Introduction to Earthquakes

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Plate Tectonics Theory

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15 Major Tectonic Plates:
1. African Plate 10. Nazea Plate
2. Antarctic Plate 11. North American Plate
3. Arabian Plate 12. Pacific Plate
4. Australian Plate 13. Philippine Plate
5. Caribbean Plate 14. Scotia Plate
6. Cocos Plate 15. South American Plate
7. Eurasian Plate
8. Indian Plate
9. Juan de Fuca Plate

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Plate Tectonics
• The earth’s outer shell (lithosphere) consists of several large and fairly
stable rock slabs called plates.
• Each plate extends to a depth of about 100-200km.
• The plates move relative to each other at very slow speeds (a few cm
per year)
• The plates are considered rigid, there is little or no deformation
within them. The deformation occurs at the boundaries.
• The plate movements takes place over the weaker layer called the
asthenosphere.

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 Plate Boundaries:
1. Divergent boundaries – where 2 plates
are moving apart and new lithosphere is
produced or old lithosphere is thinned.
2. Convergent boundaries – where 2 plates
are moving toward each other & the
lithosphere is thickened or consumed by
sinking into the mantle, i.e., Subduction
zones.
3. Transform Boundaries – where plates
move past one another without either
convergence or divergence, i.e. Strike-
slip faults.

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Interplate and Intraplate Earthquakes
• Plate tectonic theory provides a simple and general explanation for
plate boundary or inter-plate earthquakes, which contribute 95% of
worldwide seismic energy release.
• However, earthquakes are not confined to plate boundaries.
• Local intra-plate earthquakes may occur virtually anywhere and may
cause considerable damage.
• Intra-plate earthquakes generally fall into two groups: plate
boundary-related and mid-plate. The former takes place near plate
edges and are tectonically linked. Mid-plate earthquakes are not
related to plate edges.

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Faults
• Faults are defined as a form of discontinuity in the bedrock and are
associated with relative displacement of two large lblocks of rock
masses.
• They are zones of relative weakness in the earth’s crust.
• After the stresses build up in the rock, the focus of the fault ruptures
first.
• The rupture then propagates at a very high speed forming a fault
plane.
• The vertical projection of the focus to the surface is the epicenter.

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 • Shallow earthquakes – have
focal depths of 5-15km
• Intermediate earthquakes – have
focal depths at about 20-50km
• Deep earthquakes – occur at
about 300-700km

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Elastic Rebound Theory
• Movement of the tectonic plates relative to each other leads to an
accumulation of strain, both at the plate boundaries and inside the
plates.
• The strain energy is the elastic energy that is stored due to the
straining of the rocks.
• When the strain reaches its limiting value along a weak region,
existing fault or plate boundary, a sudden movement or slip occurs
releasing the accumulated strain energy.
• The action generates elastic waves within the rock mass which
propagate and eventually reach the surface of the earth.
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 • Illustration of the formation of a
left lateral strike slip fault
• The fault is the vertical line and
is not yet ruptured

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 • After a period of time the fault
plane is still intact, but elastic
stresses have built up
considerably causing the rock to
deform elastically.
• A new road has been built
recently on the deformed rock.

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 • When the strained rock is stressed
to its limit, the fault ruptures
suddenly releasing a tremendous
amount of strain energy.
• The release of strain energy is
accompanied by a variety of seismic
waves that propagate in all
directions.
• After a time,the process will begin
anew and the stresses will begin
building up again.

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Seismic Waves

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Earthquake Measurement Parameters

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Magnitude is a measure of the size of an earthquake related
to the total strain energy released.

Types of Earthquake Magnitude:

1. Body Wave Magnitude (Mb)

The Mb magnitude is measured as the common logarithm
displacement amplitude in microns of the P-wave with
period near one second. Developed to measure the
magnitude of deep focus earthquakes, which do not
ordinarily set up detectable surface waves with long
periods.
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2. Local magnitude (ML)

The original magnitude definition by Richter. The magnitude of an earthquake

measured as the common logarithm of the displacement amplitude, in microns,
defined by a standard Wood-Anderson seismograph located on firm ground 100
km from the epicenter and having a magnification of 2800, a natural period of
0.8 second, and a damping coefficient of 80%.
The definition itself applies strictly only to earthquakes having focal depths
smaller than about 30 km. Empirical charts and tables are available to correct to
an epicentral distance of 100 km for other types of seismographs and for
various conditions of the ground The correction charts are suitable up to
epicentral distances of about 600 km. The correction charts are site dependent
and have to be developed for each recording site.

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3. Surface wave magnitude (MS)
This is measured as the common logarithm of the resultant of the
maximum mutually perpendicular horizontal displacement
amplitudes, in microns, of the 20-second period surface waves.
The scale was developed to measure the magnitude of shallow
focus earthquakes at relatively long distances. Magnitudes can be
assigned from any suitable instrument whose constants are
known.

4. Richter magnitude (M)

Richter magnitude is a general usage that is usually ML up to 5.9,
MS for 5.9 to about 8.0, and MW up to 8.3.

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5. Seismic Moment Magnitude (MW)
Defines magnitude based on the seismic moment Mo.

MW = 2/3 log Mo – 10.7

where Mo, the seismic moment, is computed as

Mo = G A D

where G = rigidity modulus

A = area of fault movement
D = average static displacement
The values are in dyne-cm units.

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Earthquake Measurement Parameters
Frequency of occurrence of earthquakes (based on observations
since 1900)

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Earthquake Measurement Parameters

Magnitudes of Some Recent Damaging Earthquakes

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Intensity
A subjective numerical index describing the effects
of an earthquake on humans, on their structures,
and on the earth’s surface at a particular place. The
commonly used scale is the Modified Mercalli
Intensity scale.
It is expressed as a Roman numeral.

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Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMI) of 1931

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 MMI Scale (with descriptive name and equivalent magnitude)

An empirical relation between magnitude and maximum intensity was

proposed by Gutenberg and Richter:

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The PHIVOLCS’ Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)

Intensity
Description
Scale

I Scarcely Perceptible

II Slightly Felt - Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects swing slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates noticeably.

III Weak - Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of buildings…Still water in containers oscillates moderately.

IV Moderately Strong - Felt generally by people indoors and by some people outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened.

V Strong - Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many sleeping people are awakened.

VI Very Strong - Many people are frightened; run outdoors. Some people lose their balance. Very old or poorly built houses and man-
made structures are slightly damaged though well-built structures are not affected.

VII Destructive - Most people frightened and run outdoors. Old or poorly-built structures suffer considerably damage. Some well-built
structures are slightly damaged. Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides are observed.

Very Destructive - People panicky. People find it difficult to stand even outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably
VIII damaged. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or broken. Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man- made structure to
sink, tilt or topple. Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas. Boulders are thrown out from their
positions particularly near the epicenter. Fissures and faults rapture may be observed. Trees are violently shaken.

Devastating - People forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and shake with fear. Most buildings are totally damaged. bridges and
IX elevated concrete structures are toppled or destroyed. Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and liquefaction
with lateral spreadings and sandboils are widespread. the ground is distorted into undulations. Trees are shaken very violently with
some toppled or broken. Boulders are commonly thrown out. River water splashes violently on slops over dikes and banks.

Completely Devastating - Practically all man-made structures are destroyed. Massive landslides and liquefaction, large scale
X subsidence and uplifting of land forms and many ground fissures are observed. Changes in river courses and destructive seiches in
large lakes occur. Many trees are toppled, broken and uprooted.

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Earthquake Hazards

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