TEMPORARY SUPPORTING STRUCTURES

Temporary supporting structures are those structures which are required in the routine building
construction works or repair works. During the process of concreting work, temporary structures
called formworks are needed till the concrete attains its full strength. Similarly, for laying of
masonry work, plastering, painting and for temporary repair, some temporary structures are used
which are called scaffolding. During the process of excavation, or temporarily supporting a weak
structure some temporary structures are constructed which are called shoring.
Sometimes there may be some necessity to strengthen the existing foundation or to undertake some
repairs or to increase the number of floors or introducing a basement floor, some temporary
structures are constructed which are called underpinning.

FORMWORK
Concrete initially is in a plastic state and has to be kept within an enclosure of a desired shape by
proper temporary supports till it gains adequate strength. This temporary enclosure is known as
formwork or shuttering or simply as forms.
For circular works such as arches, doors, etc., the term centering is used generally instead of
formwork or shuttering. Similarly, the term moulds is used to indicate formwork of relatively small
units such as lintels, cornices, cubes for testing, etc.
Requirements of Formwork
Irrespective of the type of material used the formwork should satisfy the following requirements:
1. Adequate strength
2. Smooth inner surface
3. Enough rigidity
4. Quality
5. Less leakage
6. Economy
7. Easy removal
8. Supports
1. Adequate Strength - As the formwork has to bear the weight of concrete which exerts a lot of
pressure on all sides when it is wet, strength is an important and essential requirement.
Resistance to outward push is achieved with the help of bracings and the wire fastened on the
outer side of the formwork. Further the temporary load during placing of concrete by men and
machinery should also be withstood by the formwork.
2. Smooth Inner Surface - It is an essential requirement that the inner surface of the formwork to
have smooth surface on all concrete structures. This is specially desired, in case, the concrete
is to be exposed without plastering. All the projections, if any, are to be smoothened before
concreting. Steel sheet formworks give a smooth surface. Further it is the practice to apply
crude oil or soft soap solution to the inside surface of the formwork. This also further makes
the removal of formwork easy.

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3. Enough Rigidity - The formwork should be rigid enough to retain the shape without undue
deformation. For visible finished surfaces, the allowable deformation is 1/300 of span and
1/150 of span for hidden surface. In order to use the formworks repeatedly, they should be
rigid, robust and stiff.
4. Quality - Formwork should be designed correctly such that the required size, shape and finish
are obtained. Particularly the verticality of the side formwork should be made. In order to avoid
leakages through the formwork, the timber used for formwork should not have any cracks or
holes.
5. Less Leakage - Adequate care is taken to see that the formwork should be so placed that there
is minimum joint. Sometimes joints open once some concrete is placed. This should be avoided
and the leakage should be corrected by adjusting the vertical supporting poles of the formwork.
6. Economy - The cost of the formwork should be minimum as the formwork is only a temporary
structure and not going to contribute to the stability of the structure. This demands a careful
selection of formwork material and an optimum design.
7. Easy Removal - Formwork should be placed in such a manner that it can be removed easily
without causing any damage to the structure. During removal of the formwork, the nails and
screws should be removed with little hammering. Such a careful removal prevents the
possibility of injury to the concrete. Further such smooth removal enables the formwork to be
re-used with less expense.
8. Supports - In general formwork should rest on strong, hard and non-yielding supports. For this
the ground should be hard or the supports should rest on cured base concrete. The vertical poles
supporting the formwork should be strong and should not due to the weight of concrete.

Materials Used
Materials generally used are timber and steel. Sometimes plywood and aluminium are also used.
The choice of material to be used for the preparation of formwork depends on the nature of the job
and economy.

1. Steel Formwork
If it is intended to re-use the framework material for several times it is preferred to use steel or
aluminium. The initial cost of steel is very high.
Based on the requirements, the sizes of steel section are decided. For example, if formworks are
prefabricated into panels or sections it is to be done as big as the handling will permit or the size
of concrete. It should be noted that individuals can carry a maximum load of 35 kg.
Steel formworks are preferred based on the following advantages:
i) As it can be easily installed and dismantled, there is less labour cost.
ii) It is feasible to use several times.
iii) It is of high strength and hence durable.
iv) Precise design can be done.
v) As it does not absorb water from concrete, the formation of honeycomb surface is avoided.
vi) Concrete surface exposed in uniform without any undulations.

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 vii) High degree of accuracy is possible, as it does not shrink or expand.

2. Timber Formwork
Timber formwork cannot be used repeatedly as that of steel formwork. Timber intended to use as
formwork should be well seasoned and should be neither too dry nor too wet. The components of
timber formwork depend on the design load and the type of timber available.
Number of nails used in the formwork should be less and the heads projecting out for easy removal.
Timber formwork claims the following advantages:
i) Initial cost is less and hence cheap.
ii) With less modification it can be easily altered.
iii) It is used for small works requiring less repetitions.
iv) In buildings it is economical as the formwork can be used for some other building work
with minimum variations.

3. Plywood Formwork
For light loads, plywood’s are used nowadays. Following are the advantages compared to timber
formwork:
i) Like steel it can be re-used for a few times.
ii) No finishing treatment is needed, as it gives surfaces which are plain and smooth.
iii) As large sizes of plywood are available, it is possible to cover large area and less labour
cost is involved.

De-shuttering of formworks
Under no circumstance the forms are removed until the concrete has hardened sufficiently. Under
normal weather conditions, the concrete is left in place as long as possible up to a maximum of 28
days.
However, the period to which the concrete should be left in place depends on the temperature of
air, the shape and position of structural member, the load condition and the type of cement used.
The curing period is reduced in case of use of rapid-hardening cement, low temperature, low water-
cement ratio and high loads. In such cases early removal of forms may be permitted.
In order to roughly assess the hardness of concrete, the concrete has to be struck and if a metallic
sound is heard, it can be presumed that the concrete has hardened. However, for other reasons such
as re-use of forms, early use of the structure and need to cool the concrete in massive concrete the
forms may be removed subjected to the condition that the concrete is adequately hardened.
In normal conditions with the atmospheric temperature is above 20°C, normal cement is used and
the type of structure, the forms may be removed after a curing period as recommended in the table
below.

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 Type of structure and curing period

After adequate curing, forms should be stripped or removed with great care so as not to damage
the concrete wedges, vertical supports etc. In order to prevent sudden application of load on the
structure, the forms should be slackened gradually.

SCAFFOLDING
In the routine construction work, sometimes it is necessary to have some temporary structure or
support to continue the work. When the height of construction exceeds about 1.5 m, temporary
structures are needed. Temporary structure is erected close to the work so as to provide a safe
working platform for the workers and to provide adequate space to keep the working materials.
This temporary structure is known as scaffolding or simply a scaffold.
Such temporary structures are used in construction, demolition, maintenance or repair work of
buildings.

Components of Scaffolding
For a specific work of construction, a formwork is done using one or all of the following
components.
1. Standards - These are the vertical members of a scaffold which are either supported on the
ground or embedded in to the ground or rested on sand-filled bags.
2. Ledgers - These are the horizontal members of the scaffold.
3. Putlogs - These are transverse pieces which are placed on ledgers in perpendicular direction
and supported on the wall.
4. Transoms - There are putlogs whose both ends are supported on the ledgers.
5. Bridges - These are used to bridge an opening in a wall and support one end of the putlog
at the opening.
6. Braces - These are the cross or diagonal pieces fixed on the standards.
7. Guard Rail - This is a horizontal member provided like a ledger at the working level.
8. Toe Board - This is a board placed parallel to the ledgers and supported between the
putlogs. This facility is made as a protective measure to work on the working platform.
9. Raker - This is an inclined support.

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Requirements of Scaffolding
Scaffolding has to satisfy the following requirements irrespective of the material used:
1. Method of erection should be easy with less wastage of material.
2. As persons have to use the scaffolding at all heights, it should possess adequate strength.
3. Materials needed for scaffolding should be available in all the required sizes and lengths.
4. It should be feasible to interchange the material for other works with minimum wastage.
5. Initial cost should be comparatively less and should have high scrap value.
6. Fire-resistant scaffolding should be preferred.
7. For erection purposes no skilled labour should be depended upon.
Types of Scaffolding
Following are the different types of scaffolding:
1. Single scaffolding or bricklayer’s scaffolding
2. Double scaffolding or mason’s scaffolding
3. Cantilever or needle scaffolding
4. Suspended scaffolding
5. Trestle scaffolding
6. Steel scaffolding
7. Patented scaffolding

SHORING
Shoring is the means of providing support to get stability of a structure temporarily under certain
circumstances during construction, repair or alteration. Such a circumstance may arise when:
1. The suitability of a structure is an endangered due to removal of a defective portion of the
structure.
2. The stability of a structure is endangered due to the unequal settlement during construction.
3. Certain alterations are required to be done in the present structure itself (e.g., re-modelling
of walls, changing position of windows, introducing a beam, etc).
4. Alterations are carried out in adjacent building for re-modelling, strengthen foundation, etc.

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Installation of Shoring
Following are the points to be kept in view while installing shoring:
1. For shoring, timber or steel tubes may be used. Sometimes both are used in combination. If
timber is used its surface should be coated with a preservative so as to protect from wet rot.
2. The shoring should be designed based on the load it has to sustain and the duration of load.
3. Shoring may be installed internally or externally depending on the requirement and in certain
cases they may be provided on either side of the wall to produce additional stability.
4. Over-turning forces, if any, must be resisted by the shoring.
5. Shoring should be installed only after getting the necessary permission, if necessary, from
the local authorities.
6. There is no time limit to which the shoring has to be kept. It may range from weeks to years
depending on the case.
Types of Shoring
Shorings are classified under the following categories:
i) Raking or Inclined shores
ii) Flying or Horizontal shores
iii) Dead or Vertical shores

UNDERPINNING
Underpinning is the method of supporting structures while providing new foundations or
strengthening the foundation or carrying out repairs and alterations without affecting the stability
of the existing structures.
Uses of Underpinning
Underpinning techniques are adopted under the following situations:
i) To strengthen the existing shallow foundation of a building when an adjoining building has
to be constructed with a deep foundation.
ii) To safeguard the existing structure from the danger of excessive or differential settlement.
iii) To deepen and widen an existing foundation to increase the bearing capacity of the
foundation soil.
iv) To build a basement floor to an existing building.
v) To lift a building fully or partly to alter the foundation so as to prevent from waterlogging.

Precautionary Measures Before Underpinning

The following general measures should be undertaken before starting the underpinning operations:
i) The existing strength of the building should be ascertained before resorting to underpinning
(e.g., inferior material used or use of construction method which is not standard or poor
workmanship).
ii) Temporary support should be provided by adequate shoring and strutting wherever needed.
iii) During underpinning of buildings, a watch on possible movements should be checked and
rectified then and there.
iv) No damage should be caused to the adjoining structures.

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 v) It should be ensured that no obstruction is created to the passage of people or vehicles in the
adjoining areas.

Methods of Underpinning
Several methods are available for underpinning foundations but four routine methods
which are used in general are:
1. Pit Method
2. Pile Method
3. Pier Method
4. Chemical Method

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QUANTITY SURVEYING
Definitions
Quantity Surveyor - the person who is responsible on estimating the quantities from the design
drawings, and measurement of the quantities in the site during the project implementation, and
preparing the current and final payments.

Quantity Survey - It is the schedule of all items of work in a building. These quantities are
calculated from the drawing of the building. Thus quantity survey gives quantities of work done
in case of each items, when priced gives the total cost. In short, quantity survey means calculations
of quantities of materials required to complete the work concerned

Estimate - An estimate is the anticipated or probable cost of work and is usually prepared before
the construction is taken up. It is indeed calculations or computations of various items of an
engineering work.

Specifications - Detailed specifications gives the nature, quality and class of work, materials to be
used in the various parts of work, quality of the material, their proportions, method of preparation,
workmanship and description of execution of work are required.

Rates - The rates of various items of works, materials to be used in the construction and the wages
of different categories of labor (skilled and unskilled) should be available for preparing an
estimate. The cost of transportation charges should also be known. As far as possible sanctioned
“Schedule of Rates” shall be followed or the rates may be worked out by the “Analysis of Rates”
method.

Site Plan - It is the plan drawn for a particular construction showing its position with respect to
approaching roads, main bazars, markets and other permanent features in a populated area. It
shows the location of the area under construction with respect to the other areas and on it generally
the names of the owners of areas or property holders adjoining to it are also denoted. North line is
also clearly marked on it

Plinth Area - The built up covered area of a building measured at floor level of any storey is called
plinth area.

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Roles of a Quantity Surveyor
1. Prepares the bills of quantities
2. Approximates the estimate of costing in every stages of the formation of the building
project.
3. He plans for the client so that he gets the best value of his/her money for any construction
projects to be carried out (cost planning)
4. Examines, the tenders and prices of the BOQ and reports his findings to the architect
5. Negotiates with the contractor the desired amount to pay to him for the contract
6. Advices the client on the selection of the contractor
7. Values work in progress and recommends payment to be made to the contractor.
(valuation)
8. Advices on financial aspects of the contract valuation (Cost advise)
9. Prepares the final account when the contractor finishes the work
10. He prepares the tender documents
11. Advises on the form of contract

Estimating and costing

Estimating is the technique of calculating or computing the various quantities and the expected
expenditure to be incurred on a particular work or project. In case the funds available are less than
the estimated cost the work is done in part or by reducing it or specifications are altered, the
following requirement are necessary for preparing an estimate.

a) Drawings like plan, elevation and sections of important points.

b) Detailed specifications about workmanship & properties of materials etc.
c) Standard schedule of rates of the current year.

Need for estimation and costing

a) Estimate gives an idea of the cost of the work and hence its feasibility can be determined
i.e. whether the project could be taken up with in the funds available or not.
b) Estimate gives an idea of time required for the completion of the work.
c) Estimate is required to invite the tenders and quotations and to arrange contract.
d) Estimate is also required to control the expenditure during the execution of work.
e) Estimate decides whether the proposed plan matches the funds available or not.

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Procedure of estimating or method of estimating
Estimating involves the following operations:
1. Preparing detailed estimate.
2. Calculating the rate of each unit of work
3. Preparing abstract of estimate
An estimate of the cost of a construction job is the probable cost of that job as computed from
plans and specifications. For a good estimate the, actual cost of the proposed work after completion
should not differ by more than 5 to 10 % from its approximate cost estimate, provided there are no
unusual, unforeseen circumstances.

Site conditions affecting the overall cost

1. Each type of work requires a different method of construction. Construction may be of an
ordinary house or office and it may also be of a Dam, Tunnel, Multi-storey building,
Airport, Bridge, or a Road, already in operation. Each of these works requires totally
different construction techniques, type of machinery, and formwork.
2. Quality of labour and labour output varies in different localities.
3. Weather conditions greatly affect the output and, hence, the overall cost.
4. Ground conditions vary and change the method of construction. For example, excavation
may be dry, wet, hard, soft, shallow or deep requiring different efforts.
5. The work may be in open ground such as fields or it may be in congested areas such as
near or on the public roads, necessitating extensive watching, lightening, and controlling
efforts, etc.
6. The source of availability of a sufficient supply of materials of good quality is also a factor.
7. The availability of construction machinery also affects the method of construction.
8. Access to the site must be reasonable. If the access is poor, temporary roads may be
constructed.

TYPES OF ESTIMATES
There are two main types of estimates: -
a. Rough cost estimate.
b. Detailed estimate

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Rough cost estimate
• Estimation of cost before construction from plans or architectural drawings of the project
scheme, when even detailed or structural design has not been carried out, is called Rough
cost estimate.
• These estimates are used for obtaining Administrative Approval from the concerning
Authorities. Sometimes, on the basis of rough cost estimates, a proposal may be dropped
altogether.
• Unit cost is worked out for projects similar to the project under consideration carried out
recently in nearly the same site conditions. Unit cost means cost of execution of a unit
quantity of the work.
• To find rough cost of any project, this worked average unit cost is multiplied with total
quantity of the present work in the same units.
• For example, in case of a building, plinth area (m2) of the proposed building is worked out,
which is then multiplied by the cost per unit area (Kshs/m2) of similar building actually
constructed in the near past in nearly the same site conditions, to find out the rough cost
estimate of the building.
• This cost is sometimes adjusted by the average percentage rise in the cost of materials and
wages.

Detailed estimates
• Detailed estimates are prepared by carefully and separately calculating in detail the costs of
various items of the work that constitute the whole project from the detailed working
drawings after the design has been finalized.
• The mistakes, if any, in the rough cost estimate are eliminated in the detailed estimate.
• Detailed estimates are submitted to the competent authorities for obtaining technical
sanction.
• The whole project is sub-divided into different items of work or activities. The quantity for
each item is then calculated separately from the drawings as accurately as possible. The
procedure is known as "taking out of quantities".
• The quantities for each item may be estimated and shown in the pattern which is called "Bill
of quantities."

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 • The unit, in which each item of the wok is to be calculated, should be according to the
prevailing practice as followed in various departments of the country.
• Each item of the work is then multiplied by its estimated current rate calculated by a fixed
procedure to find out cost of the item.
• At the end, a total of all items of the work are made to get the total estimated cost.
• The rates are usually as per Schedule of Rates for the locality plus a premium to allow for
rise in labor and material rates over and above the schedule of rates.
• A percentage, usually 5% is also provided on the total estimated cost for the work to allow
for the possible contingencies due to unforeseen items or expenditure or other causes,
besides 2% establishment charges.

Depending upon the purpose of estimate, some types of detailed estimate are as follows: -
1. Contractor Estimates - It is made by the contractor for determining the price or prices to
be bid. It is usually a carefully prepared detailed estimate.
2. Engineer’s Estimate - This type of estimate is made by the Engineer (Consultant) usually
for the purposes of financing the work and for checking bids and running bills submitted
by contractors.
3. Progress Estimates - These are made by the Engineer at regular intervals for the completed
parts of the project during the progress of the work for determining the amounts of partial
payments to be made to the contractor. On large contracts, such estimates are commonly
made each month and, hence, are frequently called monthly estimates.

Unforeseen items in detailed estimate

• While preparing a detailed estimate, one had to be very careful to see that all items of the work
are incorporated.
• It is likely that a few Items, though unimportant in nature, might have been overlooked and
which may result in raising the estimate of the project.
• There may be also certain unforeseen circumstances affecting the project.
• Hence, a certain allowance usually 5 to 10% of the total cost, is made in the estimation which
will take care of all these items that are unforeseen or are overlooked and are known as
"Contingencies".

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Example:
Calculate the quantity of the following items from the figure below using centre line method:
i. Earth in foundation
ii. Concrete work in foundation
iii. Brick masonry in foundation and plinth
iv. Brick masonry in superstructure

Centre line = 4.30 + 3.30 + 4.30 + 3.30 = 15.20 m

Excavation for foundation = 15.20 x 0.80 x 1.0 = 12.16 m3

Concrete in foundation = 15.20 x 0.80 x 0.30 = 3.65 m3

Brickwork in foundation and plinth:

1st step = 15.20 x 0.60 x 0.10 = 0.91 m3

2nd step = 15.20 x 0.50 x 0.10 = 0.76 m3

3rd step = 15.20 x 0.40 x 0.10 = 0.61 m3

4th step = 15.20 x 0.30 x 0.40 = 1.82 m3

Total = 0.91 + 0.76 + 0.61 + 1.82 = 4.10 m3

Brickwork in superstructure = 15.20 x 0.30 x 0.36 = 1.64 m3

(Note 4 cm DPC is deducted from 40 cm to get 36 cm high brick work)

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Methods of preparation of approximate estimate
Preliminary or approximate estimate is required for studies of various aspects of work of project
and for its administrative approval. The following are the methods used for preparation of
approximate estimates.
a) Plinth area method: The cost of construction is determined by multiplying plinth area
with plinth area rate. The area is obtained by multiplying length and breadth (outer
dimensions of building). In fixing the plinth area rate, careful observation and necessary
enquiries are made in respect of quality and quantity aspect of materials and labour, type
of foundation, height of building, roof, wood work, fixtures, number of storeys etc.,
b) Cubical Contents Method: This method is generally used for multistoreyed buildings. It
is more accurate that the other two methods viz., plinth area method and unit base method.
The cost of a structure is calculated approximately as the total cubical contents (Volume of
buildings) multiplied by Local Cubic Rate. The volume of building is obtained by Length
x breadth x depth or height. The length and breadth are measured out to out of walls
excluding the plinth off set. The cost of string course, cornice, carbelling etc., is neglected.
The cost of building= volume of buildings x rate/ unit volume.
c) Unit Base Method: According to this method the cost of structure is determined by
multiplying the total number of units with unit rate of each item. In case schools and
colleges, the unit considered to be as 'one student' and in case of hospital, the unit is 'one
bed'. The unit rate is calculated by dividing the actual expenditure incurred or cost of
similar building in the nearby locality by the number of units.

Standard Method of Measurement

Purpose
It is important to establish a considerable degree of standardization in the method of preparing the
BQ and the units used in them. To achieve this aim, a Standard Method of Measurement is used,
the purpose of which can be summarized as follows:
a. To facilitate pricing by standardizing the layout and content of the BQ,
b. To provide a systematic structure of bill items, leading to uniform itemization and
descriptions,
c. To provide a rational system of billing suitable for both manual and computer operation,
d. To simplify the measurement of works and the administration of contracts,

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 e. To provide a uniform basis for measuring the works so as to avoid misunderstanding and
ambiguities, and
f. To assist in the financial control of the works.

BILLS OF QUANTITIES
Definition
The term Bills of Quantities (BQ) is defined in the SMM as a list of items giving brief identifying
descriptions and estimated quantities of the works to be performed. The BQ forms a part of the
contract documents, and is the basis of payment to the Contractor.

Objectives
To ensure that the BQ are prepared correctly, it is important during preparation to always bear in
mind the three main objectives of the document. These are:
(a) To enable tenders to be obtained from tenderers and to form the basis for tender comparison,
(b) To provide a means of valuing the works, and
(c) To form a basis for fixing any rates not included in the BQ, or valuing any variations.

TAKING OFF
General Rules
Taking off is the procedure by which dimensions of the works are calculated or scaled off from
the drawings and entered onto dimension papers or other similar computerized formats.
The normal format of dimension paper is indicated below.

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Column 1 is the `timesing' column in which multiplying figures are entered when there is more
than one of the particular item being measured.

Column 2 is the `dimension' column in which the actual dimensions taken from the drawings are
entered.

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Column 3 is the `squaring' column in which the product of the figures in column 1 and column 2
is recorded ready for transfer to the abstract or bill.

Column 4 is the `description' column in which the written description. The right-hand side of this
column is known as the `waste' area. It should be used for preliminary calculations, build-up of
lengths, explanatory notes and related matters. All steps that have been taken in arriving at
dimensions, no matter how elementary or apparently trivial, should be entered here, as this will
neatly aid remeasurement, valuing the works done for interim certificates, and answering any
queries regarding the measurements which may arise.

Methods of BQ Preparation
1. Traditional Method of BQ preparation
i) Taking Off - Taking off is a process of transferring the dimension scaled or read from the
drawings to a specially ruled paper called the dimension paper.
ii) Squaring - Squaring is a process of getting the total quantity whether in number, length,
area or volume for each set of measurement in the dimension paper.
iii) Abstracting - Abstracting is a process of transferring the squared dimensions to the
abstract where they are written in a recognized order under the appropriate work section
headings and subsequently totaled and converted to the required units or billing as stated
in the Standard Method of Measurement.
iv) Billing - Billing is a process of re-writing all the items including their quantities taken from
the abstract for the whole project, into the billing papers in a recognized format of a Bill of
Quantities.
2. Billing Direct
In this method, the abstracting stage is omitted by transferring the items directly from the
dimension sheet to the bill. Particular care must be taken, however, when adopting this method
and a methodical order of transfer must be adopted to ensure that the items are listed correctly and
in the right sequence in the bill.

Items transferred should be clearly crossed out on the dimension sheet, and an independent check
must be carried out on all calculations, which should be ticked in red ink or ball pen, and also on
all transfers. This method should be adopted where the number of similar items is not too extensive,
and the job is not too complex in character.
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3. Alternative Form of Billing Direct
This method has the taking-off and billing process done on the same `special' ruled paper. Each
sheet contains the measurement of one item only, and it consists of an upper and lower part. A full
description of the item, unit and quantities are to be listed on the upper part of the paper whilst the
dimensions are to be listed in rows on the lower part of the paper. The build-up and cross-reference
of dimensions should be neatly done in the space beyond the timesing column. If measurement
exceeds the number of rows, a separate sheet should be used and stapled to the first sheet. Upon
completion of the taking-off and squaring, the quantity is entered in the space on the upper part of
the sheet. The sheets are then sorted into sections and placed in bill order ready for typing onto
billing paper.

4. ‘Cut and Shuffle'

Students to read on and make notes

Bill of quantities (BQ) Content

Bill of quantities must contain the basic information presented in format that is easily understood

a) Preliminaries - Preliminaries explain type and scope of works, client’s needs, temporary
site facilities and other items affecting the implementation of the works. Items involved
need not be measured but need to be described in details and the contractor will have to
price the items that will affect the cost of the works in a lump sum figure. Items in this
section will not be incorporated into the works but are essential for the completion of the
works.
b) Specifications - Describe the quality of materials and workmanship of the works, usually
not practical to be presented in the drawings; including other information necessary for the
contractor to price the BQ.
c) Measured Quantities - Measured quantities are produced from the measurement of all the
works measurable based on the approved Standard Method of Measurement document.
These quantities shall be measured as accurately as possible so that no parties will make a
loss during the implementation of works.
d) Provisional Quantities - Provisional quantities are produced similarly as above but it is
formworks which cannot be accurately measured at the time of preparation of bill of
quantities. This situation happens due to incomplete information of work or in cases

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 whereby the extent of work cannot be fully determined until the work is completed. Such
work will be subjected to remeasurement after the works has been carried out.
e) Prime Cost Sum - Prime cost sum is included for work or services to be executed by a
nominated sub-contractor, a government or a statutory authority or for material or goods
to be supplied by a nominated supplier. Such sum excludes the profit and attendance of the
main contractor, of which provision are made in the document for such inclusion by the
contractor.
f) Provisional Sum - Provisional sum is included for work or for costs that cannot been
entirely defined or detailed at the time the bill of quantities is prepared.
g) Contingency Sum - Contingency sum is a sum allocated for any unforeseen work that
cannot be determined at the time of bill of quantities preparation. It will be a saving to the
client if such contingency sum is not expended due to unforeseen work.

Why produce Bills of Quantities?

 BQ enables all Contractors tendering for a contract to price exactly on the same
information
 Provides a basis for valuation of variations or changes to the works
 Can be used by the Contractor to assist in ordering of building materials and for
assessing his labour requirements
 Provides good basis for cost analysis for use on future contracts in Cost Planning Works,
e.g. approximate estimating and setting cost targets for budgeting purposes.
Format of priced bill of quantities

Sr. No. Description of Item Unit Quantity Rate Cost Remarks

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Example:
Prepare the bills of quantities for the following sections of a foundation given in the figure below:
i. Excavation,
ii. Planking and strutting

Plan and cross section

Solution
The length of excavation = (5.4 x 2) + (4.4 x 2) – (1 x 4) = 15.6 m
Depth of excavation = 1.6 m
Width of excavation = width of plain concrete footing = 1.00 m
Volume = 15.6 x 1.45 x 1.0 = 22.62 m3

S. NO. EXCAVATION QUANTITY UNIT RATE COST

A Excavate vegetable soil, average 150 23 m2

mm deep, and deposit in spoil heaps
average distance of 30 m for
excavation.

B Excavate foundation trench, not 22.62 m3

exceeding 1.50 m deep starting at
stripped level.

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 C Backfill excavated material around 9.83 m3
foundations

D Backfill vegetable soil from spoil 1.40 m3

heap into foundation trench

E Remove excavated material from site 6.24 m3

F Level and compact bottom of 15.6 m2

excavation to receive concrete

G Allow for keeping excavations free Item

from gravel

PLANKING AND STRUTTING

H Planking and strutting to sides of 46.8 m2

trenches not exceeding 1.50 m total
depth from ground level

J Planking and strutting to sides of 9.36 m2

trenches, exceeding 1.50 m and not
exceeding 3.0 m total depth from
ground level.

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What is a Contract?
A contract is defined as: "an agreement made between two or more parties which is enforceable
by law to provide something in return for something else from a second party". Contracts can be
very simple or they may be very long and complicated legal documents. When a contract is
properly set-up it is legally binding upon. The two parties are expected to perform the various
obligations they have undertaken, as expressed in a mutually agreed set of contract documents. A
contract therefore, is necessary to protect both client and contractor. According to its simple
definition, a contract is an agreement enforceable at law, but not all agreements are contracts. Some
elements must be present before an agreement becomes a contract. These elements are:
 Competent Parties: there must be two or more competent parties. In order to be
considered competent, a part must have a certain legal standing.
 Proper Subject Matter: For the subject matter of a contract to be proper, the first
requirement is that it was be clearly defined as to the rights and obligations of each party.
Second, the purpose of the contract must not violate the law.
 Consideration: There must be a lawful and valuable consideration given both parties. A
consideration often called "Something for Something." A consideration must, also, be
possible.
 Agreement: For valid contract, there must be a mutual agreement. An agreement is
considered to have been reached when an offer made by one party is accepted by the second
party. Both parties must wish and intend their bargain to be enforceable by law.
 Proper Form: The terms of a contract must be written so that both parties are very sure of
what their rights and responsibilities are.
 Consent of the Parties: The agreement must be free from: Misrepresentation, Duress
Undue influence, etc.
Steps of contracting process

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TENDERING
This is the submission of a quotation. A quotation is a price that a firm charge to offer a good or
service.

Implementation of project usually begin with a contract between the client and contractor. To come
up with a contract, a few processes need to done such as preparing the project brief and then
visualize in the form of drawing, tender document preparation, offer to the contractor, evaluation
of tender and acceptance of tender.

Tender is defined as an offer in form of money and time proposed by the contractor to complete
the project. Document refer to all written or printed material used for record purpose of proof.

Tender document is defined as all written or printed document that become a references to a
specific offer/project that have been proposed by the contractor. Tender document need to be
prepared to form a contract. The content of tender document differs based on the type of contract

Purpose of Tender Document

1. To describe all the client’s requirement to ensure that the other party’s (contractor)
response is clear and correct based on the requirement.
2. Given to the contractor for valuing and then come out with an offer.
3. As the initial document where after agreement, a part will become contract document
4. As a references during the construction or project management as record for future.
While preparing the tender documents, must remember the main purpose of this document is
prepared as a contract document (after acceptance) which binds the owner and contractor. Any
inconsistencies, mistakes or errors can cause problems and/or cost to owners.

Taking a decision to tender

Against corporate plan, senior managers will take the decision to bid for a specific contract.
Decisions are taken;
 During the pre-selection stage
 After careful examination of the contract documents
 After the estimate has been prepared and tender is ready to submit

Factors considered while taking the decision to tender

 Potential contribution of the contract to the company’s turnover in a particular sector; the

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  overheads recovered and the anticipated profits
 The likely demands of the contract on the company’s financial resources
 The company’s resources available e.g. the working capital and human resources
 Type of work
 The location of the project
 The type of client
 Contract deal

The FIDIC Tendering Procedure provides the opportunity and incentive to contractors to respond
easily to invitations to tender for projects which they are qualified to implement. The adoption of
this procedure minimizes tendering costs and ensures that all tenderers receive a fair and equal
opportunity to submit their offers on a reasonable and comparable basis.
The procedure is related to FIDIC's Conditions of Contract for Works of Civil Engineering
Construction (Red Book) and Conditions of Contract for Electrical and Mechanical Works
(Yellow Book), but can be readily adapted to any acceptable contract form.
Experience has shown that for projects involving international tendering, prequalification is
desirable since it enables the employer/engineer to establish the competence of companies
subsequently invited to tender. It is also in the interest of contractors since, if prequalified, they
will know that they are competing against a limited number of other firms, all of whom possess
the required competence and capability.
The procedure is suitable for tendering for most international construction works, but it may be
adapted to suit the particular requirements occasioned by the size and complexity of a project, and
any special conditions imposed by the established procedures of the employer or the financing
institutions. It reflects good current practice. FIDIC recommends its use by employers, engineers,
contractors and others involved in the international construction industry.
Post qualification is an assessment made by the Employer after the evaluation of bids and
immediately prior to award of contract, to ensure that the lowest-evaluated, responsive, eligible
bidder is qualified to perform the contract in accordance with previously specified qualification
requirements.
Prequalification is an assessment made by the Employer of the appropriate level of experience
and capacity of firms expressing interest (Expression of Interest) in undertaking a particular
contract, before inviting them to bid.

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A responsible bidder is a contractor qualified on the basis of:
1. is able to comply with the associated legal or regulatory requirements
2. is able to deliver according to the contract schedule
3. has a history of satisfactory performance
4. has good reputation regarding integrity
5. has or can obtain necessary data, equipment, and facilities, and
6. is otherwise eligible and qualified to receive award if its bid is chosen.

Breakdown of FIDIC Tendering Procedure

1.0 Project Strategy
1.1 Establishment of Procurement Method and Form of Tendering
1.2 Preparation of Programme
2.0 Prequalification of Tenderers
2.1 Preparation of Prequalification Documents
2.2 Invitation to Prequalify
2.3 Issue and Submission of Prequalification Documents
2.4 Analysis of Prequalification Applications
2.5 Selection of Tenderers
2.6 Notification of Applicants
3.0 Obtaining Tenders
3.1 Preparation of Tender Documents
3.2 Issue of Tender Documents
3.3 Visit to Site by Tenderer
3.4 Tenderers’ Queries
3.5 Addenda to Tender Documents
3.6 Submission and Receipt of Tenders
4.0 Opening of Tenders
4.1 Opening of Tenders
5.0 Evaluation of Tenders
5.1 Review of Tenders
5.2 Tenders containing Deviations
5.3 Adjudication of Tenders

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 5.4 Issue of Letter of Acceptance
6.0 Award of Contract
6.1 Issue of Letter of Acceptance
6.2 Performance Security
6.3 Preparation of Contract Agreement
6.4 Notification of Unsuccessful Tenders

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