Semiconductors

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CHAPTER – 3 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Session 1 : Formation of Energy Bands
Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors
Direct and Indirect gap Semiconductors
Formation of Energy Bands :

In an isolated atom, the electrons are tightly bound and have discrete sharp energy levels. When
two atoms are completely isolated from each other, there is no interaction of electrons in these two
atoms and both atoms can have identical energy levels. However, as the spacing between the two
atoms becomes smaller, i.e. when two identical atoms are brought closer, the two atoms form an
interacting system. The wave functions of the electrons of different atoms begin to overlap and
energy levels corresponding to these wave functions spilt into two levels. This is in accordance
with Pauli‟s Exclusion Principle which states that “No two electrons in a given interacting system
can have same quantum state and hence same energy.” Thus there must be a spitting of discrete
energy levels of isolated atoms into new levels belonging to the pair rather than to individual
atom.
When a number of isolated atoms come close to each other, various interactions occur between
neighbouring atoms. The forces of attraction and repulsion between atoms find a balance and a
proper inter-atomic spacing for a solid is adjusted. In this process, important changes occur in the
electron energy level configurations and these changes result in varied electrical properties of
solid.
In a solid, many atoms are brought together, so that the split energy levels form essentially a
continuous band of energies.
Pushing the atoms together, the initial quantized

energy level will split into a band of discrete energy
levels.
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Formation of Enegry Bands (example)
In a solid, many atoms are brought together, so that the split energy levels form essentially a
continuous band of energies. In the following figure, the imaginary formation of a diamond crystal
from N number of Carbon atoms is shown.
Each isolated carbon atom has an electronic structure 1s2 2s2 2p2. Thus each atom has two 1s
states, two 2s states, six 2p states and the higher states. Hence for N atoms, there will be 2N, 2N
and 6N available states of type 1s, 2s, and 2p respectively. As the inter-atomic spacing decreases,
these energy levels split into bands, beginning with the outer (n=2) shell. As the 2s and 2p bands
grow, they merge into a single band composed of mixture of energy levels. There are 8N available
states in this 2s-2p band. As the inter-atomic distance approaches the equilibrium inter-atomic
spacing, this band splits into bands separated by an energy gap Eg. The upper band (called as
conduction band) contains 4N states and the lower band (called as valence band) also contains 4N
states.
The lower 1s band is filled with original 2N electrons,

which were already there in 1s energy levels. The
remaining 4N electrons from 2s and 2p, now occupy states
in the valence band or conduction band. At 00 K, the
electrons occupy the lowest energy states available to them.
Hence, for diamond, valence band is completely filled and
conduction band is completely empty at 00 K.
Thus energy bands for Diamond can be drawn as shown

here –

Conduction band, Valance band and Energy Gap :
Conduction band is defined as the lowest empty band in the energy band diagram.
Valence band is defined as uppermost filled band in the energy band diagram.
Forbidden gap or Energy gap is defined as difference between top of the valence band and bottom
of the conduction band.
If energy of top of the valence band is Ev and energy of bottom of the conduction band is Ec then
the energy gap (Eg) is given by Eg = Ec – Ev.
3.1.2 Classification of Solids on the basis of band theory :
There are many energy bands in the solid. As far as the electrical conductivity of the solid is
concerned, only the valence band and conduction band are important. Completely filled band and
completely empty band do not contribute to the conduction. The electrons in the inner shell do not
take part in the conduction.
Electrons in the conduction band are free and can move freely under the influence of electric field.
The electrons in the valence band are attached to the lattice and are not free to move. If they
acquire sufficient energy to cross the forbidden gap Eg, they can occupy the conduction band states
and are available for conduction. Hence, Eg is the parameter which decides whether the material
acts as conductor, insulator or semiconductor.
On the basis of band theory, solids are classified into three categories – insulator, semiconductor
and conductor.
Semiconductors
Semiconductor is a material, which has conductivity level somewhere between the extremes of an
insulators and a conductor. In terms of energy bands, semiconductors are defined as those
materials, which have almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a
narrow energy gap of the order of 1 eV between them.

Why silicon is preferred over germanium?
Silicon and Germanium are two most widely used semiconductors. Silicon is preferred over
Germanium because of its superior thermal properties. The maximum operational temperature for
Germanium devices is 80 0C while Silicon devices may be used at up to 160 0C. Also, at room
temperature, silicon crystal has almost no free electrons compared with Germanium crystal.
Covalent Bonds in Semiconductors :
Semiconductors like Germanium and Silicon have crystalline structure (i.e. definite geometrical
arrangement is followed by atoms). An isolated silicon atom has four electrons in its valence orbit.
Hence to produce eight electrons in the valence orbit to get stability, a silicon atom combines with
four neighboring silicon atoms as shown below –
The forces that hold the atoms together are known as covalent bonds. The neighboring atoms form
covalent bonds by sharing four electrons with each other.
Intrinsic Semiconductor :
Intrinsic semiconductor is one that is made of semiconductor material in its extremely pure form.
Pure Silicon and pure Germanium are examples of intrinsic semiconductors.
At absolute zero temperature, the electrons in the outer shell of intrinsic semiconductor are tightly
bound with the covalent bonds. Hence, there are no free electrons and it behaves as insulator.
However, at room temperature, some valence electrons absorb enough energy to enable them to
break free from their covalent bonds. When this occurs, the liberated electrons are free to move
about in the crystal. When battery is connected to this crystal, free electrons are attracted to the
positive terminal of the battery and constitute electric current. Greater the temperature, greater is
the current. Free electron means that its motion is quite sensitive to applied electric field.
Generation of free electrons can also be explained on the basis of band theory. The energy band
diagram of intrinsic semiconductor is as shown in following fig. –

In intrinsic semiconductor, at 0 0K, the valence band is completely filled and conduction band is
completely empty. These bands are separated by energy gap Eg. In valence band, electrons are
present but vacant energy states are not there so that they can move freely. In conduction band,
vacant energy states are present but electrons are not there to move through these states freely.
However, as the temperature increases, some of the valence band electrons get enough energy to
overcome the energy gap and jump to the conductions band. Now, we have some vacant energy
states in the valence band, which are called, as „holes‟ and number of electrons, which can move
freely through holes when electric field is applied. Also, in conduction band, we have some
electrons, which can move, freely through already available vacant states when electric field is
applied.
Thus, in intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes are generated in pairs. At any temperature,
the number of holes valence band and the number of electrons in conduction band are same. As
the temperature increases, the number of electron hole pairs increase. Hence the conductivity of
the intrinsic semiconductor is directly proportional to the temperature.
Recombination :
Occasionally, it happens that the electron in the conduction band looses its energy and falls back
in the valence band. The lost energy is given out in the form of radiation (heat or light). This
merging of a free electron and a hole is called as „recombination‟.
Recombination occurs continuously in a semiconductor. Incoming heat energy keeps producing
electron hole pairs by lifting valence electrons to the conduction band. The time for which the
electron remains in the conduction band is called as the lifetime. Lifetime varies from a few
nanoseconds to several microseconds. After the lifetime of excited electron gets over, it falls back
into the valence band. This concept is used in the production of LEDs and semiconductor lasers.
Doped or Extrinsic Semiconductor :
Doping means adding impurity atoms to the crystal to increase either the number of free electrons
or the number of holes. When the crystal is doped, it is called as an extrinsic semiconductor. There
are two types of extrinsic semiconductors depending on the type of impurity (doping material).
n-type semiconductor :
In n-type semiconductor, a pentavalent impurity such as Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As),
Phosphorous (P) is added to pure semiconductor to get extra conduction band electrons. The
pentavalent atom (Sb) has five electrons in its valence orbit, out of which four electrons form
covalent bonds with four neighbouring semiconductor (Si) atoms and fifth electron remains
loosely bound as shown below-

This loosely bound electron can be excited to conduction band easily and can be made free. As
pentavalent atoms donate one electron to the conduction band of pure silicon, they are called as
donor atoms.
From the energy band structure viewpoint, the donor atoms introduce filled states called „donor
levels‟ just below the conduction band. The donor levels have energy approximately 0.1 eV below
the lowest level in the conduction band. Hence, donor electrons in donor levels can be easily
excited to the conduction band. Once they come in conduction band, they can move freely when
electric field is applied. This number of donated electrons in conduction band is much more as
compared to the number of electron hole pairs. Hence, in n-type semiconductor, the electrons are
majority carriers and holes are minority carriers.
p-type of semiconductor :
In p-type semiconductor, a trivalent impurity such as Boron (B), Aluminum (Al) is added to pure
semiconductor to get extra vacant states (holes) in the valence band. The trivalent atom (Al) has
three electrons in its valence orbit. All these three electrons form covalent bond wih four
surrounding semiconductor atoms (Si). But one bond is left incomplete and gives rise to a hole as
shown below –
Valence band electrons can move freely through the holes when electric field is applied. Trivalent
atoms accept one electron from a Silicon atom and in a process causes the semiconductor atom to
have a hole. Hence, they are known as acceptor atoms.
From the energy band structure viewpoint, the acceptor atoms introduce available energy states
called acceptor levels just above the valence band. The electrons from valence band can easily
jump to these acceptor levels leaving hole in the valence band. In p-type semiconductor, the
number of holes in valence band is much more than the number conduction band electrons. Hence,
the current is mainly due to holes. Thus, in p-type semiconductor, holes are majority carriers and
electrons are minority carriers.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT BAND GAP:
p2 2k 2
The energy of electron is given by E   where p is momentum,  is Planck constant
2m 2m
and k is propagation constant. Thus E  k 2 which is an equation of parabola.
The graph of E vs k is parabola as shown below-
The upper parabola in the conduction band represents free electrons and lower parabola in the
valence band represents holes.

https://youtu.be/6ShYjai83bA

Session 2 : Fermi level and Fermi function
Fermi level in semiconductor
Effect of temperature on the Fermi level
Effect of doping concentration on the Fermi level
FERMI LEVEL:
A solid is formed by bringing a large number of atoms together. Each atomic level splits into a
large number of closely packed levels and energy bands are formed. In metal, there is one partially
filled band which is s result of conduction band overlapping with valence band. Electrons try to
acquire lowest possible energies. Hence, in this partially filled band, the lowest energy levels are
filled first.
In case of metals, only electrons are the current

carriers. The highest occupied energy level at
absolute zero temperature i.e. 00K is called the
Fermi level and the energy corresponding to it
is called the Fermi energy and is denoted by EF
. At 00K, all energy states below EF are
occupied and all energy states above EF are
empty. At higher temperatures, the thermal
energy can excite the electrons to higher energy
states and there may be some empty states
below EF.
Thus, for conductors, the highest filled energy
level in the highest energy band at 00K is the
Fermi level.
Fermi level is a measure of energy of least

tightly held electrons within a solid. It is much
important in determining thermal and electrical conduction properties of solids. Fermi level can be
changed by changing the temperature of a solid or by adding impurity.
When material with different individual Fermi levels are placed in contact, some electrons flow
from material with higher Fermi level into the other material. This transfer f electrons raises the
lower Fermi level and lowers the higher Fermi level. When the transfer is complete, Fermi levels
of both the materials are equal. This is very important in understanding the electrical properties of
electronic devices obtained by joining different materials.
Fermi energy can be used to calculate velocity of electrons during conduction. During the
conduction, only the electrons that have energy close to that of Fermi energy participate in
process.

Fermi Dirac Distribution Function
The distribution of electrons over a range of allowed energy levels at thermal equilibrium in
conductors (metals) is given by Fermi-Dirac statistics. According to Fermi-Dirac distribution
law, the probability that an energy state of energy E is occupied at T 0K is given by –
1
f (E)   E-E 
 F
 
1 e  kT 
where, k is Boltzmann constant  8.62  10 -5 eV/ 0 K

E F is Fermi Energy
f (E) is Distributi on function known as Fermi function
This function plotted for different temperatures is shown below –
We can see from these curves –
This indicates all energy levels below are

completely filled at absolute zero temperature
This indicates all energy levels above are

completely empty at absolute zero temperature
Fermi-Dirac Distribution function can not give us

probability of occupancy of Fermi level at 0 K.
At , probability of occupancy for Fermi

level is always half

1. Calculate probability of non-occupancy for the energy level which lies 0.01 eV above
the Fermi energy level at 27 0C.
Given : T = 300 0K, k = 8.62 x 10 – 5 eV / 0K EF = 5.5 eV
1
Probabilit y of occupancy = f (E C )  E  EF
1 e kT
1
Probabilit y of non - occupancy = 1  f (E C )  1  E  EF
1 e kT
1
 1  0.01
 1  0.406
-5
1  e 8.62  10 300
 0.594
2. Fermi level for silver is 5.5 eV. Find out the energy for which the probability of
occupancy at 300 K is 0.9.
Given : T = 27 0C = 300 0K, k = 8.62 x 10 – 5 eV / 0K
EF = 5.5 eV, f(E) = 0.9
1
Probabilit y of occupancy = f(E)  E  EF
1 e kT
E  EF
1
1 e kT
=
f(E)
E  EF
1
e kT
= 1
f(E)
E  EF  1 
 ln   1
kT  f(E) 
 1 
E  E F  kT ln   1
 f(E) 
 1   1 
E  E F  kT ln   1  5.5 8.625  10 -5  300  ln   1  5.443 eV
 f(E)   0.9 
4. Fermi level in potassium is 2.1 eV. What are the energies for which the probability of
occupancy at 300 K are 0.99 and 0.01.
Given : T = 27 0C = 300 0K, k = 8.62 x 10 – 5 eV / 0K
EF = 5.5 eV, f(E) = 0.9
1
Probabilit y of occupancy = f(E)  E  EF
1 e kT

E  EF
1
1 e kT
=
f(E)
E  EF
1
e kT
= 1
f(E)
E  EF  1 
 ln   1
kT  f(E) 
 1 
E  E F  kT ln   1
 f(E) 
 1 
E  E F  kT ln   1
 f(E) 
For f(E)  0.99
 1 
 2.1 8.625  10 -5  300  ln   1  1.981 eV
 0.99 
For f(E)  0.01
 1 
 2.1 8.625  10 -5  300  ln   1  2.218eV
 0.01 
Fermi level in semiconductor :

In semiconductors, we have two types of current carriers – electrons and holes. In semiconductors,
the Fermi level is defined as the reference level that gives the probability of occupancy of states in
conduction band as well as unoccupied states in valence band. Fermi level in semiconductors may
also be defined as energy level that corresponds to the centre of gravity of conduction band
electrons and valence band holes weighted according to their energies.
Fermi level in Intrinsic semiconductors :
In intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies at the centre of the forbidden band indicating that
the states occupied in conduction band is equal to the states unoccupied in the valence band. It
shows that electron concentration in the conduction band is equal to the hole concentration in
valence band.
Conduction Band
Ec
Energy
Eg
EF
Ev
Valence Band
Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor

Fermi level in Extrinsic semiconductor :
The position of Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor depends both on doping and on the
temperature. If the intrinsic semiconductor is doped, the Fermi level shifts towards the energy
band that has higher concentration of charge carriers.
Conduction Band Conduction Band

Ec Ec
EF
Energy
Energy
ED
Eg Eg
ED
EF
Ev Ev
Valence Band Valence Band
Fermi level in n-type Fermi level in p-type

semiconductor semiconductor
n-type semiconductor :
In n-type semiconductor, the concentration of free electrons in the conduction band is much higher
than that of holes in the valence band. Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the conduction band.
At 00K, the Fermi energy level EF lies between the conduction band energy EC and donor energy
level ED. This is shown in the figure. With the increase in temperature, the concentration of
electrons and holes changes and the position of Fermi level also change. At T > 00K, the Fermi
level may shift below the donor level but is always well above the centre of forbidden gap.
p-type semiconductor :
In p-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes in the valence band is much higher than that
of electrons in the conduction band. Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the valence band. At
00K, the Fermi energy level EF lies between the valence band energy EV and acceptor energy level
EA. This is shown in the figure. With the increase in temperature, the concentration of electrons
and holes changes and the position of Fermi level also change. At T > 0 0K, the Fermi level may
shift above the acceptor level but is always well below the centre of forbidden gap.

EFFECT OF DOPING CONCENTRATION ON FERMI LEVEL :
n-type semiconductor:
Conduction Band Conduction Band Conduction Band
EF
EF
ED Donor Levels
Ei
Valence Band Valence Band Valence Band
Low doping Medium doping high doping

variation of Fermi level in n-type semiconductor with
increasing doping concentration
In n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is much higher
than that of holes in the valence band. Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the conduction band.
At 00K, the Fermi energy level EF lies between the conduction band energy EC and donor energy
level ED. This is shown in the figure. With the increase in doping concentration, more donor levels
are available which result in broadening of the donor levels. Due to more donor levels near
conduction band, more electrons get transferred from these donor levels to conduction band,
resulting in increase in electron concentration in the conduction band. As the electron
concentration in conduction band increases, Fermi level shifts towards conduction band. With
very high doping concentration of donor atoms, the Fermi level may enter the conduction band.
Presence of Fermi level inside the conduction band indicates very high level of doping.
p-type semiconductor:
Conduction Band Conduction Band Conduction Band
Donor Levels
Ei
EA
EF
EF
Valence Band Valence Band Valence Band
Low doping Medium doping high doping

variation of Fermi level in p-type semiconductor with
increasing doping concentration
In p-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes in the valence band is much higher than that
of electrons in the conduction band. Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the valence band. At

00K, the Fermi energy level EF lies between the valence band energy EV and acceptor energy level
EA. This is shown in the figure. With the increase in doping concentration, more acceptor levels
are available which result in broadening of the acceptor levels. Due to more acceptor levels near
valence band, more electrons from valence band get transferred to these acceptor levels resulting
in increase in hole concentration in the valence band. As the hole concentration in valence band
increases, Fermi level shifts towards valence band. With very high doping concentration of
acceptor atoms, the Fermi level may enter the valence band. Presence of Fermi level inside the
valence band indicates very high level of doping.
CARRIER CONCENTRATION :
The Fermi distribution function can be used to calculate the concentration of holes and electrons in
the semiconductor, if the density of available states in the valence and conduction bands is known.
The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is given by –

n   f (E) . N(E) dE ----------------------(1)
E
c
The number of electrons per unit volume in the energy range dE is the product of the density of
states and the probability of occupancy f(E). Thus total electron concentration is integral over the
entire conduction band. Solving equation (1) we get the electron concentration in the conduction
band as –
 (E  E ) / kT
n  NC e C F ----------------------(2)
3
 2 π m*n k T  2
where, N C  2  2

 , m*n is the effective mass of the electron.
 h 
Similarly, hole concentration in the valence band is given by –
 (E  E ) / kT
p  NV e F V ----------------------(3)
3
 2 π m *p k T  2
where, N V  2  , m*p is the effective mass of the hole.
 h 2 
 
At thermal equilibrium, electron and hole concentrations given by equations (2) and (3) are valid
for intrinsic as well as extrinsic semiconductor.
For intrinsic semiconductor, n = ni and p = pi and EF = Ei . Therefore,
 (E  E ) / kT  (E  E ) / kT  (E  E ) / kT
n i . pi  NC e C i . NV e i V  NC NV e C V
 E / kT
 n i . pi  NC NV e g
For intrinsic semiconductor, ni = pi = ni

 E / kT
 n i2  NC NV e g
----------------------(4)
The product of electron concentration (n) and hole concentration (p) is given by –
 (E  E ) / kT  (E  E ) / kT  (E  E ) / kT
n . p  NC e C F . NV e F V  NC NV e C V
 n . p  n i2 ----------------------(5)
This is important relation which will be used in further discussion.
FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR LIES IN THE MIDDLE OF THE

FORBIDDEN GAP :
Let at any temperature T > 0 0K
nc = electron concentration in conduction band.

nv = hole concentration valence band.
N = total number of electrons
The total number of electrons in conduction band is –

n c  NC e  (EC  EF ) / kT ----------------------(1)
where NC is the effective density of states in the conduction band.
The total number of holes in valence band is –

n v  N V e  (EF  EV ) / kT ----------------------(2)
where NV is the effective density of states in the valence band.
Effective density of states in conduction band and valence band are same
i.e. NC = NV . -----------------(3)
For intrinsic semiconductor, enectron concentration in conduction band and hole concentration in
valence band are same
 nc  nv
N C e  (EC  E F ) / kT  N V e  (EF  E V ) / kT
e  (EC  E F ) / kT NV

e  (EF  E V ) / kT NC
NV
e  (EC  E F  E F  E V ) / kT 
NC
From (3) N C  NV
This gives -
 (EC  E V  2E F )
e kT
 1  e0
 (E C  E V  2E F )
  0
kT
 EC  EV  2 EF
EC  EV
 EF  ------------------------------(4)
2
Therefore, Fermi level in the intrinsic semiconductor lies exactly in the middle of the forbidden
gap.

1. What is the probability of an electron being thermally excited to conduction band in

intrinsic Si at 27 0C. The band gap energy of Si is 1.12 eV.
Soln: Given : T = 27 0C = 300 0K, k = 8.62 x 10 – 5 eV / 0K Eg = 1.12 eV
For intrinsic semiconductor,
E  EV
EF  C
2
Eg 1.12
 EC  EF  EF  EV    0.56 eV
2 2
Probabilit y of finding electron in conduction band -
1 1
f (E C )  E E
 0.56
 3.93  10 10
C F
-5
1 e 1  e 8.62  10 300
kT
6. What is the probability of an electron being thermally promoted to conduction band

in diamond at 270C if bandgap is 5.6 eV wide.
Given : T = 27 0C = 300 0K, k = 8.62 x 10 – 5 eV / 0K

Eg = 5.6 eV
For diamond,
EC  EV
EF 
2
Eg 5.6
 EC  EF  EF  EV    2.8 eV
2 2
Probabilit y of electron being promoted to conduction band -
1 1
f (E C )  E E
 2.8
 9.476  10 48
C F
1  e kT 1  e 8.62  10 300
-5
5. In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies 0.4 eV below the conduction band. If
the concentration of donor atoms is doubled, find the new position of the Fermi level
w.r.t. conduction band.
-
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )

https://youtu.be/5iEsqeMOZAc

Session 4 : Hall Effect
HALL EFFECT :
If a metal or semiconductor carrying a current I is placed in a transverse magnetic field B, an

electric field E is induced in the direction perpendicular to both the direction of current and
magnetic field. This phenomenon is called as Hall Effect. The electric field produced is called as
Hall field.
Consider a rectangular plate of n-type semiconductor. Let I be the current flowing through this
plate in X-direction. This plate is kept in the magnetic field B acting along Z-direction. This
induces electric field E along negative Y direction. The reason behind this electric field is the
magnetic force acts on the electrons in vertically downwards direction. This makes lower surface
of the plate at negative potential with respect to the upper surface and the potential difference VH
is produced across the plate as shown in Fig.
EH
d +
X
VH
B
w I Hall Effect
-
The current through the semiconductor is given by –

I  neAv -----------------(1)
where n is concentration of electrons,
A is area of cross section of the plate,
e is charge on the electron,
v is average drift velocity of electrons.
At equilibrium,
electric force on electrons = magnetic force on electrons
e EH = e v B -----------------(2)
VH
where E H  is the Hall field, VH is called as the Hall voltage.
d
Thus,

VH  E H d
 vB d from (2)
Bn e vd
 multiply and divide by ne
ne
B I d
 from equation (1)
neA
BId w BIA
  multiply and divide by w
neAw neAw
BI BI
 VH   RH -----------------(3)
new w
where,
1 V w V dw V 1 A E
RH   H  H  H  H is called as Hall coefficient. ---(4)
ne BI d BI d B I BJ
Hall coefficient is defined as the Hall field per unit magnetic induction per unit current density.
Importance of Hall Effect is that it helps –
(i) To determine carrier concentration. From equation (3) if VH, B, I, w are known ‘n’ can be
calculated.
(ii) To determine type of the semiconductor. For n-type semiconductor direction of EH is

vertically downward and that for p-type semiconductor will be vertically upward.
(iii)To determine mobility  of the charge carriers if conductivity of the conductor /

semiconductor is known.
1. n-type Ge sample has donor concentration 1021/m3 and thickness = 3 mm is used in a

Hall effect experiment set up. If B = 0.5 T, J = 500 A/m3, Find Hall voltage.
Soln: Given : n = ND = 1021 /m3

d = 3 x 10-3 m
B = 0.5 Wb/m2
J = 500 A/m3
BI BId BJd
VH   
new ne wd ne
3
0.5  500  3  10
  4.68  10 3 volts
10 21  1.6  10 19

2. In a Hall effect experiment, a potential difference of 4.5 μ V is developed across a foil

of zinc of thickness 0.02 mm, when a current of 1.5 A is carrying in a direction
perpendicular to applied magnetic field of 2 tesla. Calculate a) Hall coefficient for zinc
b) concentration of electrons.
Given : VH  4.5 V  4.5  10 -6 volts,
thickness , w  0.02 mm  0.02  10 -3 m,
I  1.5 A, B  2 tesla
1 VH w
Hall coefficient  R H  
ne BI
3
4.5 10  0.02 10
-6
  3 10-11 m 3 / C
2 1.5
BI
Concentration of electrons  n 
VH e w
2 1.5

4.5 10 1.6 10 19  0.02 10 3
6
 2.083 10 29 / m 3
3. Calculate the current produced in a germanium sample of cross-section 1 cm2 and

thickness of 0.01 m when a potential difference of 2V is applied across it. Given- The
concentration of free electrons in germanium is 2 x 1019 /m3 and mobility of electrons
and holes are 0.36 m2/volt sec and 0.17 m2/volt sec respectively.
Ge
A = 1 cm 2 = 10 -4 m2
sample
t = 0.01 m
V=2V
v
Current produced , I  n e v A  n e  E A as  
E
V
 ne A
t
2
 2  1019  1.6  10 19  0.36   10 4
0.01
 23.04  10 -3 Amp  23.04 mA

https://youtu.be/67QXoPW0eE0

Session 3 : Conductivity, current density and mobility
CONDUCTIVITY AND MOBILITY :
The charge carriers in a solid are in constant random motion, even at thermal equilibrium. At room
temperature, the thermal motion of an individual electron may be visualized as random scattering
from lattice atoms, impurities and other electrons as shown in fig.
Thermal motion of
electron in a solid
As this is a random motion of electrons, net current due to such randomly moving electrons is
zero. However, under the influence of electric field (E), each electron experiences a force
F = – eE. This force is insufficient to change the random motion of electrons but, effect of this
force when averaged over all electrons, results in a net motion of group of electrons in the
direction opposite to the direction of electric field. The net motion of electrons in a particular
direction under the influence of electric field is called drift motion. The current resulting due to
this drift motion is called as drift current.
Drift current density, (J) is defined as the drift current per unit area of cross section of the
conductor.
I
J  -----------------(1)
A
Electric field (E) is the potential drop per unit length of the conductor.
dV V
E    -----------------(2)
dx L
Resistivity () is the resistance offered by a conductor of unit length and unit cross sectional area.
A
ρ  R -----------------(3)
L
Conductivity () is the reciprocal of resistivity.
1 L
σ   -----------------(4)
ρ RA
From equation (4) and (2)
L V V I
σ E     J
RA L R A A
 J  σ E -----------------(5)
This is the relation between current density and conductivity.

Drift velocity (v) is defined as net displacement in electron position per unit time under the
influence of electric field.
Mobility () of electrons is defined as average drift velocity acquired by the electrons per unit
electric field.
v
μ  -----------------(6)
E
m2
SI Unit of mobility is .
V - sec
To get the relation between conductivity and mobility :
If v is drift velocity of electrons, length traversed by the electrons in unit time = v
Therefore, volume swept by electrons in unit time = v A
If ‘n’ is number of electrons per unit volume, electrons in volume vA = nvA
If e is charge on electron, charge flowing per unit time = current I = nevA
I
 Current density, J   nev -----------------(7)
A
From equation (5) and (6)

J nev
Therefore, conductivity, σ    n eμ -----------------(8)
E E
Conductivity of Semiconductors :
In semiconductors, the conduction takes place due to electrons in conduction band and holes in
valence band. Hence, the conductivity of semiconductor is equal to the sum of the conductivity
due to electrons and holes.
 Conductivi ty of a semiconductor is -
σ  σn  σp
σ  n  e μn  p  e μp
where, n is electron density (number of electrons per unit volum e)
p is hole density (number of holes per unit volum e)
e is charge on electron
μ n is electron mobility
μ p is hole mobility

Conductivity of Intrinsic semiconductor :
For intrinsic semiconductor, the free electron density (concentration) is equal to free hole density
i.e. n = p = ni = intrinsic carrier concentration.
 Conductivi ty of intrinsic semiconductor is -
σ  ni  e  μn  ni  e  μp
σ  n i  e (μ n  μ p )
Conductivity of Extrinsic semiconductor :
For n- type semiconductor, n >> p. Hence, neglecting the hole concentration, the conductivity of
n-type semiconductor can be written as –
σ  n  e  μ n  Nd  e  μ n
where, N d is concentration of donor atoms
For p- type semiconductor, p >> n. Hence, neglecting the electron concentration, the conductivity
of p-type semiconductor can be written as –
σ  p  e  μ p  Na  e  μ p
where, N a is concentration of acceptor atoms
Why mobility of holes is less than that of electrons?
Electrons in the conduction band can move more freely as in conduction band large number of
empty states is available. So, mobility of electrons in conduction band is more.
Holes are empty states in the valence band. Holes move in a valence band. Moving holes is
nothing but electrons moving through these empty states. Valence band has large number filled
states i.e. large number of electrons. Empty states i.e. holes are comparatively less. Thus, in
valence band, large number of electrons moves through less number of empty states. So, they
cannot move as freely as electrons. And therefore, mobility of holes in valence band is less.
1 Find resistivity of Ge at 300 0K. Given density of carriers is 2.5 x 1019 / m3. Mobility of
electrons is 0.39 m2/V-sec, mobility of holes = 0.19 m2/V-sec.
Given : ni = 2.5 x 1019 / m3,

n = 0.39 m2/V-sec, p = 0.19 m2/V-sec
For intrinsic semiconductor, conductivity is given by –
= 2.5 x 1019 x 1.6 x 10-19 (0.39 + 0.19)

= 2.32 (ohm-m)-1
1 1
Resistivit y  ρ    0.43 ohm - m.
σ 2.32

2. The resistivity of intrinsic InSb at room temperature is 2 x 10-4 ohm-cm. If the

mobility of electron is 6 m2/V-sec and mobility of hole is 0.2 m2/V-sec, calculate its
intrinsic carrier density.
-4 -6
Resistivity
For intrinsic semiconductor, conductivity is given by –
3. Find resistivity of Copper assuming that each atom contributes one free electron for
conduction. Given density of Cu = 8.96 gm / cm3, atomic weight = 63.5,
Avogadro’s Number = 6.023 x 1023 / gm-mole, Mobility of electron = 43.3 cm2/V-sec.
Number of atoms per unit volume is given by –

6.023  10 23  8.96
Atomic density 
63.5
 8.4985  10 22 /cm3
electron concentration is given by-
n  1  atomic density  8.4985  10 22 /cm3
Resistivity is given by –
1 1 1
ρ   
σ n e μn 8.4985  10  1.6  10  19  43.3
22
 1.698  10  6  - cm
4. Calculate conductivity of a germanium sample if donor impurity atoms are added to

the extent of one part in 106 germanium atoms at room temperature. Assume that
only one electron of each atom takes part in conduction process.
Given : Avogadro’s number = 6.023 x 1023 atoms / gm-mole
Atomic weight of Ge =72.6, mobility of electrons = 3800 cm2/volt-sec
Density of Ge = 5.32 gm / cm3
72.6 gm Ge contains 6.023  10 23 atoms
6.023  10 23
 5.32 gm i.e. 1 cm3 will have  5.32  4.41 10 22 atoms
72.6
4.41 10 22
As donor impurity is 1 part in 10 6 , donor concentration, n 
10 6
 4.41 1016 / cm3
Now, conductivity,   n e  e  4.41 1016  1.6  10 19  3800  26.8  cm

5. Calculate the number of donor atoms which must be added to an intrinsic

semiconductor to obtain the resistivity as 10-6 ohm-cm. Use mobility of electron = 1000
cm2/V-sec.
6. Silicon sample is doped with 1017 As atoms/cm3. Intrinsic concentration for Silicon at
room temperature is 1.5 x 1010 /cm3. What is the equilibrium hole concentration at
room temperature? Show the position of Fermi level.
Given : n = Nd = 1017 /cm3
ni = 1.5 x 1010 /cm3
For a semiconductor,
n . p  n i2
Therefore, hole concentration is given by
p 
n i2


1.5  1010 
2
 2.25  103 /cm3
n 1017
 (E  E ) / kT
n  NC e C F
We know,
(E  E ) / kT
n  ni e F i
(E  E )
F i
n
  e kT
ni
n 5  1017 
 (E F  E i )  kT ln ( )  8.62  10  300 ln  
10 
ni  1.5  10 
 0.407 eV
Ec
EF
0.407 eV
Ei
1.1 eV
Ev

https://youtu.be/Z-mdnY2ObRg

Session 5 : (p-n junction diode)
P-N junction:
On joining n-type semiconductor with p-type semiconductor, diffusion of carriers takes place due
to large concentration gradients at the junction. Holes diffuse from p-side to n-side and electrons
diffuse from n-side to p-side. Electrons diffusing from n-side to p-side leave behind donor ions
(Nd+) and holes diffusing from p-side to n-side leave behind acceptor ions (Na-). Thus, positive
space charge is developed on n-side near the junction and negative space charge is developed on
p-side near the junction. The region near the junction, where positive donor ions are created on n-
side and negative acceptor ions are created on p-side is called as depletion region. Equilibrium
potential difference across this depletion region is called as contact potential (V0) or barrier
potential.
W
- - + +
- - + +
p - - + +
n
- - + +
E
Forward Biasing a p-n junction :
When an external voltage is applied to the p-n junction with the positive terminal connected to the
p-region and negative terminal connected to the n-region, the p-n junction is said to be forward
biased.
Reduced Depletion
layer
- +
- +
- +
- +
p side n side
Forward Bias
In forward bias condition, negative terminal of the battery repels the free electrons on the n-side
towards the junction. These free electrons recombine with the positive ions present in the
depletion layer. Similarly, the positive terminal of the battery repels the holes on p-side towards
the junction. These holes recombine with the negative ions in the depletion layer. The overall
effect of this is reduction of depletion layer width. As the external voltage increases, the depletion
layer vanishes and the free electrons from n-side, are attracted towards the positive terminal of the
battery and holes from p-side are attracted towards the n-side and the current starts flowing. Thus
in forward bias condition, the current flow is due to majority carriers

Reverse biasing a p-n junction :
If p-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and n-type
semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of the battery, then the p-n junction is said to
be reverse biased. This results in increase in barrier potential and hence in barrier height.
Increased Depletion
layer width
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
p side n side
Reverse Bias pn junction
The reverse bias pulls the free electrons in the n-region away from the junction towards the
positive terminal of the battery. Also, holes are pulled away from the junction towards the
negative terminal of the battery. The departing electrons leave more positive ions near the junction
and the departing holes leave more negative ions near the junctions. This results in increase in the
width of depletion layer. This wider depletion layer does not allow the majority carriers in both
regions to cross the junction. Hence, there is no current due to majority carriers.
Forward Characteristics :
When the diode is in forward-biased and the applied voltage is increased from zero, hardly any
current flows through the device in the beginning. It is so because the external voltage is being
opposed by the internal barrier voltage Vb whose value is 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge. As soon as
Vb is neutralized, current through the diode increases rapidly with increasing applied supply
voltage. It is found that as a little voltage of 1.0V produces a forward current of about 50mA.
Reverse Characteristics :
When the diode is reverse-biased, majority carrier are blocked and only a small current (due to
minority carrier) flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage is increased from zero, the
reverse current very quickly reaches its maximum or saturation value Io which is also known as
leakage current. It is of the order of nano Amperes (nA) and micro Amperes (A) for Ge. As seen
from above figure, when reverse voltage exceeds a certain value called breakdown voltage VBR,
the leakage current suddenly and sharply increases, the curve indicating zero resistance at this
point.

Forward
Reverse Bias
VBR Bias
Vb V
DIFFUSION CURRENT :
In addition to the drift motion of the carriers under the influence of an electric field, the carriers in
semiconductors may move by diffusion. Diffusion occurs whenever there is a non-uniform
distribution of concentration of charge carriers at some places in the crystal.
In the absence of electric field, the carrier density in a homogeneous semiconductor is uniform at
equilibrium due to random thermal motion of electrons and repulsive forces between them. If
excess carriers are introduced locally within such semiconductor, either by heating or injecting
carriers, a non-uniform distribution is created. The excess carriers move from region of higher
concentration to the region of lower concentration in order to produce uniform distribution. This
phenomenon is called as diffusion and it takes place in addition to the drift caused by an electric
field.
P-N JUNCTION (Depletion region and Energy Band Diagram)
On joining n-type semiconductor with p-type semiconductor, diffusion of carriers takes place due
to large concentration gradients at the junction. Holes diffuse from p-side to n-side and electrons
diffuse from n-side to p-side. Electrons diffusing from n-side to p-side leave behind donor ions
(Nd+) and holes diffusing from p-side to n-side leave behind acceptor ions (Na-).
W
- - + +
- - + + Space charge /
p - - + +
n Depletion region
- - + +
E
Thus, positive space charge is developed on n-side near the junction and negative space charge is
developed on p-side near the junction. This results in internal electric field E which gives rise to a
drift current opposing the diffusion current. Thus at equilibrium,
Jp (drift) + Jp (diffusion) = 0
Jn (drift) + Jn (diffusion) = 0
The region near the junction, where positive donor ions are created on n-side and negative
acceptor ions are created on p-side is called as depletion region. Equilibrium potential difference
across this depletion region is called as contact potential (V0) or barrier potential . This contact
potential is the internal potential barrier that is necessary to maintain equilibrium at the junction.
The contact potential separates the energy bands as shown in fig (c). The valence band and
conduction band on p-side are higher than these bands on n-side by an amount eV0. This
separation of bands at equilibrium is required to make Fermi level constant throughout the device.
W
- - + +
- - + + (a) Space charge /
p - - + +
n Depletion region
- - + +
E
Vn
V0 (b) Contact potential
Vp
eV0
EC
(c) Energy Bands
EF for unbiased pn
EV
junction
p-n junction Depletion region and Energy Bands

Contact potential is given by the relation -
kT N N
 V0  ln a 2 d
e ni
Where k = Boltzmann constant = 8.625 x 10-5 eV / 0K, T = Temperature in 0K,

e = charge of electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C, Na = acceptor concentration on p-side,
Nd = donor concentration on n-side
FORWARD AND REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE

(On the basis of Energy band diagram)
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far greater
ease than in the other. Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams as shown
below-
Forward Bias :
When an external voltage is applied to the p-n junction with the positive terminal connected to the
p-region and negative terminal connected to the n-region, the p-n junction is said to be forward
biased.
Reduced Depletion
layer
- +
- +
- +
- +
p side n side
Forward Bias
In forward bias condition, negative terminal of the battery repels the free electrons on the n-side
towards the junction. These free electrons recombine with the positive ions present in the
depletion layer. Similarly the positive terminal of the battery repels the holes on p-side towards the
junction. These holes recombine with the negative ions in the depletion layer. The overall effect of
this is reduction of depletion layer width. As the external voltage increases, the depletion layer
vanishes and the free electrons from n-side, are attracted towards the positive terminal of the

battery and holes from p-side are attracted towards the n-side and the current starts flowing. Thus
in forward bias condition, the current flow is due to majority carriers
Reduced barrrier
height
Conduction band Energy

bands when
Forward Bias
voltage is
less than
Barrier
Valence band voltage
Energy
bands when
Forward Bias
voltage is
equal to
Barrier
voltage
On the basis of energy bands, forward biasing can be explained as follows –
The barrier potential gives slightly more energy to the p-bands than n-bands. Hence p-bands are
higher than the n-bands. Negative terminal of the battery pushes the conduction band electrons in
the n-region towards the junction. This repulsive force causes increase in velocity of electrons and
hence increases in energy of the electrons. Hence energy bands on n-side are raised resulting in
reduction in barrier height. This causes reduction in barrier height. When forward barrier voltage
is equal to barrier voltage, the barrier height vanishes and this allows the conduction band
electrons on n-side to easily cross the junction and enter the conduction band on p-side, where the
positive terminal of the battery immediately attracts them. The holes in the valence band on p-side
fall down the barrier height and are attracted towards the negative terminal of the battery.
Reverse bias :
If p-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and n-type
semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of the battery, then the p-n junction is said to
be reverse biased. This results in increase in barrier potential and hence in barrier height.

Increased Depletion
layer width
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
p side n side
Reverse Bias pn junction
The reverse bias pulls the free electrons in the n-region away from the junction towards the
positive terminal of the battery. Also, holes are pulled away from the junction towards the
negative terminal of the battery. The departing electrons leave more positive ions near the junction
and the departing holes leave more negative ions near the junctions. This results in increase in the
width of depletion layer. This wider depletion layer does not allow the majority carriers in both
regions to cross the junction. Hence, there is no current due to majority carriers.
Reverse biasing can be explained in the energy band view point as follows –
Increased barrrier
height
Energy
Conduction band bands when
Reverse Bias
voltage is
applied
Valence band
By applying the positive potential to the n-region, we are lowering the energies of the band. This
causes the barrier height to increase, which does not allow the conduction band electrons to cross
the junction easily as they now have to climb the higher energy hill.
However, the thermally excited conduction band electrons in p-region can get down this energy
hill easily and are attracted by the positive terminal of the battery connected to the n-region.
However, such thermally excited electrons in p-region are very less in number. Hence the current
due to such minority carriers is very small in magnitude. This current is called as saturation
current (IS). It does not depend on reverse voltage but it increases with increasing temperature.
The static voltage-current characteristics for a P-N Junction diode are shown in the following
figure -.

Forward Characteristics :
When the diode is in forward-biased and the applied voltage is increased from zero, hardly any
current flows through the device in the beginning. It is so because the external voltage is being
opposed by the internal barrier voltage Vb whose value is 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge. As soon as
Vb is neutralized, current through the diode increases rapidly with increasing applied supply
voltage. It is found that as a little voltage of 1.0V produces a forward current of about 50mA.
Reverse Characteristics :
When the diode is reverse-biased, majority carrier are blocked and only a small current (due to
minority carrier) flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage is increased from zero, the
reverse current very quickly reaches its maximum or saturation value Io which is also known as
leakage current. It is of the order of nano Amperes (nA) and micro Amperes (A) for Ge. As seen
from characteristics, when reverse voltage exceeds a certain value called breakdown voltage VBR,
the leakage current suddenly and sharply increases, the curve indicating zero resistance at this
point. This happens due to the avalanche effect. If the reverse bias voltage is very high, then the
depletion region widens, and the electric field is very strong. The minority charge carriers get
accelerated in this depletion region, and gain kinetic energy. Once the field is strong enough, they
can knock off, other electrons from the negative ions in the depletion layer. These new electrons
can knock off more electron from the negative ions in the depletion layer and the number of
electrons in the depletion layer suddenly gets multiplied. The increase in number of electrons is
exponential, just like an Avalanche. And current suddenly rises due to these electrons. The
problem is, due to this 'impact' (this process is called Impact Ionization), heat is generated, and this
heat could destroy the diode.

https://youtu.be/85KspLpuoXU

Session 6 : Light Emitting Diode, Zener diode, Solar cell
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):
LED is a diode that gives visible light when it is forward biased. The basic principle involved in
working of LED is recombination. Recombination is the phenomenon in which electrons from
conduction band recombine with holes in valence band releasing energy-
EC
c
h  h  E g  Ec  Ev

Ev
In silicon and Germanium Diodes, energy is given out in the form of heat as values of E g are
1.1eV and 0.7eV respectively and the corresponding wavelength does not lie in the visible region.
For LEDs, direct gap, compound semiconductors such as GaAs, GaP, GaAsP are used.
Sym bol for LED
EC
EC
EC
h  E c  E v
EF EC
EF
Ev
Ev Ev
p-side
Ev p-side n-side
n-side Energy Bands aligned when
Energy Bands of
unbiased LED
forward biased
As shown in the energy band diagram of unbiased LED, conduction band on n-side has many
electrons but there are not many holes in valence band. Also, valence band on p-side has many

holes in valence band but there are not many electrons in conduction band. So, recombination
occurs at very small scale due to minority carriers.
When LED is forward biased and forward bias voltage is greater than barrier voltage, energy
bands on n-side and p-side get aligned. Now, electrons transfer from n-side conduction band to p-
side conduction band and holes transfer from p-side valence band to n-side valence band. This
gives rise to large number of electrons in conduction band and large number of holes in valence
band in same region and recombination rate suddenly increases. Due to large recombination, we
get considerable radiation emitted which is seen in the form of light if wavelength corresponding
to energy gap falls in the visible region.
Applications of LED :
i) LEDs are widely used in digital displays.

ii) LEDs are used as optical source in fibre optic communication.
iii) Infrared LEDs are used in remote control devices.
iv) LEDs are widely used in automobile industry.
ZENER DIODE
Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode” as they are sometimes called, are basically the same as the
standard PN junction diode but are specially designed to have a low pre-determined Reverse
breakdown Voltage that takes advantage of this high reverse voltage. The zener diode is the
simplest types of voltage regulator and the point at which a zener diode breaks down or conducts
is called the “Zener Voltage” ( Vz ).
The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When
biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current,
but as soon as a reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the
device, the diodes breakdown voltage is reached at which point a process called Avalanche
Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the
diode to limit this increase in voltage.
The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit
value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved this reverse saturation
current remains fairly constant over a wide range of applied voltages. The voltage point at which
the voltage across the zener diode becomes stable is called the “zener voltage” for zener diodes
this voltage can range from less than one volt to hundreds of volts.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics
The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the
zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage
regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even
with large changes in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown
current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).
This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source
against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown
region is almost constant turns out to be an important application of the Zener diode as a voltage
regulator.
The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel
with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the zener
diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum IZ(min)
value in the reverse breakdown region.
AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN AND ZENER BREAKDOWN
Avalanche breakdown happens due to the avalanche effect. If the reverse bias voltage is very
high, then the depletion region widens, and the electric field is very strong. The minority charge
carriers get accelerated in this depletion region, and gain kinetic energy. Once the field is strong
enough, they can knock off, other electrons from the negative ions in the depletion layer. These
new electrons can knock off more electron from the negative ions in the depletion layer and the
number of electrons in the depletion layer suddenly gets multiplied. The increase in number of
electrons is exponential, just like an Avalanche. And current suddenly rises due to these electrons.

The problem is, due to this 'impact' (this process is called Impact Ionization), heat is generated,
and this heat could destroy the diode.
Zener breakdown, only happens, when the doping concentration is extremely high. So high, that
the depletion region becomes few atoms wide. The electric field becomes extremely strong, but at
the same time, it is extremely narrow, hence many charge carriers can't get accelerated. Instead a
quantum mechanical effect takes place. This is called as quantum tunneling. So there is no
impact ionization, the electrons just tunnel through. (like digging a hole, instead of overcoming the
mountain). So most electrons tunnel through, and some of-course will give impact ionization.
Photovoltaic Solar Cell
Solar cell can be used as an alternative source of energy which converts solar rnergy into electrical
energy. It is a p-n junction with a large surface area as compared to normal p-n junction diodes
and very thin p-layer so that most of the light energy reaches the junction area.
EC
Light
EF EC
EF
Ev
Light
p-side
Ev
n-side
Electron hole pair
generation
When light falls on the p-n junction, electron-hole pairs are generated as many electrons transfer
from valence band to conduction band due to absorption of light energy. Due to this large number
of electrons in conduction band on p-side near the junction are available which can easily climb
down the energy hill and give rise to current. Also, large number of holes appear in valence band
on n-side which can easily climb up the energy hill and give rise to current.
Light
A
+
p-side RL V
n-side
-

If an external load is connected across the solar cell, current flows through it and power is
delivered.
Applications of Solar cell :
i) Used in satellites, space vehicles and in remote places as a source of energy.

ii) Used in battery charging system, outdoor lighting system.
iii) Solar cells are widely used in electronic equipment’s with low power consumption like
calculator.
iv) Solar cells are pollution free source of energy.
v) Solar cells are maintenance free and cost effective in long run.
However initial cost is high and their function is affected in rainy season when sufficient sunlight
is not available. It requires large space for high power operation.

Semiconductors

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com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

CHAPTER – 3 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Formation of Energy Bands :

Pushing the atoms together, the initial quantized

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Formation of Enegry Bands (example)

The lower 1s band is filled with original 2N electrons,

Thus energy bands for Diamond can be drawn as shown

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Conduction band, Valance band and Energy Gap :

3.1.2 Classification of Solids on the basis of band theory :

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Why silicon is preferred over germanium?

Covalent Bonds in Semiconductors :

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT BAND GAP:

The graph of E vs k is parabola as shown below-

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CHAPTER – 3 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

In case of metals, only electrons are the current

Fermi level is a measure of energy of least

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Fermi Dirac Distribution Function

where, k is Boltzmann constant  8.62  10 -5 eV/ 0 K

We can see from these curves –

This indicates all energy levels below are

This indicates all energy levels above are

Fermi-Dirac Distribution function can not give us

At , probability of occupancy for Fermi

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Fermi level in semiconductor :

Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor

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Fermi level in Extrinsic semiconductor :

Conduction Band Conduction Band

Fermi level in n-type Fermi level in p-type

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EFFECT OF DOPING CONCENTRATION ON FERMI LEVEL :

Valence Band Valence Band Valence Band

Low doping Medium doping high doping

Conduction Band Conduction Band Conduction Band

Low doping Medium doping high doping

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For intrinsic semiconductor, ni = pi = ni

FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR LIES IN THE MIDDLE OF THE

Let at any temperature T > 0 0K

nc = electron concentration in conduction band.

The total number of electrons in conduction band is –

The total number of holes in valence band is –

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1. What is the probability of an electron being thermally excited to conduction band in

6. What is the probability of an electron being thermally promoted to conduction band

Given : T = 27 0C = 300 0K, k = 8.62 x 10 – 5 eV / 0K

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CHAPTER – 3 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

If a metal or semiconductor carrying a current I is placed in a transverse magnetic field B, an

The current through the semiconductor is given by –

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Importance of Hall Effect is that it helps –