation while Spanish is characterized by its use of pitch accents. These
unique features help to create distinct sound patterns that can be identified by
native speakers of the respective language.

ASSIMILATION AND ELISION

Assimilation and elision are two important processes that can occur in the sound
patterns of human language. Both of these processes involve changes to the
sounds in words or phrases, but they occur in different ways and have different
effects on the resulting sound patterns.

Assimilation, as we discussed earlier, occurs when one sound in a word becomes

more like a neighboring sound. This can happen in two primary ways: regressive
assimilation and progressive assimilation. In regressive assimilation, a sound
becomes more like a sound that comes after it, while in progressive assimilation,
a sound becomes more like a sound that comes before it. For example, in
English, the word "impossible" is pronounced with progressive assimilation
because the "m" sound becomes more like the preceding "p" sound.

Elision, on the other hand, occurs when a sound or group of sounds is omitted
from a word or phrase. This can occur for various reasons, including ease of
pronunciation, speed of speech, or as a result of language change. Vowel elision
and consonant elision are the two primary types of elision. For example, in
English, the word "library" is commonly pronounced with vowel elision because
the second syllable's vowel sound is often omitted.

Both assimilation and elision are important processes that can affect the sound
patterns of human language. They play an important role in language
acquisition, as young children must learn to differentiate between sounds that

9
are present and sounds that are absent in spoken language. Additionally, both
processes can impact the way we communicate and understand one another, as
overuse or misuse of assimilation or elision can make speech difficult to
understand.

Overall, assimilation and elision are two important processes in the sound
patterns of human language. They occur for various reasons and have different
effects on the resulting sound patterns, but both processes play an important role
in the development and evolution of human language.

ASSIMILATION

To take about “Assimilation” and “Elision”. Assimilation is a sound change

where some phonemes change to be more similar to other nearby sounds. It is a
common type of phonological process across languages. Assimilation can occur
either within a word or between words. It occurs in normal speech, and it
becomes more common in more rapid speech. In some cases, assimilation
causes sound spoken to differ from the normal pronunciation of each sound in
isolation. In other cases, the changed sound is considered canonical for that
word or phrase. Elision - The omission of an unstressed vowel or syllable in a
verse to achieve a uniform metrical pattern is called elision.

In linguistics, assimilation refers to a process by which one sound in a word

becomes more like a neighboring sound. It is a common phenomenon that
occurs in many languages and can occur at various levels of linguistic analysis,
including phonetics, phonology, and morphology. This assignment will explore
the different types of assimilation, the conditions that trigger it, and its
implications for language acquisition.

“Types of Assimilation”
There are two primary types of assimilation: regressive assimilation and
progressive assimilation. Regressive assimilation is when a sound becomes more
like a sound that comes after it. For example, in English, the word "incomplete"
is pronounced as "in-kom-plete" due to the assimilation of the "n" sound to the
following "k" sound. Progressive assimilation is when a sound becomes more
like a sound that comes before it. For example, in English, the word
"impossible" is pronounced as "im-poss-ible" due to the assimilation of the "m"
sound to the preceding "p" sound.

10
“Conditions that trigger assimilation”
Assimilation can occur under certain conditions. The most common condition is
that the sounds involved in assimilation must be adjacent to one another.
Additionally, the sounds must be phonetically similar, which means they share
some features such as voicing, place of articulation, or manner of articulation.
Finally, the phonological context of the sounds can also play a role in
assimilation. For example, assimilation is more likely to occur in fast speech, in
speech that is whispered, or when a speaker is trying to emphasize a particular
sound.

“Implications for Language Acquisition”

Assimilation plays a significant role in language acquisition. Children typically
begin to assimilate sounds in their native language during the first few months
of life. As they grow and develop their language skills, they continue to learn the
rules of assimilation and use them to produce and understand words. However,
assimilation can also lead to errors in language acquisition, such as
mispronouncing words or failing to distinguish between two similar sounds. As
a result, teachers and parents must be aware of the role of assimilation in
language acquisition and help children overcome any errors that may arise.

Assimilation is an important linguistic process that occurs in many languages

and at various levels of linguistic analysis. It is a natural part of language
acquisition, but it can also lead to errors in pronunciation and comprehension.
Understanding the types of assimilation, the conditions that trigger it, and its
implications for language acquisition is essential for anyone interested in the
study of linguistics.

ELISION

Elision is a common linguistic process by which a sound or group of sounds is

omitted from a word or phrase. This can occur for various reasons, including
ease of pronunciation, speed of speech, or as a result of language change. In this
assignment, we will explore the different types of elision, their implications for
language acquisition, and the role of elision in the development of language over
time.

“Types of Elision”
Elision can take many forms, but two primary types are most commonly
observed: vowel elision and consonant elision. Vowel elision occurs when a
vowel sound is omitted from a word. For example, in English, the word "library"

11
is commonly pronounced as "lie-bry" with the omission of the second syllable's
vowel sound. Consonant elision, on the other hand, occurs when a consonant
sound is omitted from a word. For example, in English, the word "listen" is
commonly pronounced as "lis'n" with the omission of the final consonant sound.

“Implications for Language Acquisition”

Elision plays an important role in language acquisition, as it can affect the way
children learn and produce language. Young children often struggle with elision,
as it requires them to differentiate between sounds that are present and sounds
that are absent in spoken language. As children develop their language skills,
they gradually learn to identify and produce elisions appropriately. However, the
overuse of elision can lead to communication difficulties, as it can make speech
difficult to understand.

“Role in Language Development”

Elision is a natural part of the development of language over time. As languages
evolve, sounds can be lost or merged, leading to the omission of certain sounds
from words. For example, in Old English, the word "knight" was pronounced
with a "k" sound, but over time, the "k" sound was elided, and the word is now
pronounced as "nite." Similarly, in French, many final consonant sounds have
been elided over time, leading to the characteristic nasalization of the language.

Elision is a common linguistic process that occurs in many languages and has
important implications for language acquisition and the development of
language over time. By understanding the types of elision, the role it plays in
language acquisition, and its impact on the evolution of language, we can gain a
deeper appreciation for the intricacies of language and the way it adapts and
changes over time.

SUMMARY

Finally, the sound patterns of human language are also influenced by the vocal
capabilities of the speaker. Each person has a unique voice that contributes to
the sound patterns of their language. For example, some people may be able to
produce a wider range of tones and pitches than others. Similarly, some people
may be able to produce more consonants or vowels than others. All of these
factors contribute to the sound patterns of human language and help to make it a
diverse and interesting system of communication.

12
In conclusion, human language is an intricate and complex system of
communication that is shaped by a variety of factors including phonological and
morphological rules, cultural and regional influences, and individual vocal
capabilities. These various elements combine to create the distinctive sound
patterns of human language that enable us to communicate and express our
thoughts, feelings, and ideas.

13
Sources

[1] “The Sound Patterns of Language Phonetics Phones and Allophones” by Israa
Burhanuddin Abdurrahman - Tikrit University – April 2019.
[2] Internet resources – specially at Wikipedia and Cambrige & Oxford University.

14