Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Patients With Cardiac Disease
Patients With Cardiac Disease
medical matters
undiagnosed, and nearly 50% of patients on beats are very common in normal people. cuit. Other electric and electro-mechanical
treatment are not controlled.8 A case could However, in those with heart disease, pro- signals can interfere with pacemaker func-
therefore be made for measuring blood voked symptoms may include angina, dysp- tion, such as electronic apex locators, ultra-
pressure in all patients attending for dental nea, palpitations or syncope. sonic scalers, and even ultrasonic cleaning
treatment (especially those already known Cardiac dysrhythmias are well recognised baths. However, electric pulp testers and
to be hypertensive). However, the stress of a during oral surgery. An increase in both dental hand pieces appear to be safe.16
dental visit may artificially raise the blood supra-ventricular and ventricular ectopic ‘Rate responsive’ pacemakers speed up or
pressure. An increase in mean heart rate and beats is seen in many patients with cardio- slow down the pulse rate in response to cer-
blood pressure can be induced both by vascular disease during extractions or pre- tain physiological stimuli, such as changes
anticipation and actual dental treatment. prosthetic surgery under local anaesthesia.11 in respiratory activity or movement. These
Similar significant changes are also seen The duration of rhythm disturbance is usu- normally signal an increased heart rate dur-
before a local anaesthetic is administered, ally short, cardiac output is maintained, and ing exercise, but the vibration sensors may
during restorative treatment, extractions it is normally of little consequence. It should cause inappropriate inhibition or triggering
and when adrenaline-impregnated retrac- be noted that patients treated with digoxin of the pacemaker during surgical proce-
tion cords are used.9 Although these effects for atrial fibrillation or congestive cardiac dures if vibration is induced, or even with
are usually within normal physiological failure are more prone to rhythm complica- shivering when a patient is recovering from
variation, they may be exaggerated in any tions during dental extractions than other anaesthesia. Providing this is understood, it
patient with cardiovascular disease, and cardiac patients,12 and these patients should should be possible to minimise any unto-
particularly those with hypertension. be considered for electrocardiographic ward stimuli, although the pacemaker can
Reducing these hypertensive episodes dur- monitoring.13 be reprogrammed if necessary. Patients con-
ing dental therapy may be influenced by an With the decline in the use of halothane sidered to be at risk from external interfer-
elimination of pain and minimising anxiety. the incidence of dysrhythmias under gen- ence can have a magnet placed over the
Conscious sedation and/or hypnosis may be eral anaesthesia has reduced dramatically. pacemaker to switch the pacemaker to
useful in some patients.10 However, rhythm disturbances are not fixed-rate mode making it immune to exter-
uncommon because of the mechanical nal signals. Overall, the risks of pacemaker
Patients with dysrhythmias stimulation of the tissues in association with malfunction are very small.
A dysrhythmia describes any abnormality in the lighter plane of anaesthesia usually
the rate, regularity or site of origin of the employed. Although these are usually tran- Patients with valvular heart disease
cardiac impulse, or where there is a distur- sient, they may be of importance in patients Any heart valve lesion can impair the cir-
bance in the conduction of that impulse with cardiac disease. The Poswillo Report culation, ultimately resulting in heart fail-
such that the normal sequence of atrial and recommends that all patients having general ure. Such lesions are either obstructive
ventricular activation is altered. Hence, dys- anaesthesia for dental procedures should be (stenotic), or incompetent (regurgitant),
rhythmias result from abnormalities of monitored by pulse oximetry, ECG and and most abnormalities affect the aortic
impulse generation, impulse conduction or non-invasive blood pressure monitors.14 and mitral valves. Right sided valvular dis-
both. Dysrhythmias are sometimes found in The combination of insufficient analgesia, ease is usually secondary to pulmonary
those without cardiac problems, but they adrenaline and cardiovascular disease may disease, although pulmonary stenosis is a
are more common in those with cardiovas- cause cardiac dysrhythmias, and some relatively common congenital problem.
cular disease. Whatever the aetiology, any advise this level of monitoring to give early Despite the decline in rheumatic fever,
rhythm disturbance may lead to a reduction warning of potentially deleterious cardio- valvular heart disease remains a common
in efficiency of the cardiac pump. Obvi- vascular effects, even if treatment is sched- and important pathology.
ously, the occasional premature ventricular uled under local anaesthesia.15 Many degenerating valves require opera-
beat will have no significant effect on the tive therapy, which may involve valve recon-
circulation, and an increase in pulse rate Patients with cardiac pacemakers struction or valve replacement, using tissue
(tachycardia) is the normal response of the Modern cardiac pacemakers are a complex or mechanical prostheses. Around 5,000
heart to increased physical work. However and heterogeneous group of devices, but cases of valve surgery are undertaken in the
abnormal tachycardias are often associated they are usually tolerant of most external UK annually, usually for calcific aortic
with a diminished cardiac output and insults. If the units are functioning normally stenosis or mitral valve degeneration.
sometimes with cardiovascular embarrass- pre-operatively, they are likely to continue to World-wide, chronic rheumatic fever is the
ment. Symptoms provoked by tachycardia do so during dental treatment. Diathermy is usual underlying disease.
are determined less by the origin of the dys- the main concern as it can interfere with Biological valves are either homografts
rhythmia and more by the heart rate and pacemaker function. If needed, bipolar (from cadavers) or heterografts (from cattle
presence of underlying cardiac disease. diathermy is preferred because the patient’s or pigs), and are used mainly in the aortic
Many episodes are asymptomatic, and extra body does not form part of the electrical cir- position. Valves of animal origin are usually
in the treatment of deep vein thrombosis because of an undiagnosed anomaly or the increase in surgery for congenital car-
or pulmonary embolus, elective dental because of technical inability to deal with the diac disease, and utilisation of intra-car-
treatment is best delayed until the end of problem now survive into adulthood. The diac prosthetic material, a new ‘at risk’
therapy. Apart from Warfarin, aspirin and dental practitioner may now encounter chil- sub-group has emerged.
other anti-platelet agents (eg Persantin, dren or adults with such lesions as congenital
clopidogrel) are commonly prescribed for aortic or pulmonary stenosis, atrial septal Cardio-active drugs and the safety of
many cardiac disorders, and may cause defects (ASD) or ventriculo-septal defects vasoconstrictor therapy
prolonged bleeding and this should be (VSD). Up to half of all VSDs close sponta- Patients with cardiovascular disease often
taken into account before any surgical pro- neously, and cause little or no cardiovascular take a lot of medication. Following an
cedures are undertaken. symptoms. Surgery is usual for ASDs, uncomplicated myocardial infarction, it is
Blood loss during and after oral surgery although many are not diagnosed until mid- not unusual for a patient to be discharged
on anticoagulated patients may be signifi- dle age. A patent foramen ovale may be from hospital taking aspirin, a beta-adrener-
cant, but most bleeding incidents are not found in up to a quarter of all children. They gic blocker, as well as cholesterol lowering
serious and can be controlled by local do not associate with much inter-atrial medication. Patients with heart failure may
measures.19 An anti-fibrinolytic mouth- shunting, do not really require endocarditis be on all of these, plus an ACE inhibitor,
wash containing tranexamic acid (4.5%) prophylaxis and rarely need surgical repair. digoxin and warfarin. The potential risk
can effectively suppress post-operative Children with congenital heart disease from drug interaction during dental treat-
bleeding without needing to modify the require special care dentistry because of ment must be considered. For example, if
dose of warfarin,20 and gelatin sponges, oxi- their susceptibility to infective endocardi- adrenaline-containing local anaesthetics are
dised cellulose and micro crystalline colla- tis. Unfortunately, many of these children administered to patients taking beta-block-
gen are other useful haemostatic agents. are found to have poor oral health with ers, a drug interaction could induce a steep
The practitioner should be aware that high levels of dental caries and untreated rise in blood pressure, which could trigger
many drugs can interact with anticoagu- gingivitis.22 They also seem to receive less cardiovascular complications.27 Cases of
lants, causing derangement of anti-coagu- than optimal professional and home dental severe headache have been documented fol-
lation. For example, potentially serious care.23,24 While cardiologists usually lowing administration of noradrenaline-
interactions have been described with advise the parents of children with heart containing anaesthetic thought to be caused
miconazole oral gel.21 However, unless disease to attend their dentist regularly, by a transient acute hypertensive episode.
any modification of drug therapy is such advice does not seem to be followed. During these steep rises in blood pressure,
intended to last for longer than 5 days, Visual prompts such as the British Heart angina or disturbances of cardiac rhythm
either no change or minor anticoagulant Foundation ‘heart card’, which details the may also be precipitated, and the use of a
dose reductions are required. If in doubt, patient’s cardiac defect and appropriate vasoconstrictor should be considered very
it is wise to consult with a pharmacist or antibiotic prophylaxis if required, do not carefully in patients with heart disease, par-
the patient’s physician before advising seem to help. The cards are often lost, or ticularly angina, recent myocardial infarction
changes in drug therapy. Further details the advice contained therein is simply not or cardiac surgery, untreated or uncontrolled
may be found the appendix in the British followed. In a study of 60 children with hypertension and heart failure.28 Accidental
Dental Formulary. severe congenital heart disease, 18% had intra-vascular injection or rapid systemic
Some dentists give intra-muscular injec- not even visited a dentist.25 absorption could also directly induce circula-
tions of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory With advances in cardiac care and car- tory problems in these patients.
agents at the end of surgery (eg ketorolac) diac surgery, many children are surviving Oral reactions to prescribed drugs, includ-
for postoperative analgesia. They should be to lead normal adult lives. Most cardiac ing altered taste, impaired salivary function
aware that this might be complicated by an units now run GUCH (grown up congeni- and gingival hyperplasia may be seen in car-
intra-muscular hamatum in patients who tal heart disease) clinics to monitor and diac patients.29 While abnormal growth of
are anti-coagulated. advise patients and their families. Unfor- the periodontal tissue is mainly associated
tunately, growing up does not seem to with plaque related inflammation, drugs
Patients with congenital heart have an impact on their level of under- such as nifedipine and amlodipine, have been
disease standing in terms of either their diagnosis implicated in causing gingival overgrowth,
Congenital heart disease is one of the most or risk of endocarditis.26 Many patients which may be brought to dental attention
common developmental anomalies. While believe that surgery has negated the risk of because of pain, bleeding or appearance.30
many such conditions are apparent in the endocarditis, which may or may not be the The anti-dysrhythmic agents disopyramide
neonate, a significant proportion do not case. Certainly, surgically corrected septal and propafenone and the anti-hypertensive
come to light until the child is older, or even defects are at a negligible risk of endo- drugs indoramin and methyldopa may cause
later on in adult life. Furthermore, many chil- carditis, but if there are post-surgical a dry mouth. ACE inhibitors and amio-
dren who historically would have died either shunts or conduits, the risk remains. With darone sometimes give rise to altered taste,
typically described as ‘metallic’. If an offend- sures if peri-treatment problems occur. Every 14 General anaesthesia, sedation and resuscitation
ing drug can be identified, it may be possible effort should be made to keep procedure in dentistry. Report of an expert working party.
London: Department of Health, 1990.
(in consultation with the prescriber) to dis- time down to a minimum, and treatment
15 Umino M, Ohwatari T, Shimoyama K, Nagao
continue it or give an alternative. should be terminated early if the patient M. Unexpected atrial fibrillation during tooth
becomes overly anxious. If angina or other extraction in a sedated elderly patient.
Summary significant symptoms develop, all treatment Anaesthesia Progress 1994; 41: 77-80.
16 Miller C S, Leonelli F M, and Latham E.
The provision of dental treatment under should stop, and the practitioner should be Selective interference with pacemaker activity
local anaesthesia with or without sedation prepared to initiate emergency care. by electrical dental devices. Oral Surg Oral
has an excellent safety record, although Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol & Endod 1998; 85:
medical problems may occur. This may 1 Chapman P J. Medical emergencies in dental 33-36.
practice and choice of emergency drugs and 17 Tinker J H, Tarhan S. Discontinuing anti-
become increasingly common as our equipment: a survey of Australian dentists. coagulant therapy in surgical patients with
patient population ages, cardiac disease Aust Dent J 1997; 42:103-108. cardiac valve prostheses. J Am Med Ass 1978;
being the most common cause of morbidity 2 Peacock M E, Carson R E. Frequency of self- 239: 738.
reported medical conditions in periodontal 18 Purcell C A. Dental management of the anti-
and mortality in the elderly. coagulated patient. N Z Dent J 1997; 93: 87-92.
patients. J Periodontol 1995; 66: 1004-1007.
Being forewarned, taking account of the 3 Absi E G, Satterthwaite J, Shepherd J P, Thomas 19 Weibert R T. Oral anti-coagulation therapy in
previous medical history and medical evalu- D W. The appropriateness of referral of patients undergoing dental surgery. Clin
ation are essential considerations for safe medically compromised dental patients to Pharmacy 1992; 11: 857-864.
hospital. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1997; 35: 20 Ranstrom G, Sindet-Pedersen S, Hall G,
delivery of care. It is useful to establish cur- 133-136. Blomback M, Alander U. Prevention of post-
rent medication and allergies and to note any 4 Jainkittivong A, Yeh C K, Guest G F, Cottone surgical bleeding in oral surgery using
potential drug interactions and side effects. J A. Evaluation of medical consultations in a tranexamic acid without dose modification of
predoctoral dental clinic. Oral Surg Oral Med oral anticoagulants. J Oral Maxillofac Surg
Some patients may require prior medical
Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1995; 80: 409- 1993; 51: 1211-1216.
assessment or planned treatment following 413. 21 Pemberton M N, Sloan P, Ariyaratnam S,
discussions with their physician. Many 5 Cintron G , Medina R, Reyes A A, Lyman G. Thakker N S, Thornhill M H. Derangement of
patients fast before dental treatment under Cardiovascular effects and safety of dental warfarin anti-coagulation by miconazole oral
anaesthesia and dental interventions in gel. Br Dent J 1998; 184: 68-69.
the misconception that this is necessary. 22 Franco F, Saunders C P, Roberts G J,
patients with recent uncomplicated myocardial
If anti-hypertensive or anti-anginal ther- infarction. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146: 2203- Suwanprasit A. Dental disease, caries related
apy is omitted, it may precipitate cardiovas- 2204. microflora and salivary IgA of children with
cular complications during dental 6 McCarthy F M. Safe treatment of the post heart severe congenital cardiac disease: an
attack patient. Compend Contin Educ Dent epidemiological and oral microbial survey.
treatment. It is therefore important to 1989; 10: 598-604. Pediatr Dent 1996; 18: 228-235.
ensure the patient has not abruptly discon- 7 Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers S G. 23 Hallett K B, Radford D J, Seow W K. Oral
tinued their medication. Routine blood Effects of intensive blood pressure lowering health of children with congenital cardiac
and low dose aspirin in patients with diseases: a controlled study. Pediatr Dent 1992;
pressure measurement in particular will 4: 224-230.
hypertension: principle results of the
help screen for undiagnosed hypertension. hypertension optimisation treatment (HOT) 24 Droz D, Koch L, Lenain A, Michalski H.
Pre-medication should be considered to randomised trial. Lancet 1998; 351: 1755-1762. Bacterial endocarditis: results of a survey in a
alleviate anxiety and effective analgesia is 8 Colhoun H M, Dong W, Poulter N R. Blood children’s hospital in France. Br Dent J 1997;
pressure screening, management and control 183: 101-105.
important to reduce stress. Conscious in England 1994. J Hypertension 1998; 16: 747- 25 Saunders C P, Roberts G J. Dental attitudes,
sedation may be considered, particularly 753. knowledge and health practices of parents of
for those with coronary artery disease. Spe- 9 Brand H S, Abraham-Inpijn L. Cardiovascular children with congenital heart disease. Arch Dis
responses induced by dental treatment. Eur J Child 1997; 76: 539-540.
cial consideration should be given as to
Oral Sc 1996; 104: 245-252. 26 Cetta F, Warnes C A. Adults with congenital
whether adrenaline-containing local 10 Lu D P, Lu G P. Hypnosis and pharmacological heart disease: patient knowledge of
anaesthetics are really necessary in view of sedation for medically compromised patients. endocarditis prophylaxis. Mayo Clin Proc 1995;
the potential problems, and impregnated Compend Contin Educ Dent 1996; 17: 32-40. 70: 50-54.
11 Campbell R L, Langston W G, Ross G A. A 27 Goulet J P, Perusse R, Turcotte J Y. Contra-
gingival displacement cords should be indications to vasoconstrictors in dentistry:
comparison of cardiac rate-pressure product
avoided in those with hypertension and and pressure-rate quotient with Holter Part III. Pharmacologic interactions. Oral Surg
ischaemic heart disease. monitoring in patients with hypertension and Oral Med Oral Pathol 1993; 74: 692-697.
Ensuring a fresh supply of GTN is desir- cardiovascular disease: a follow-up report. Oral 28 Perusse R, Goulet J P, Turcotte J Y. Contra-
Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod indications to vasoconstrictors in dentistry:
able for patients with angina, and this can 1997; 84: 125-128. Part 1. Cardiovascular diseases. Oral Surg Oral
also be used if hypertension is a problem dur- 12 Blinder D, Shemesh J, Taicher S. Med Oral Pathol 1993; 74: 679-686.
ing dental treatment. It is helpful to ask Electrocardiographic changes in cardiac 29 Wright J M. Oral manifestations of drug
patients undergoing dental extractions under reactions. Dent Clin North Am 1984; 28:
patients to bring their own usual medication. 529-543.
local anaesthesia. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1996;
Morning appointments are preferable; 54: 162-165. 30 Seymour R A. Calcium channel blockers and
there is less time for the patient to become 13 Jowett N I. Electrocardiographic monitoring. gingival overgrowth. Br Dent J 1991; 170:
anxious, and more time to take effective mea- In: Cardiovascular Monitoring 1997. London: 376-379.
Whurr Publishers, pp: 35-61.